UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


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Wify  the  Compliments  of 


State  Superintendent. 


WISCONSIN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF   AN 


Institute  of  the  Faculties 


THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS, 

Held  at  Oshkosh,  December  J7-2J,  1900. 
^Nl"j^lV^ 


CONDUCTOR, 

HON.  L.  D.  HARVEY, 
State  Superintendent. 


Madison,  April,  1901. 


PRINTED  FOR 

THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 

BY  THE  DEMOCRAT  PRINTING  CO., 
MADISON,   WIS. 


PREFACE. 

To  the  Board  of  Regents  of  Normal  Schools: 

GENTLEMEN:  The  Special  Committee  charged  with 
the  management  of  the  ..Institute  of  Teachers  recently 
held  at  Oshkosh,  herein  presents  a  compilation  of  the 
Papers  and  Discussions  submitted.  The  work  of  select- 
ing and  editing  the  mass  of  matter  which  was  gathered, 
has  been  no  less  delicate  than  laborious,  and  such  delay 
as  has  occurred  in  putting  the  manuscript  to  press,  is 
due  to  a  desire  to  compile  a  volume  of  the  most  value 
possible,  as  well  as  one  fairly  representative  of  the 
schools. 

The  omission  of  certain  material  which  may  be  ob- 
served, is  either  explained  in  the  text  by  editorial 
notes,  or  is  due  to  the  misapprehension  of  writers 
whose  papers  were  not  consonant  with  the  purposes  of 
the  Institute,  or  to  a  similarity  of  treatment  of  an 
assigned  topic. 

It  does  not  follow  that  the  publication  of  this  Report 
involves  plenary  indorsement  by  the  Committee,  but 
rather  a  general  approval  and  an  expression  of  belief 
in  its  usefulness. 

L.  D.  HARVEY, 
J.  Q.  EMERY, 
A.  E.  THOMPSON, 

Special  Committee. 


S6G60 


CONTENTS. 


Subject                                                                           Author  Page 

Preface Special  Committee  iv 

Authorization-  of  Institute Board  of  Regents  ix 

Program  of  Institute Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  x 

PART  I. 

GENERAL  SESSIONS. 

'Conditions  that  influenced  Board  to  hold  Institute  

Hon.  J.  Q.  Emery  2 

Day  Plans  to  teach  Unit  "Conjunctions" C.  E.  Patzer  75 

Department  Teachers,  The  relation  of,  to  work  in  Model  Schools 

H.  A.  Adrian  85 

Pour  Fundamental  Propositions Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  6 

Discussion — General 13 

Fundamental  Questions  Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  16 

Discussion — General 23 

Lesson  Plan,  Exposition  of C.  E.  Patzer  72 

Pedagogical  Maxims,  Truths,  and  Principles — 

Their  need  and  application Pres.  Duncan  McGregor  48 

Pedagogical  Maxims,  Truths,  or  Principles — 

Are  they  known  and  applied? Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  55 

Professional  Work,  Possible  elimination  of  some  so-called  

A.  H.  Sage  67 

Psychological  Truths Pres.  Charles  McKenny  44 

Psychology  and  Pedagogy  needed  by  Normal  Teachers   

Committee  60 

Psychology,  Should  all  teachers  in  Normal  Schools  have  some? 

Pres.  Albert  Salisbury  43 

Psychology,  How  can  essentials  of,  be  acquired  and  application 

secured? Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  45 

Questions,  Answers  to Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  36 

Recitation,  The Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  26 

PART  II. 
SECTION  SESSIONS. 

Drawing    92 

Blackboard  sketching,  Value  and  extent  of Lucy  D.  Hale  95 

Constructive  work,  Amount  and  kinds,  purpose  and  method 

Harriet  C.  Magee  92 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section E.  W.  Walker  97 


CONTENTS.  v 

Subject                                                                         Author        Page 
English 99 

Composition,  Purpose,  Scope  and  Plan  of  work  in  

Herbert  E.  Bolton  106 

Composition,  Purpose,  Scope  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Lillian  G.  Kimball  103 

English,  Supplemental  teaching  of,  by  teachers  of  other 

subjects  Albert  Hardy  146 

Grammar,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Anna  Barnard  99 

Principles,  Important  pedagogical,  to  be  applied  in  teach- 
ing English Albert  Hardy  135 

Propositions,  Four  Fundamental,  Application  of,  in  teaching 

Grammar  r Grace  D.  Madden  118 

Review,  Professional,  in  Grammar  S.  A.  Lynch      111 

Review,  Professional,  in  Grammar Carrie  J.  Smith      117 

Rhetoric,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Josephine  Henderson  109 

Rhetoricals,  Most  effective  use  of,  in  teaching  English 

Robert  Rienow  142 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section Albert  Hardy      147 

Work  in  English,  oral  and  written,  Place  and  relative  im- 
portance of  Lillian  Kimball  138 

Geography , 149 

Supplementing  Texts  in,  by  outside  reading 

Alice  DeReimer  155 

Work  in,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of J.  A  .Merrill  149 

Discussion  Cornelia  E.  Rogers  152 

History,  Political  Economy  and  Civics 159 

Economics,  Aims  in  Teaching W.  H.  Cheever  159 

Fundamental  Propositions,  use  in  teaching  History  

Grace  D.  Madden  159 

Discussion  of  Mrs.  Madden's  paper G.  C.  Shutts  167 

Organizing  topic  in  History,  Should  it  be  taught?  

E.  W.  Walker  171 

Discussion  of  Prof.  Walker's  paper  . . .  .James  A.  Wilgus  175 

Work  in  Civil  Government,  Scope  and  Purpose  of 

A.  H.  Sanford  169 

Supplementary  to  Prof.  Sanford's  paper J.  F.  Sims  170 

Latin  and  German 179 

English,  Command  of,  through  study  of  Latin  and  Ger- 
man,— How  best  attained W.  S.  Watson  187 

German,  Speaking  knowledge  of, — When  to  be  aimed  at  . . 

Clara  Schuster  182 

Grammar,  German, — What  knowledge  of,  ought  students  to 

master?  B.  Mack  Dresden  179 

Latin  Author, — May  previous  reading  of  translation  of,  be 

valuable?  C.  W.  Smith  185 

Latin  and  German, — Plans  in  class-work  for  teaching 

Pauline  Wies  189 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section J.  W.  Livingston      192 


CONTENTS. 


Library 193 

Instruction  in  Library  Methods,  Purpose  and  extent  of 

, Anne  H.  McNeil  193 

Lists  of  Books  and  References,  Extent  and  way  to  make 

most  valuable Caroline  E.  Silliman  195 

Periodical  Literature,  How  to  use,  to  best  advantage 

Mary  F.  Carpenter  198 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section Lizzie  P.  Swan      202 

Literature,  Including  Library 210 

Libraries,  Public  School, — How  to  make  pupils  acquainted 

with  contents  and  methods  of  use  . .  .Ellen  F.  P.  Peake  210 

Library  Reading,  Its  place,  relation  to  other  work  in  Litera- 
ture, plans  and  method Fannie  J.  Holcombe  215 

Literature,  work  in,  Aims  and  methods  of Albert  Hardy  213 

Discussion  of  Prof.  Hardy's  paper Anna  M.  Cottrell  216 

Report  of  Committee   223 

Mathematics 224 

Algebra,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  . .  J.  V.  Collins  240 
Algebra,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

H.  H.  Liebenberg  236 

Arithmetic,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  

M.  A.  Bussewitz  224 

Arithmetic,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  

L.  H.  Clark  227 

Arithmetic,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  

Emily  F.  Webster  229 

Report  of  Committee  234 

Geometry,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  

G.  L.  Bowman  245 

Geometry,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in  

G.  C.  Shutts  250 

Report  of  Committee  • 253 

Propositions,  Four  Fundamental,  Application  of 

G.  C.  Shutts  254 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section W.  C.  Hewitt  258 


Model  School  Teachers   260 

Teaching,  Model,  for  Observation  Classes, — How  made  most 

serviceable  Alfaretta  Haskell  260 

Teaching,  Poor,  by  Pupil  Teachers,  Means  to  overcome  bad 

effects  of J.  I.  Jegi  262 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section Nina  Vandewalker  269 

Music   270 

Method,  General,  of  the  "How"  in  Recitation.  .Grace  Heward  270 
Teachers,  Effective,  of  Singing,  Can  all  students  be  made 

such?  F.  F.  Churchill  274 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section Mae  E.  Schreiber  276 


CONTENTS. 


Physical  Training  277 

Health  of  Pupils  under  Training,  Extent  of  Director's  Re- 
sponsibility for Nina  A.  Page  297 

Needs,  individual,  Extent  of  consideration  of 

Emma  W.  Shrieves  289 

Physical  Training,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Lorraine  J.  Truesdell  277 

Physical  Training,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Juliet  V.  Yeakle  281 

Physical  Training,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  of  work  in 

Isabel  F.  Walker  287 

Power  to  carry  on  work  away  from  Normal, — How  to  secure 

.„ Frances  Musselman  293 

Training  for  Boys  and  Girls, — What  difference,  if  any,  why 

and  how? Susanne  A.  Look  301 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section W.  H.  Cheever  304 

Presidents  and  Board  of  Regents 305 

Administration   Pres.  R.  H.  Halsey  305 

Faculty  Meetings   Pres.  T.  B.  Pray  314 

Supervision  Pres.  Albert  Salisbury  309 

Professional  Subjects,  Teachers  of   316 

Ideals  and  Purposes  in  Professional  Work,  Unity  of, — How 

to  Secure  Pres.  Albert  Salisbury  361 

Discussion Pres.  WT.  J.  Brier  366 

Model  School  as  Correlating  center  of  Normal 

Pres.  I.  C.  McNeill  340 

Discussion,  General  344 

Observation,  Purposes  of, — How  to  accomplish  same — Value 

before  and  after  teaching  experience  .Alice  H.  Shultes  348 

Discussion   A.  J.  Hutton  353 

Discussion,  General 355 

Reviews,  Professional,  Scope  and  Character   

* Pres.  T.  B.  Pray  370 

Spontaneity  under  Pedagogic  Law,  Securing  Maximum  of,  in 

Supervision  of  Practice  Teaching Rose  C.  Swart  316 

Discussion,  General  319 

Supervisors  of  Practice,  Special  Report Rose  C.  Swart  372 

Teaching  by  Normal  students  in  their  own  classes 

J.   W.   Livingston  356 

Discussion,  General  359 

Work  in  Model  School, — What  knowledge  of,  should  Teach- 
ers of  Professional  Subjects  have?  C.  P.  Gary  325 

Discussion G.  L.  Bowman  328 

Discussion,  General  333 

Report  of  Committee   371 

Science,  Including  Geography 373 

Agriculture,  Elements  of   A.  A.  ITpham  440 

Discussion,  General  445 


CONTENTS. 


Biology,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in  . . W.  H.  Dudley  403 

Discussion,  General  407 

Reply W.  H.  Dudley  411 

Chemistry,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in G.  E.  Culver  390 

Discussion,  General  392 

Field  Work  in  Biology,  Geology,  and  Geography,— Possibil- 

bility,  desirability  and  character  of J.  A.  Merrill  452 

Geography,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in  .  .Frank  E.  Mitchell  433 

Discussion,  General  436 

Geology,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in E.  C.  Case  423 

Discussion,  General  427 

Knowledge,  Scientific, — Correlation  of  related  and  value  of 

Lesson  Plan  in  teaching  Science I.  N.  Mitchell  460 

Discussion,  General  463 

Oral  Exposition,  Value  of Hon.  L.  D.  Harvey  456 

Physics,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in A.  H.  Sage  373 

Discussion,  General  37S 

Physiology,  Purpose,  Scope,  and  Plan  in  Teaching 

A.  L.  Ewing  417 

Discussion,  General  418 

Science,  Advanced  work  in, — Danger  of  beyond  proper 

Scope  and  Purpose  of  our  Course A.  L.  Ewing  466 

Discussion,  General  469 

Work,  Laboratory  and  Text-book,  Relation  of  .  .E.  C.  Perisho  471 

Report  of  Leader  of  Section A.  A.  Upham  476 


AUTHORIZATION  OF  THE  INSTITUTE. 


Extract  from  minutes  Adjourned  Annual  Meeting,  Board  of  Regents 
Normal  Schools,  October  24,  1900. 

Resolved,  That  a  one  week's  institute  of  all  the  Normal  school  fac- 
ulties in  the  employ  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  Normal  schools  be 
held  at  Oshkosh,  in  the  Normal  school  building,  beginning  at  9  o'clock 
Monday  morning,  December  17,  1900. 

Resolved,  That  during  the  week  said  institute  is  in  session  the  sev- 
eral Normal  schools  shall  be  closed,  and  the  attendance  by  the  teachers 
at  the  institute  is  hereby  required  and  shall  be  considered  a  full  dis- 
charge of  contract  obligations  to  the  Board  for  that  week. 

Resolved,  That  the  organization  and  management  of  the  institute 
shall  be  under  the  general  control  of  the  following  Special  Committee, 
to-wit:  L.  D.  Harvey,  Chairman  Committee  on  Institutes;  J.  Q.  Emery, 
Chairman  Committee  on  Course  of  Study  and  Text-Books;  A.  E.  Thomp- 
son, Chairman  Committee  on  Teachers. 

Resolved,  That  Supt.  L.  D.  Harvey  be,  and  he  is  hereby  appointed 
Conductor  of  the  institute  under  the  general  direction  of  the  Special 
Committee  herein  provided  for. 

Attest:  S.  S.  ROCKWOOD, 

Secretary. 


PROGRAM 

Of  Normal  School  Institute. 


MONDAY,  Dec.  17,  1900,  9  A.  M. 

General  Meeting. 
Organization  of  institute. 

I.  Statement  of  conditions  that  influenced  the  Board  of  Regents  of 
Normal  schools  to  make  provision  for  this  institute. 

J.  Q.  EMZBY. 

An  opportunity  will  be  offered  for  general  discussion  of  all  topics 
considered  in  the  general  and  section  meetings. 

II.  The  following  four  propositions  are  fundamental  for  the  teacher 
ajid  for  the  pupil  in  the  determination  of  what  is  to  be  done  for  and  in 
the  recitation. 

1.  The  teacher  must  hare  in  mind  a  definite  purpose  or  purposes 
to  be  realized  in  the  next  recitation. 

2.  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind  the  things  which  must  be  known 
or  done  in  order  that  the  purposes  may  be  realized. 

3.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of  the  things  falling  under  prop- 
osition 2  the  pupil  now  knows  or  can  do. 

4.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of  the  things  enumerated  under 
proposition  2  the  pupil  still  has  to  learn  or  to  do,  and  the  order  in 
which  they  should  be  known  or  done. 

a.  To  what  extent,  where  and  for  wha't  purposes  should  these  funda- 
mentals be  applied  in  Normal  school  work? 

b.  To  what  extent  do  they  furnish  a  unifying  basis  for  the  profes- 
sional work  in  the  Normal  schools? 

c.  How  can  the  application  of  these  fundamentals  be  secured? 

d.  Results  of  their  application. 

L.  D.  HARVEY. 

MONDAY,  2  P.  M. 

General  Meeting. 
I.  The  recitation. 

a.  What  should  be  demanded  of  the  pupil  in  the  recitation? 

b.  What  should  be  demanded  of  the  teacher? 

c.  How  may  these  demands  be  enforced? 

d.  Modes  of  testing — characteristics  of  a  proper  test? 

e.  Purposes  of  drill  exercises — necessity  for,  how  determined. 

f.  Modes  of  drilling — characteristics  of  a  good  drill  exercise. 

g.  Teaching  in  the  recitation — its  relation  to  testing  and  drilling. 
h.  Assignment  of  the  next  lesson. 

L.  D.  HARVEY. 


PROGRAM. 


XI 


TUESDAY,  9  A.  M. 

General  Meeting. 
L  a.  Should  all  teachers  in  a  Normal  school  have  some  knowledge  of 

psychology? 
b.  If  so,  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  essentials? 

J.  E.  LOUGH. 

II.  a.  Do  all  Normal  school  teachers  have  a  knowledge  of  the  essentials 
of  psychology,  and  such  a  recognition  of  their  value  as  will 
result  in  the  application  of  these  essentials  in  their  teaching 
processes? 

b.  If  not,  how  can  such  knowledge  be  acquired  and  the  application 
secured? 

L.  D.  HABVET. 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

DRAWING. 
E.  W.  WALKEB,  Leader. 

I.  What  should  be  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  drawing  in 

the  Normal  school? 

The  person  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  drawing  in  each  of  the 
Normal  schools  is  requested  to  send  to  the  Conductor  of  the  institute, 
by  December  10,  eight  type-written  carbon  copies  of  her  discussion 
of  the  foregoing  topic.  These  copies  will  be  promptly  distributed 
among  the  teachers  of  drawing  so  that  opportunity  may  be  given  for 
examination  of  the  matter,  and  for  preparation  of  suggestions  and 
criticisms  to  be  presented  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  section.  This 
meeting  will  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these  papers. 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 
ENGLISH. 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Leader. 
I.  Purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  each  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  Grammar, 

ANNA  BARNARD, 
JENNIE  WHITMAN. 

2.  Composition, 

HERBERT  E.  BOLTON, 
LILLIAN  G.  KIMBALL. 

3.  Rhetoric, 

JOSEPHINE  HENDERSON, 
ISABELLA  PRETLOW. 

4.  Professional  review  in  grammar, 

S.  A.  LYNCH, 
CARRIE  J.  SMITH. 

Each  person  assigned  to  prepare  work  in  any  of  the  foregoing  sub- 
jects, is  requested  to  send  to  the  Conductor  of  the  institute,  by  Decem- 


xii  PROGRAM. 

ber  10,  eight  type-written  carbon  copies  of  the  matter  prepared.  These 
copies  will  be  promptly  distributed  among  the  teachers  of  English,  so 
that  opportunity  may  be  given  for  examination  of  the  matter,  and  for 
preparation  of  suggestions  and  criticisms  to  be  presented  at  the  first 
meeting  of  the  section.  This  meeting  will  be  devoted  to  a  discussion 
of  these  papers. 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

LIBRARY. 
LJZZIE  P.  SWAN,  Leader. 

I.  Scope  of  librarian's  work  in  the  Normal  school. 

LIZZIE  P.  SWAW. 

II.  What  assistance  can  the  librarian  give  to  the  heads  of  departments 
to  facilitate  use  of  reference  library  by  students  in  the  special 
work  of  each  department? 

ELLA  G.  PARMELE. 

III.  What  work  can  librarians  do  in  assisting  students  to  use  the  refer- 

ence library  economically  and  intelligently? 

BEE  A.  GARDNER, 

IV.  Should  the  librarian  instruct  students  in  library  methods?    If  so, 

for  what  purpose,  and  to  what  extent? 

ANNE  H.  MCNEIL. 

TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

MATHEMATICS. 

W.  C.  HEWITT,  Leader. 

I.  Purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  each  of  the  following  subjects: — 

1.  Arithmetic, 

M.    A.    BUSSEWITZ, 
L.  H.  CLARK, 
EMILY  F.  WEBSTER. 

2.  Algebra, 

J.  V.  COLLINS, 

H.   LlEBENBEBG. 

3.  Geometry, 

G.  L.  BOWMAN, 
G.  C.  SHUTTS. 

Each  person  assigned  to  prepare  work  in  any  of  the  foregoing  sub- 
jects, is  requested  to  send  to  the  Conductor  of  the  institute,  by  Decem- 
ber 10,  eight  type-written  carbon  copies  of  the  matter  prepared.  These 
copies  will  be  promptly  distributed  among  the  teachers  of  mathematics, 
so  that  opportunity  may  be  given  for  examination  of  the  matter,  and 
for  preparation  of  suggestions  and  criticisms  to  be  presented  at  the 
first  meeting  of  the  section.  This  meeting  will  be  devoted  to  a  discus- 
sion of  these  papers. 


PROGRAM. 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

W.  H.  CHEEVER,  Leader. 

I.  \Vhat  should  be  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  undertaken 
in  the  Normal  school? 

The  person  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  Physical  Training  in 
each  school  is  requested  to  send  to  the  Conductor  of  the  institute,  by 
December  10,  eight  type-written  carbon  copies  of  the  work  prepared 
under  the  above  topic.  These  copies  will  be  promptly  distributed 
among  the  teachers  having  this  work  in  charge,  so  that  opportunity 
may  be  given  for  examination  of  the- matter  prepared,  and  for  prepara- 
tion of  suggestions  and  criticisms  to  be  presented  at  the  first  meeting 
of  the  section.  This  meeting  will  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these 
papers. 


TCESDAY,   2   P.   M. 

TEACHERS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS. 
J.  I.  JEGI,  Leader. 

I.  In  the  supervision  of  practice  teaching,  how  secure  the  maximum 
of  spontaneity  under  the  control  of  pedagogic  law. 

ROSE  C.  SWABT. 

Discussion  opened  by  Thomas  H.  Gentle. 

II.  What  knowledge  of  work  in  the  model  school  should  teachers  of 
professional  subjects  have?  Why?  How  may  this  knowledge 
be  secured?  How  should  this  knowledge  be  utilized? 

C.  P.  CABT. 

Discussion  opened  by  G.  L.  Bowman. 
III.  Discussion  of  topics  proposed  by  members  of  the  sectior- 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

SCIENCE. 
A.  A.  UPHAM,  Leader. 

I.  Purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  each  of  the  following  subjects: — 

1.  Physics, 

A.  H.  SAGE. 

2.  Chemistry, 

G.  E.  CULVEB. 

3.  Biology, 

W.  H.  DUDLEY. 

4.  Physiology, 

A.  L.  EWING. 

Persons  assigned  for  the  work  above  are  requested  to  send  to  the  Con- 
ductor of  the  institute,  by  December  10.  ten  type-written  carbon  copies 
of  the  matter  formulated.  These  copies  will  be  promptly  distributed 


xiv  PROGRAM. 

among  the  science  teachers,  so  that  opportunity  may  be  given  for  ex- 
amination of  the  matter,  and  for  preparation  of  suggestions  and  criti- 
cisms to  be  presented  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  section.  This  meet- 
ing will  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these  papers. 


TUESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

MUSIC. 

MAE  E.  SCHREIBER,  Leader/ 

I.  What  should  be  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  teaching 

music  in  the  Normal  school? 

The  person  at  the  head  of  the  department  in  music  in  each  school 
is  requested  to  send  to  the  Conductor  of  the  institute,  by  December  10, 
eight  type-written  carbon  copies  of  work  prepared  upon  the  above 
topic.  These  copies  will  be  promptly  distributed  among  the  teachers 
of  music,  so  that  opportunity  may  be  given  for  examination  of  the  mat- 
ter prepared,  and  for  preparation  of  suggestions  and  criticisms  to  be 
presented  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  section.  This  meeting  will  be  de- 
voted to  a  discussion  of  these  papers. 


WEDNESDAY,  9  A.  M. 
General  Meeting. 

I.  What  important  pedagogical  maxims,  truths,  or  principals  should 

be  known  and  applied  by  Normal  school  teachers? 

DUNCAN  MCGREGOR. 

II.  a.  Are  the  important  pedagogical  maxims,  truths,  or  principles  now 
known  and  applied  by  Normal  school  teachers? 

b.  If  not,  by  what  means  may  they  be  mastered  and  their  applica- 

tion secured,  consciously  at  first,  unconsciously  later? 

c.  By  what  means  may  students  be  made  conscious  of  the  teacher's 

applications  of  these  truths,  maxims,  or  principles,  so  that  they 
will  come  to  recognize  the  possibility  of  applying  them  them- 
selves, in  a  variety  of  ways,  with  a  variety  of  subjects,  under  a 
variety  of  conditions? 

L.  D.  HARVEY. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

DRAWING. 

E.  W.  WALKER,  Leader. 

I.  Amount  and  kinds  of  constructive  work  which  should  be  done  in 
connection  with  drawing.     Purposes  and  method. 

HARRIET  CECIL  MAGEE. 

II.  a.  Value  of  blackboard  sketching  by  teachers  and  pupils. 

b.  How  and  to  what  extent  should  blackboard  sketching  be  taught 
in  the  Normal  school? 

LUCY  DORBITT  HALE. 


PROGRAM.  ^ 

III.  Application    of   the   four   fundamental   propositions    hereinbefore 

stated,  in  teaching  drawing. 

E.  W.  WALKEB. 

IV.  The  place  and  purposes  of  copying  in  the  teaching  of  drawing. 

MARY  E.  TANNER. 

V.  Examination  and  explanation  of  special  features  of  work  from  dif- 
ferent schools. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

ENGLISH. 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Leader. 

I.  Application    of    the    four    fundamental    propositions    hereinbefore 

stated,  in  teaching  grammar,  composition,  and  rhetoric. 

GRACE  DARLING  MADDEN. 

II.  What  important  pedagogical  principles  should  be  applied  in  teach- 

ing the  above  named  subjects?  In  what  way  may  the  teacher's 
application  of  these  pedagogical  principles  be  made  to  increase 
the  student's  power  to  apply  them  in  teaching  any  subject? 

ALBERT  HARDY. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

LIBRARY. 

LIZZIE  P.  SWAN,  Leader. 

I.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  way  can  printed  lists  of  books  and 
references  be  made  most  valuable,  not  only  in  individual  schools 
but  by  a  system  of  exchange  in  all  the  schools? 

CAROLINE  SILLIMAN. 

II.  Methods  of  utilizing  periodical  literature  to  the  best  advantage. 

MARY  F.  CARPENTER. 

III.  Preparation  and  uses  of  pictures. 

ELIZABETH  P.  SIMPSON. 

IV.  Reports  of  individual  methods  of  work. 

V.  Examination  and  explanation  of  material  useful  in  illustrating  the 

methods  in  vogue  in  each  library. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 

MATHEMATICS. 

W.  C.  HEWITT,  Leader. 

I.  Application  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions  hereinbefore 
stated  in  teaching  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry. 

G.  C.  SHUTTS. 

II.  Proper  relation  between  the  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  in  the 
model  school,  and  the  work  done  in  the  Normal  classes.  How 
secured?  L.  H.  CLARK. 

III.  General  discussion  of  topics  proposed  by  members  of  the  section. 


XVJ  PROGRAM. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

MUSIC. 
MAE  E.  SCHREIBEK,  Leader. 

I.  The  application  of  the  four  fundamental  principles  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  to  the  teaching  of  music. 

MAE  E.  SCHREIBEB. 
II.  General  method  of  the  how,  in  the  recitation. 

GRACE  REWARD. 

III.  a.  Can  all  students  be  so  trained  as  to  make  them  effective  teachers 
of  singing  in  the  public  schools? 

b.  If  so,  will  the  time  and  effort  necessary  to  secure  this  training 

be  the  best  possible  expenditure  of  time  and  effort  for  stu- 
dents and  teachers? 

c.  If  not,  what  then? 

F.  F.  CHURCHILL. 


WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 
W.  H.  CHEEVER,  Leader. 

I.  To  what  extent  may  the  individual  needs  of  students  be  considered 
in  the  work  of  this  department?     In  what  ways? 

EMMA  W.  SHRIEVES. 

II.  In  what  way  may  the  most  effective  work  be  done  in  developing 
the  student's  power  to  carry  on  physical  training  in  his  own 
school,  under  conditions  which  would  exist  in  that  school? 

FRANCES  MUSSELMAN. 

III.  To  what  extent  is  the  director  of  physical  training  responsible  for 

the  health  of  pupils  coming  under  her  direction? 

NINA  A.  PAGE. 

IV.  a.  Should  the  work  in  physical  training  for  the  boys  differ  from 

that  for  the  girls  in  a  Normal  school? 

b.  If  so,  why,  and  how? 

c.  If  not,  why  not? 

SUSANNE  A.  LOOK. 

WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

TEACHERS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS. 
J.  Q.  EMERY,  Leader. 

I.  To  what  extent  should  the  model  school  be  the  correlating  center 
of  the  Normal  school? 

I.  C.  MCNEILL. 

Discussion  opened  by  D.  McGregor. 
II.  a.  What  are  the  purposes  of  the  work  in  observation? 

b.  How  should  the  work  be  organized  so  as  to  accomplish  these 
purposes? 


PROGRAM. 

c.  Valtfe  of  observation  after  a  period  of  practice  teaching  com- 
pared with  its  value  before  any  experience  in  teaching. 

ALICE  H.  SHULTES* 
Discussion  opened  by  A.  J.  Hutton. 

III.  To  wnat  extent  may  students  in  Normal  school  classes  do  teaching: 
in  their  own  classes  with  profit  to  themselves  and  without 
greater  loss  than  gain  to  the  classes? 

J.  I      LIVINGSTON. 


WEDNESDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

SCIENCE,  INCLUDING  GEOGRAPHY. 

A.  A.  UPHA"M:,  Leader. 

I.  Purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  each  of  the  following  subjects:  — 

1.  Geology, 

E.  C.  CASE. 

2.  Geography, 

FRANK  E.  MITCHELL. 

3.  Elements  of  Agriculture, 

A.  A.  UPHAM. 

Persons  assigned  for  the  work  above  are  requested  to  send  to  the 
Conductor  of  the  institute,  by  December  10,  ten  type-written  carbon 
copies  of  the  matter  formulated.  These  copies  will  be  promptly  dis- 
tributed among  the  science  teachers,  so  that  opportunity  may  be  given 
for  examination  of  the  matter,  and  for  preparation  of  suggestions  and 
criticisms  to  be  presented  at  the  second  meeting  of  the  section. 
II.  Possibifiiy  and  desirability  of  field  work  in  biology,  geology,  and 
geography.  Character  of  work.  J.  A.  MERRILL. 


THURSDAY,  9  A.  M. 
General  Meeting. 

I.  Possible  elimination  of  some  so-called  strictly  professional  work 
now  done  in  the  Normal  schools. 

A.  H.  SAGE. 

II.  Exposition  of  the  lesson  plan  idea,  as  applied  to  the  treatment  of 
a  topic. 

C.  E.  PATZEB. 

III.  The  relative  proportions  of  oral  and  written  work  which  should 
be  required  of  Normal  school  students,  which  practice  teachers 
should  require  of  their  pupils.  L.  D.  HARVEY. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

PRESIDENTS  AND  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

A.  E.  THOMPSON,  Leader. 

I.  Administration. 

a.  What   administrative   work  must  the  president  keep   in  his-, 
own  hands? 


PROGRAM. 

b.  What  may  be  entrusted  to '  his  clerk  and  to  members  of  his 

faculty? 

c.  Modes  of  organizing  administrative  work  most  effectively  and 

with  greatest  economy  of  time  and  effort. 

R.  H.  HALSEY. 
II.  Supervision. 

a.  What  time  is  necessary  for  the  supervision  of  class  work  of 

members  of  the  faculty  in  the  Normal  school? 

b.  How  can  this  supervision  be  done  so  as  to  secure  the  most 

intelligent  judgment  as  to  merits  and  defects  of  teachers; 
as  to  unity  of  ideals  and  effort  in  professional  work? 

c.  What  means  should  be  employed  to  remedy  these  defects  and 

to  secure  unity  of  action  where  it  is  lacking? 

ALBERT  SALISBURY. 
III.  Faculty  meetings. 

a.  How  can  these  meetings  be  made  most  beneficial  to  the  school? 

b.  How  often  should  they  be  held? 

T.  B.  PRAY. 

THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

ENGLISH. 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Leader. 

I.  Place  and  relative  importance  of  oral  and  of  written  work  in  de- 
veloping the  power  of  easy,  forceful,  and  accurate  expression, 
either  written  or  oral. 

LILLIAN  G.  KIMBALL. 

II.  Rhetoricals:     Training  in  use  of  English;  training  in  expression. 
How  made  most  effective. 

ROBERT  RIENOW. 

III.  In  what  way  may  the  work  in  English  be  most  effectively  supple- 
mented by  teachers  in  other  departments? 

ALBERT  HARDY. 
IV.  Discussion  of  topics  proposed  by  members  of  the  section. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

F.  E.  MITCHELL,  Leader. 

I.  Purposes  and  scope  of  the  work  in  geography  in  the  Normal  school. 

J.  A.  MERRILL. 

Discussion  opened  by  Cornelia  E.  Rogers. 

II.  Application  of  fundamental  propositions  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  the  teach- 
ing of  geography. 

FRANK  E.  MITCHELL. 

III.  How  far  may  the  study  of  geography  texts  be  supplemented  by 
outside  reading — 

a.  In  the  Normal  school? 


PROGRAM.  yix; 

b.  In  the  common  schools? 

c,  In  what  way  can  this  wor^k  be  organized? 

ALICE  DE  REIMEB. 

Discussion  opened  by  Isabella  Pretlow. 
IV.  Examination  and  explanation  of  illustrative  material. 

THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 

HISTORY,  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  AND   CIVICS. 

A.  J.   HUTTON,  Leader. 

I.  Use  of  the  fundamental  propositions  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  teaching 
history. 

GRACE  DARLING  MADDEN. 
Discussion  opened  by  Geo.  C.  Shutts. 

II.  Scope  and  purposes  of  work  in  civil  government  in  the  Normal 
school. 

A.  H.  SANFORD. 

Discussion  opened  by  J.  F.  Sims. 

III.  Should  teachers  of  history  in  Normal  schools  train  students  to 
properly  organize  a  history  topic  for  teaching  purposes?  If  so, 
how  may  it  be  done  best? 

E.  W.  WALKER. 

Discussion  opened  by  J.  A.  Wilgus. 

IV.  Purpose  in  teaching  political  economy  in  a  Normal  school.  How 
may  it  be  taught  so  as  to  develop  the  power  of  the  student  in 
teaching  other  subjects? 

F.  R.  CLOW. 
Discussion  opened  by  W.  H.  Cheever. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

LATIN   AND   GERMAN. 
J.  W.  LIVINGSTON,  Leader. 

I.  What  knowledge  of  German  grammar  should  students  in  Ger- 
man be  required  to  master? 

B.  M.  DRESDEN. 

II.  Should  any  attempt  be  made  to  acquire  a  speaking  knowledge  of 
German?  If  so,  under  what  conditions  and  to  what  extent? 

CLARA  SCHUSTER. 

III.  In  the  study  of  Latin,  may  the  reading  of  an  English  translation  of 
a  Latin  author,  before  the  study  of  the  Latin  author  begins,  be 
of  value? 

C.  W.  SMITH. 

IV.  In  what  way  may  the  work  in  both  Latin  and  German  be  made  to 
contribute  most  to  the  student's  command  of  English? 

W.  S.  WATSON. 

V.  Can  the  work  in  Latin  and  German  be  so  organized  in  the  Normal 
school  classes  as  to  give  full  scope  to  individual  capacity,  prep- 
aration, and  opportunity? 


xx  PROGRAM. 

If  so,  what  modifications  of  present  plans  of  class  work  would  be 

necessary?  PAULINE  WEIS. 

VI.  Such  portions  of  general  program  for  section  work  as  time  per- 
mits. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 

LITERATURE  INCLUDING  LIBRARY. 
H.  A.  ADRAIN,  Leader. 

I.  What  should  oe  done  in  the  Normal  school  to  make  teachers  ac- 
quainted with  the  literature  of  the  public  school  libraries — with 
methods  of  using  this  literature  in  the  public  schools? 

ELLEN  F.  P.  PEAKE. 
Discussion  opened  by  C.  A.  Scott. 

II.  a.  Should  the  work  in  literature  in  the  Normal  schools  aim  to  de- 
develop  the  reading  habit  and  a  love -for  good  literature,  as 
well  as  a  method  of  studying  and  teaching  literature? 
b.  If  so,  what  effect  will  this  requirement  have  upon  the  plan  and 
method  of  work  in  literature  adopted  by  the  teacher  of  that 
subject  in  the  Normal  school? 

ALBERT  HARDY. 

Discussion  opened  by  Anna  M.  Cottrell. 

III.  Library  reading;  its  place  in  the  Normal  school;  its  relation  to  the 
regular  work  in  literature;  to  the  work  in  other  branches.     Its 
place  in  the  model  school;  plan  of  organization  and  administra- 
tion. FANNIE  J.  HOLCOMBE. 
Discussion  opened  by  Colin  A.  Scott. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 

Section  Meeting. 
MODEL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS. 

NINA  VANDEWALKER,  Leader. 

I.  Bearing  of  the  fundamental  propositions  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  determin- 
ing what  work,  if  any,  now  being  done,  may  and  should  be 
eliminated. 

C.  E.  PATZER. 

II.  Model  teaching  for  observation  classes;  what  means  should  be  used 
to  make  this  of  most  value  to  observers. 

ALFARETTA  HASKELL. 

III.  Means  necessary  to  overcome  the  bad  effects  of  poor  teaching  in 

the  grades  by  pupil  teachers. 

J.  I.  JEGI. 

IV.  How  should  the  character  of  the  teaching  in  the  grammar  grades 

differ  from  that  in  the  primary  and  intermediate  grades? 

MYRTLE  L.  CARPENTER. 

V.  Uses  of  literature  and  history  in  the  grades  in  developing  the  power 

to  use  good  English  orally. 

HARRIET  P.  BURY. 

VI.  Explanation  and  examination  of  special  devices  and  illustrative 

material. 


PROGRAM.  ^ 

THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

TEACHERS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS. 
J.  Q.  EMERY,  Leader. 

I.  How  to  secure  unity  of  ideals  and  purposes  in  professional  teach- 
ing and  training. 

a.  In  any  one  Normal  school. 

b.  In  the  system  of  Normal  schools. 

ALBERT  SALISBURY. 
Discussion  opened  by  W.  J.  Brier. 
II.  Professional  reviews. 
a.  Scope. 

b.  How  far  academic? 

c.  How  far  and  in  what  manner  professional? 

T.  B.  PRAY. 
Discussion   opened   by   Chas.   McKenny. 


THURSDAY,  2  P.  M. 
Section  Meeting. 

SCIENCE. 

A.  A.  UPHAM,  Leader. 

I.  a.  Value  of  oral  exposition  in  developing  teaching  power  of  the 
student;  such  exposition  to  be  without  apparatus,  and  of  ex- 
periments previously  performed. 

b.  To  what  extent  may  oral  exposition  and  blackboard  illustration 
take  the  place  of  experimental  work  with  apparatus  in  the 
science  teaching,  keeping  in  mind  the  purpose  of  developing 
general  teaching  power? 

L.  D.  HARVEY. 

II.  a.  Possibility  of  and  modes  of  correlating  related  scientific  knowl- 
edge in  the  teaching  of  any  of  the  sciences. 

b.  Value  of  the  "lesson  plan"  in  the  work  of  correlation  in  science 
teaching  in  view  of  the  fact  that  propositions  1,  2,  and  3  ap- 
plied, determine  what  is  necessary  and  what  must  be  mastered 
by  the  pupil  in  the  light  of  his  present  knowledge  of  that 
which  is  essential. 

I.  N.  MITCHELL. 

III.  Danger  of  undertaking  advanced  work  in  science  not  within  the 
proper  scope  and  purpose  of  a  Normal  school  course. 

A.  L.  EWING. 

IV.  Relation  of  laboratory  and  text-book  work  in  different  subjects. 

E.  C.  PERISHO. 


xxii  PROGRAM. 


FRIDAY,  9  A.  M. 

General   Meeting. 

II.  Reports  from  leaders  of  sections  of  conclusions  reached  in  the  sec- 
work  in  the  model  school. 

H.  A.  ADRIAN. 

II.  Keports  from  leaders  of  sections  of  conclusions  reached  in  the  sec- 
tion meetings. 
III.  Unfinished  discussion. 


FRIDAY,  2  P.  M. 
General   Meeting. 
I.  Answers  to  questions. 

II.  General  discussion  of  questions  previously  proposed  by  members  of 
tae  institute. 


PART  I. 


GENERAL  SESSIONS 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


GENERAL  SESSION* 


MONDAY,  Dec.  17,  1900. 
Forenoon. 

Conductor  Harvey:  I  am  very  glad  indeed  to  see  that  the  Normal 
school  teachers  are  on  hand  as  usual.  We  are  here  for  a  week's  work 
together,  for  our  mutual  improvement,  and  as  we  are  ready  for  work, 
I  shall  introduce  Regent  Emery,  who  will  state  briefly  the  conditions 
which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Board,  have  made  this  institute  desir- 
able. 

STATEMENT  OF  CONDITIONS"  THAT  INFLUENCED  THE  BOARD 
OF  REGENTS  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  TO  MAKE  PROVISION 
FOR  THIS  INSTITUTE. 

J.  Q.  EMERY,  Albion. 

It  is  not  because  the  conditions  in  our  state  Normal  schools  are  poor 
and  need  to  be  made  good  that  this  institute  for  the  Normal  school 
faculties  has  been  ordered  by  the  Board  of  Regents  of  Normal  schools; 
but  because  the  conditions  now  good  should  be  made  better.  Indeed, 
I  may  truthfully  say  that  in  general  the  conditions  are  excellent;  but 
they  should  be  made  more  excellent.  They  who  do  not  advance,  recede. 
The  great  and  far-reaching  trusts  committed  to  our  care  as  well  as  the 
spirit  of  the  times  in  which  we  live,  demand  earnest  and  unremitting 
efforts  to  secure  progress. 

With  the  year  1895  there  began  a  great  expansion  in  all  the  material 
equipment  of  our  Normal  schools.  This  includes  buildings  with  their 
up-to-date  heating  and  ventilating  plants,  apparatus,  laboratories  and 
libraries,  cabinets  and  gymnasiums.  More  important  still,  this  expan- 
sion has  extended  to  the  faculties,  adding  numbers  and  advanced  quali- 
fications in  response  to  enlarged  means  of  payment.  These  years  have 
wrought  almost  a  revolution  in  the  increased  numbers  and  improved 
qulifications  of  the  student  body.  By  the  latter  I  mean  the  great  num- 
bers of  high  school  graduates  who  are  now  availing  themselves  of  the 
opportunities  for  training  afforded  by  the  Normal  schools.  Several 
hundred  more  persons  have  been  graduated  from  our  Normal  schools, 
all  courses,  since  January,  1895,  than  were  graduated  in  all  the  pre- 
vious history  of  the  schools. 

These  changed  and  improved  conditions  logically  call  for  corre- 
sponding changes  and  improvements  in  the  scholastic  and  professional 
training  given  by  the  schools  under  our  charge.  There  should  be  a 
conscious,  strong  and  persistent  effort  to  administer  all  the  varied  inter- 


REASONS  FOR  THE  INSTITUTE.  3 

%. 

ests  of  these  schools  with  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  efficiency  and 
true  economy.  When  I  say  true  economy,  I  do  no  mean  parsimonious 
expenditure  in  either  money  or  effort;  for  it  may  be  the  truest  economy 
to  make  large  expenditure  of  both. 

The  Board  of  Regents,  through  the  efforts  of  its  proper  committees 
and  otherwise,  has  noted  certain  conditions  which  it  has  come  to  feel 
can  be  made  better;  and  this  institute  has  been  provided  in  the  be- 
lief and  with  the  expectation  that  these  conditions  will,  as  a  result,  be 
improved. 

The  Board  adopts  a  course  of  study  applicable  to  all  the  schools.  Each 
president  adjusts  this  course  to  the  apparent  needs  of  his  school.  He 
interprets  the  aim  and  scope  and  determines  the  plan  of  work  in  the 
various  branches  in  this  course. 

Inspection  of  these  schools  has  brought  to  notice  the  apparent  fact 
that  too  great  a  divergence  in  some"  of  these  lines  of  work  has  grown 
up  in  the  system.  To  be  more  specific:  The  course  of  study  includes 
observation  as  a  part  of  the  required  professional  work.  Yet  in  no  two 
schools  can  it  be  said  that  observation  stands  for  the  same  thing  in 
aim,  scope,  or  plan.  Professional  reviews  in  the  common  school 
branches  are  required  by  the  course v of  study.  Yet  in  aim,  scope,  and 
plan  of  work,  professional  reviews  vary  from  methods  in  one  school 
on  the  one  hand,  to  simply  academic  work  in  another  school,  at  the  other 
extreme. 

What  is  here  said  of  these  two  topics  is  true  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree of  many,  if  not  all  of  the  topics  of  the  course.  Such  conditions 
should  be,  can  be,  and  will  be  improved. 

Probably  the  greatest  defect  in  American  Normal  schools  is  in  the 
correlation  or  lack  of  correlation  of  the  work  of  the  so-called  academic 
teachers  with  that  of  the  professional  work  and  the  work  of  the  train- 
ing school.  Observation  of  the  conditions  in  this  respect  in  our  Wis- 
consin Normal  schools  leads  to  the  belief  that  there  is  opportunity  here 
for  great  improvement  that  should  not  go  unused.  It  is  hoped  and  ex- 
pected that  noticeable  improvement  along  this  line  will  be  one  result  of 
this  institute. 

The  work  of  separate  teachers  or  departments  should  not  be  inde- 
pendent and  unrelated  but  should  be  interdependent  and  co-related, 
the  work  of  each  supplementing  and-  re-enforcing  the  work  of  all.  This 
makes  the  proper  sequence  of  work,  especially  in  professional  lines,  a 
matter  of  much  importance  in  a  Normal  school.  It  is  believed  that  the 
organization,  in  some  of  our  schools,  of  the  professional  work  is  not 
such  as  to  make  it  most  effective  in  results  and  economic  of  students' 
and  teachers'  time  and  energies. 

There  are  other  conditions  of  less  importance  that  should  and  will 
be  improved  in  the  natural  course  of  evolution  and  to  the  improving 
of  whicn  this  meeting  will  largely  contribute. 

This  institute  is  called  solely  in  the  interests  of  progress.  In  this 
spirit  the  Board  has  invited  you  here  and  now  bids  you  a  hearty  wel- 
come to  participation  in  the  work  that  is  before  us. 


4  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Harvey — Before  taking  up  the  first  topic  on  the  program,  I  wish 
to  say  a  few  words  in  addition  to  what  has  been  said  by  Regent  Emery 
pertinent  to  the  purposes  of  this  institute. 

In  the  printed  statement  sent  you  last  week,  prepared  by  President 
McGregor,  there  was  a  brief  statement  at  the  close,  of  the  purposes  of 
the  institute.  I  do  not  think  I  can  improve  upon  that  statement  and  I 
shall  not  attempt  to,  but  I  want  to  call  the  attention  of  all  present, 
again  and  again  during  this  week,  to  those  purposes  as  there  stated. 

If  this  system  of  Normal  schools  is  a  system  of  professional  schools, 
then  it  is  essential  that  professional  work  shall  be  done  in  these  schools, 
and  that  whatever  professional  work  it  is  possible  to  do  at  any  point 
to  supplement  what  may  be  called  the  strictly  professional  work,  needs 
to  be  done  in  a  professional  school,  if  the  true  purpose  for  which  that 
school  is  in  existence  is  carried  out.  If  that  be  not  done,  then  there  is 
no  excuse  for  the  existence  of  a  Normal  school.  If  it  does  not  vary 
from  any  other  good  school,  then  any  other  good  school  may  take  its 
place.  But,  if  it  has  a  higher  function,  a  different  function,  if  in  addi- 
tion to  teaching  pupils  and  teaching  subjects  and  developing  character 
(the  function  of  any  school)  there  is  still  another,  a  specific,  purpose, — • 
that  of  persistently  making  an  effort  to  train  those  in  attendance  to 
teach,  there  we  find  reason  for  the  existence  of  a  separate  class  of 
schools — of  Normal  schools.  And  as  Regent  Emery  has  well  said,  it  is 
the  purpose  of  this  institute  to  see  whether  it  is  possible  to  come  to  a 
still  higher  plane  in  this  respect  than  we  are  upon  to-day,  and  I  want 
to  restate  what  he  has  stated,  that  this  institute  is  called,  not  because 
the  work  is  poor  in  the  schools,  but,  as  he  has  well  said,  that  it  may  be 
made  still  better.  And  the  central  thought  of  this  week's  work, — the 
unification  and  organization  of  the  professional  work  of  the  schools, — 
is  the  central  problem  in  every  Normal  school  in  this  country.  If  you 
talk  with  Normal  school  men  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  they 
will  tell  you  that  that  is  the  central  problem  in  their  life.  We  are  not 
going  to  say  to  them  (although  we  do  claim  that  we  have  the  best  sys- 
tem of  Normal  schools  in  the  United  States)  that  we  have  entirely 
solved  that  problem.  But  we  are  here  this  week  for  the  purpose  of 
seeing  whether  we  can  not  make  a  step  forward  in  its  solution. 

We  are  not  here  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  Board  of  Regents 
to  size  up  the  teachers.  I  have  heard  that  was  the  reason.  That  is  not 
so.  It  is  not  the  place  to  do  it.  If  that  were  the  purpose,  you  should  be 
complimented,  because  as  they  look  into  your  faces  today  here  on 
dress  parade  and  on  your  good  behavior,  there  can  be  but  one  con- 
clusion. 

The  purpose  is  not  simply  to  disorganize  and  revolutionize  the  work 
that  is  being  done  well  in  the  schools.  It  is  not  for  any  such  purpose. 
It  is  simply  to  confer  together,  to  afford  an  opportunity  never  before  of- 
fered in  the  state  of  Wisconsin,  for  a  body  of  people  engaged  in  ex- 
actly the  same  kind  of  work,  one  hundred  and  sixty  of  them,  in  the 
most  important  work  which  anyone  is  doing  in  any  field  of  educational 
activity, — the  training  of  teachers, — to  get  together  and  to  spend  a 
week's  time  in  conference  with  each  other,  outside  of  the  regular  ses- 
sions and  in  discussion  in  the  sessions,  upon  the  work  you  are  doing. 

As  a  teacher  in  this  Normal  school  for  seven  years  and  in  another  for 
some  years,  I  felt,  as  I  know  my  associate  teachers  did,  how  great  a 


REASONS  FOR  THE  INSTITUTE.  5 

benefit  it  would  be  if  we  could  get  out  and  touch  hands  with  others 
who  were  engaged  in  the  same  work  that  we  were;  if  we  could  sit  down 
together,  not  simply  for  half  an  hour,  but  for  two  or  three  days,  and 
talk  over  the  problems  which  perplexed  us.  We  have  never  before  had 
an  opportunity  to  do  it,  and  I  think  that  one  of  the  most  important 
things  in  connection  with  this  work  is  the  opportunity  to  meet  socially 
and  talk  over  in  an  informal  way  the  work  and  the  problems  which  are 
presenting  themselves  to  each  of  us  in  our  own  particular  line  of  work. 

I  believe  that,  as  an  outcome  of  this  week's  conference,  we  shall  go 
back  to  our  work  with  a  refreshed  spirit.  I  am  very  sure  that  many 
of  us  will  feel  better  with  ourselves,  for  we  shall  have  talked  with  other 
people  and  found  out  that  they  are  not  doing  so  very  much  better 
than  we  are.  There  is  a  great  comfort  in  that.  I  am  very  sure  that, 
even  tho'  we  may  not  recognize  it*,  unconsciously  there  will  be  some 
modification  of  our  own  views  and  some  enlargement  of  our  field  of 
view.  I  hope  that  will  come.  We  are  not  here  for  the  purpose  of 
having  anybody,  or  any  class  of  people,  or  any  number  of  people,  at- 
tempt to  impose  any  particular  fad  upon  us.  We  are  here  for  a  larger 
purpose  than  that,  and  that  is  to  see  if  we  can  not  get  at  something  that 
is  fundamental  in  some  of  our  lines  of  work,  something  that  we  can 
agree  about,  if  possible,  or  if  not,  have  good  reasons  in  our  own  mind 
for  not  agreeing.  The  next  best  thing  to  an  agreement  is  a  disagree- 
ment witn  good  reasons.  To  disagree  as  a  matter  of  habit  is  natural, 
but  it  is  not  healthful.  To  disagree  for  the  sake  of  disagreeing  is 
natural  for  some  people,  but  it  is  uncomfortable  for  others  and  not 
very  healthful  to  the  individual.  So  that,  if  we  do  not  reach  agree- 
ments here  in  the  different  fields,  we  shall  discover  some  reason  for  it 
perhaps. 

I  trust  that  out  of  it  will  come  a  clearer  reason  for  each  of  us  as  to 
why  we  are  doing  as  we  are;  why  it  is  better  perhaps  than  someone 
else  is  doing.  You  see  that  will  result  in  the  case  of  every  individual, 
in  the  careful  examination  of  the  ground  work  of  his  philosophy  and 
his  practice,  and  that  is  a  pretty  good  thing  to  do  occasionally.  It  is 
wonderfully  helpful  to  do  that.  It  brings  out  some  startling  things 
sometimes  when  we  go  down  to  the  fundamental  basis  upon  which  we 
are  working  and  discover  perhaps  that  we  have  slipped  off  and  did  not 
know  it.  It  sometimes  happens. 

So  this  week  we  shall  try  to  discuss  these  problems  in  the  spirit  I 
have  indicated,  not  in  the  spirit  of  destruction,  demoralization,  or  revo- 
lution, but  simply  in  the  spirit  of  helpfulness,  of  improvement,  of  ad- 
vancement. I  hope  that  out  of  this  week's  work  will  come  something 
that  will  go  on.  We  are  not  going  to  settle  all  the  problems  this  week. 
There  will  be  three  or  four  left  over,  and  it  is  possible  that  we  shall  not 
settle  any  of  them,  but  I  nope  that  we  shall  at  least  make  a  start  on 
some  and  gather  sufficient  impetus  so  that  when  we  go  back  to  our 
schools  and  take  up  our  individual  work,  we  shall  go  on  in  an  effort  as 
individuals,  and  as  faculties  in  united  effort,  to  work  out  these  prob- 
lems upon  a  broad  basis  and  have  good  results. 

With  this  preliminary  statement,  I  want  to  take  up  the  second  topic 
upon  the  program,  and  I  am  going  to  do  what  I  do  not  like  to  do  and 
very  seldom  do  in  an  institute.  I  am  going  to  read  a  paper  this  morn- 
ing, and  I  will  tell  you  why  I  am  going  to  read  it.  I  am  going  to  read 


Q  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

it  because  I  want  to  say  exactly  what  is  in  it  and  if  I  do  not  read  it, 
I  may  perhaps  say  something  else.  I  have  tried  to  boil  down  what  I 
had  to  say,  and  I  want  to  say  it  exactly  as  it  is  written. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PKOPOSITIONS. 

:i  L.  D.  HARVEY,  State  Superintendent. 

(Copyrighted.) 

The  following  four  propositions  are  fundamental  for  the  teacher  and 
for  the  pupil  in  the  determination  of  what  is  to  be  done  for  and  in  the 
recitation : 

I.  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind  a  definite  purpose  or  purposes  to 
be  realized  in  the  next  recitation. 

II.  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind  the  things  which  must  be  known 
or  done  in  order  that  the  purposes  may  be  realized. 

III.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of  the  things  falling  under 
proposition  II.  the  pupil  now  knows  or  can  do. 

IV.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of  the  things  enumerated  un- 
der proposition  II.  the  pupil  still  has  to  learn  or  to  do,  and  the  order 
in  which  they  should  be  known  or  done. 

Is  the  statement  that  the  foregoing  propositions  are  fundamental  a 
correct  one? 

This  question  will  now  be  answered. 

The  teacher  has  always  to  determine  with  any  given  class  for  any 
given  recitation: 

1st.  What  is  to  be  done  by  the  pupils?    What  by  himself? 

2d.  How  shall  what  he  has  to  do  in  testing,  teaching,  drilling  and 
assigning  work   for  preparation   be   done? 
j.    Jn  short — 

1.  .What  is  to  be  done  at  any  given  time? 

2.  How  is  it  to  be  done? 

The  teacher's  work  is  testing,  teaching,  drilling  and  assigning  new 
work  lor  pupils. 

The  pupil's  work  before  the  recitation  is,  preparation  of  work  as- 
signed; in  the  recitation  is  (a)  showing  the  quality  and  extent  of  his 
preparation  through  expression  in  one  form  or  another;  (b)  supple- 
menting inadequate  preparation  by  further  work  under  the  direction 
and  inspiration  of  the  teacher  through  teaching  and  drilling;  (c)  prep- 
aration for  the  next  lesson. 

A  fundamental  is  an  essential. 

It  is  essential  that  the  what  shall  be  determined  for  and  in  every  reci- 
tation, with  every  class  of  pupils,  in  every  subject. 

Today's  recitation  determines  Vv'hat  has  been  done  by  the  pupils  in 
preparation,  what  more  is  to  be  done  for  and  by  them  during  the  recita- 
tion, including  the  determination  of  what  they  are  to  do  for  tomorrow's 
recitation. 

The  what  precedes  the  how. 

The  what  must  be  determined  with  reference  to  its  value  for  the  pupil 


FUNDAMENTAL  PROPOSITIONS.  7 

at  a  given  time,  under  conditions  then  existing.  The  proper  determi- 
nation of  the  what  in  any  given  case  demands  correct  answers  to  the 
following  three  questions: 

1st.  What  in  the  given  subject  is  the  pupil  to  learn,  and  what  is  he  to 
do  in  the  application  of  what  is  learned  as  a  necessary  part  of  his 
training? 

2nd.  What  is  he  prepared  for? 

3rd.  What  of  that  which  he  is  prepared  for  and  which  he  is  to  learn 
or  to  do,  does  he  need  next? 

That  the  teacher  shall  be  able  to  answer,  and  that  he  shall  answer 
these  questions  correctly,  is  a  fundamental  condition  of  any  good 
teaching.  If  this  statement  is  correct,  then  the  fundamental  character 
of  the  lour  propositions  is  demonstrated,  because  the  answers  to  these 
questions  are  determined  by  the  application  of  those  propositions. 

I  take  it  no  one  will  question  the  fundamental  character  of  the  first 
proposition,  viz.:  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind  a  definite  purpose 
or  purposes  to  be  realized  in  the  next  recitation. 

The  demands  made  upon  the  teacher  by  that  proposition  can  not  be 
met  except  through  the  answer  to  the  first  question  above.  That  is: 
"What  in  the  given  subject  has  he  to  learn  and  what  is  he  to  do  in  the 
application  of  what  is  learned,  as  a  necessary  part  of  his  training?" 

Neither  can  it  be  answered  without  a  consideration  of  propositions 
II.  and  III.,  as  applied  to  his  preceding  work. 

The  second  question  above,  viz.:  "What  is  the  pupil  prepared  for?" 
can  be  determined  in  no  other  way  than  through  the  requirements  of 
the  second  and  third  of  the  four  propositions.  That  is  to  say,  unless 
the  teacher  knows  what  are  the  elements  that  go  to  make  up  this 
knowledge  which  the  pupil  is  to  master,  and  unless  he  has  determined 
what  the  pupil  now  knows,  he  can  never  answer  that  second  question, 
"What  is  the  pupil  prepared  for?"  There  is  no  other  way  to  get  at  it. 
No  matter  whether  you  have  ever  heard  of  these  propositions  or  not, 
you  are  doing  it  if  you  determine  what  the  pupil  is  prepared  for. 

The  third  question  above,  viz.:  "What  of  that  which  he  is  prepared 
for  and  which  he  is  to  learn  or  to  do  does  he  need  next?"  is  determined 
through  the  application  of  the  fourth  proposition. 

These  four  propositions  are  fundamental  because  there  is  no  other 
possible  way  by  which  the  three  questions  above  enumerated  can  be 
correctly  answered.  Omit  what  is  demanded  by  any  one  of  the  four 
propositions  and  at  once  uncertainty,  doubt,  and  confusion  arise.  A 
teacher  may  never  have  heard  of  these  propositions  and  may  work 
wisely  in  the  determination  of  what  is  to  be  done  for  and  in  a  recita- 
tion; but  to  the  extent  to  which  he  has  worked  wisely,  he  has  un- 
consciously been  applying  these  propositions;  to  the  extent  that  he  has 
consciously  applied  these  propositions,  he  is  conscious  that  these  de- 
terminations have  been  worked  out  in  a  logical  manner,  and  his  con- 
clusions at  every  step  tested. 

Let  us  examine  a  little  more  fully  the  reasons  upon  which  the  first 
proposition  is  based. 

If  the  teacher  is  to  assign  a  lesson  for  preparation  by  the  pupils, 
there  must  be  in  his  mind  a  definite  purpose  or  purposes  to  be  realized 
by  the  pupils  in  their  preparation  and  shown  in  the  recitation.  Unless 
there  be  such  a  definite  purpose  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  he  has  no 


8  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

means  of  knowing  whether  the  work  assigned  bears  a  proper  relation 
to  the  work  which  has  gone  before  and  the  work  which  is  to  come  after; 
neither  does  he  know  whether  the  work  assigned  is  adapted  to  the 
present  needs  and  mental  condition  of  the  members  of  the  class;  neither 
does  he  know  whether  the  work  assigned  is  too  much  or  too  little  to 
fully  employ  the  time  at  the  pupil's  command  for  this  specific  piece  of 
work.  If  the  teacher  has  no  definite  purpose  in  mind  in  the  assign- 
ment of  his  lesson,  then, the  assignment  will,  of  necessity,  be  vague  and 
inderinite,  and  the  pupil  will  have  nothing  before  him  definitely  indi- 
cating what  he  is  to  learn  or  to  do.  The  result  will  be  that  the  next 
recitation  will  be  largely  a  failure,  primarily  because  of  the  teacher's 
lack  of  definite  purpose. 

In  determining  the  aim  in  each  day's  lesson,  the  teacher  must  keep- 
in  mind  the  question  already  stated,  "What  in  the  given  subject  is  the 
pupil  to  learn  and  what  is  he  to  do  in  the  application  of  what  is  learned, 
as  a  necessary  part  of  his  training?"  This  must  be  thought  out  in  ad- 
vance; must  be  clear  to  the  mind  of  the  teacher.  Unless  it  is  clear  to 
the  teacher,  there  can  be  no  definiteness  of  purpose  for  any  given 
recitation  that  will  be  properly  related  to  the  work  of  the  preceding 
recitations  and  the  work  which  is  to  follow. 

The  purposes  from  day  to  day  must  always  be  formed  in  the  light  of 
the  subject  matter  and  what  part  it  is  to  play  in  the  training  of  the 
child.  They  must  also  take  into  consideration  the  answer  to  the  second 
question  above  stated:  "What  is  he  prepared  for?"  Otherwise,  the 
lesson  is  assigned  without  any  consideration  of  the  pupil's  ability  ta 
make  the  preparation  demanded. 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  on  the  part  of  teachers  is  to  thus 
assign  work  without  any  definiteness  of  aim.  So  many  pages,  so  many 
problems,  so  many  experiments,  are  assigned  for  the  next  day's  work. 
Too  often  this  is  done  without  any  thought  as  to  whether  the  work  of 
today  has  been  mastered  by  the  pupils  or  not,  and  that  even,  when  the 
successful  preparation  of  tomorrow's  work  depends  upon  the  mastery  of 
today's  work.  In  a  little  time  the  pupil  is  hopelessly  lost,  discouraged, 
and  unable  to  make  any  intellectual  growth  in  this  given  line  of  work. 
I  appeal  to  the  experience  of  those  present  if  this  is  not  a  matter  of  com- 
mon occurrence  in  almost  every  grade  of  school;  if  it  is  not  even  a 
matter  of  somewhat  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Normal  schools,  and 
often  in  still  higher  schools.  Each  teacher  can  test  for  himself  his  at- 
titude upon  this  matter  by  formulating  clearly  and  concisely  the  pur- 
poses he  has  in  mind  for  any  given  recitation.  The  very  fact  that  it  is 
not  an  easy  thing  to  do  will  convince  him  that  it  has  not  already  been 
done,  and  that  too  often  he  is  simply  considering  the  amount  of  ma- 
terial rather  than  the  amount  of  mental  activity  required  to  master  it 
and  whether  the  pupil  is  prepared  to  exert  the  required  mental  activity.. 

I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  not  only  is  definiteness  of 
purpose  essential  to  the  proper  assignment  of  a  lesson,  but  that,  when- 
ever in  any  given  recitation  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  do  some 
teaching,  there  must  again  be  the  same  definiteness  of  purpose  as  in 
the  preceding  case;  that,  in  his  testing  of  pupils,  there  must  be  a  definite 
aim  toward  which  every  question  or  requirement  should  be  directed; 
that  in  drill  work  the  same  necessity  exists  for  definiteness  of  purpose, 
determined  primarily  by  the  needs  of  the  pupils  as  shown  in  the  reci- 
tation. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PROPOSITIONS.  9 

A  recitation  may  frequently  disclose  a  condition  as  to  lack  of  knowl- 
edge or  lack  of  power  or  of  skill  which  may  make  it  necessary  then  and 
there  to  formulate  a  new  purpose  not  anticipated,  which  must  be  ac- 
complished under  the  teacher's  direction  during  that  particular  recita- 
tion. There  should  be  no  variation  from  the  purpose  which  decided 
the  assignment  of  the  lesson  on  the  day  previous,  unless  it  appears  that 
some  lack  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  not  anticipated  by  the  teacher,  ren- 
ders it  necessary  to  formulate  new  lines  of  work  and  master  those  be- 
fore the  work  originally  assigned  can  be  mastered. 

Considering  the  second  proposition — "The  teacher  must  have  in  mind 
the  things  which  must  be  known  or  done  in  order  that  the  purpose  may 
be  realized,"  let  us  note  that  the  purposes  which  a  teacher  may  have  in 
mind  may  be  concerned  with  two  aspects  of  learning;  one,  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge;  the  other,  tn"e  acquisition  of  skill  through  do- 
ing. Is  it  essential  that,  with  a  given  purpose  in  mind,  and  that  pur- 
pose being  the  mastery  of  certain  definite  facts  and  their  relations,  or 
the  determination  of  relations  from  given  facts,  thus  exercising  the  rea- 
son and  paving  the  way  for  the  formation  of  judgments,  that  the 
teacher  shall  know  definitely  what  preliminary  knowledge  is  essential 
to  the  pupil  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  task  in  hand,  and  what  are 
the  essential  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the  new  body  of  knowledge 
which  the  pupil  is  to  master? 

Let  me  ask  the  same  question  with  reference  to  a  task  which  demands 
something  to  be  done,  it  may  be  in  the  way  of  graphic  presentation. 
Is  it  essential  that  the  teacher  shall  know  what  elements  of  knowledge 
and  skill  must  be  possessed  by  any  individual  in  order  that  he  may  be 
prepared  to  enter  upon  the  work  in  hand;  and,  further,  is  it  essential 
that  the  teacher  shall  make  an  analysis  to  determine  the  elements  of 
knowledge  and  skill  required  for  the  performance  of  a  definite  task? 

It  would  seem  that  to  ask  these  questions  is  to  answer  them.  No 
one  can  successfully  deny  that  it  is  a  necessity  for  the  teacher  to  know 
what  essential,  related  body  of  knowledge  must  be  mastered  to  reach 
any  given  end;  what  essential,  related  body  of  knowledge  and  core- 
lated  forms  of  activity  are  essential  to  the  intelligent  doing  of  any 
given  piece  of  work  demanding  skill.  Without  this  knowledge,  the 
teacher  abdicates  his  position  as  a  leader,  as  a  teacher.  An  essen- 
tial element  may  be  left  out  by  the  pupil  and,  because  it  is  left  out, 
he  is  powerless  to  perform  the  task  assigned  him.  The  teacher  may 
blame  the  pupil;  may  tell  him  that  he  has  not  studied;  may  undertake 
to  explain;  but,  except  by  happy  accident,  he  fails  to  hit  upon  the  point 
of  weakness  and  to  bring  up  before  the  pupil  facts  for  his  mastery 
that  essential  element  which  was  lacking.  In  all  such  cases  there  is 
a  waste  of  time  and  energy  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupil, 
a  loss  of  interest  by  the  pupil  and  on  the  teacher's  part,  a  lack  of  ap- 
preciation of  what  is  essential  for  the  proper  discharge  of  his  duties. 

It  is  frequently  assumed  that  every  teacher  meets  the  requirements 
indicated  in  the  second  proposition.  Is  this  a  fair  assumption? 

The  teacher  may  test  that  question  for  himself  or  herself  by  under- 
taking to  formulate  definitely  what  must  be  known  or  done  in  order  to 
achieve  the  mastery  of  any  given  piece  of  work.  Submit  this  formula- 
tion to  your  own  critical  examination.  Submit  it  to  others  for  their 
judgment  and  criticism  and  I  feel  confident  that  the  result  will  be  some- 
thing of  a  surprise  to  those  who  have  never  undertaken  to  do  it 


30  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Is  there  still  a  further  reason  for  this  work? 

It  has  been  said  that  a  part  of  the  teacher's  work  in  the  recitatiou 
is  to  test  the  pupil's  preparation.  Shall  the  tests  be  confined  within 
the  range  of  what  it  is  essential  for  the  pupil  to  know,  in  order  that  the 
purpose  for  which  the  lesson  was  assigned  may  be  accomplished?  If  so, 
Tiow  can  they  be  kept  within  that  range  unless  the  teacher  has  definitely 
in  mind  what  is  demanded  by  the  second  proposition? 

Much  of  the  purposeless  and  illogical  questioning  in  the  class  room 
grows  out  of  the  fact  tnat  the  teacher  does  not  have  in  mind  what  are 
the  essentials  for  the  pupil  in  the  mastery  of  the  lesson.  Without  this 
knowledge  on  the  teacher's  part,  the  questioning  is  purposeless,  often 
unnecessary,  and  always  confusing.  With  it,  the  question  is  clearer, 
more  definite,  and  in  its  proper  place.  One  great  reason  why  so  many 
teachers  are  poor  questioners  is  because  there  is  this  lack  of  definite- 
ness  in  their  minds  as  to  what  is  necessary  knowledge  for  the  pupil, 
and  therefore  as  to  what  it  is  proper  for  the  teacher  to  question  him 
upon. 

Taking  up  the  third  proposition,  is  it  possible  for  a  teacher  to  assign 
a  lesson  with  proper  reference  to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the  pupil 
unless  he  has  met  the  requirements  there  stated,  viz.:  to  "deter- 
mine what  of  the  things  the  pupil  must  know  or  do  he  now  knows  or 
can  do"? 

If  it  be  assumed  that  everything  in  the  work  assigned  is  unknown, 
.and  it  snould  develop  that  most  of  it  is  old  to  the  pupil,  then  too  little 
work  has  been  assigned.  If  it  be  assumed  that  most  of  it  is  known,  or 
that  the  pupil  is  already  able  to  do  most  of  what  he  is  asked  to  do,  and 
it  should  develop  that  neither  assumption  is  correct,  then  too  much 
work  is  assigned.  In  either  case  the  result  cannot  fail  to  be  bad  for 
the  pupil. 

Lack  of  application  of  this  proposition  is  the  cause  of  more  failures 
in  recitation  than  any  other  one  failure  on  the  teacher's  part.  Every 
teacher  will  bear  me  out  in  the  statement  that  the  pupil  frequently 
fails  to  do  what  the  teacher  wants  him  to  do  because  he,  the  pupil,  as- 
sumes that  he  can  already  do  it  and,  therefore,  needs  no  further  prep- 
aration or  practice;  fails  to  know  what  the  teacher  expected  him  to 
know  because  he  assumes  that  ne  already  does  know,  when  his  knowl- 
edge is  vague,  inaccurate,  and  incomplete. 

It  is  not  only  essential  for  the  teacher  to  know  what  the  pupil  is  to 
prepare  upon  and  what  preparation  he  should  make,  but  it  is  far  more 
essential  that  the  pupil  shall  know  exactly  wherein  his  knowledge  is 
-to  be  strengthened  because  it  is  now  indefinite  and  incomplete;  wherein 
his  skill  is  to  be  developed  because  it  is  now  inadequate. 

To  illustrate: — Certain  definitions  are  assigned  to  be  mastered.  They 
may  not  be  entirely  new  to  the  pupil.  He  has  gone  over  the  ground 
before.  He  assumes  that  he  knows  them,  and  so  comes  to  the  recita- 
tion with  tne  same  vagueness  and  inaccuracy  that  he  had  before.  Had 
the  requirements  of  the  third  proposition  been  met  by  the  teacher  be- 
fore the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  it  would  have  made  clear  to  the  pupil 
just  where  he  was  lacking  in  accuracy  and  completeness,  and  would 
have  put  before  him  a  definite  piece  of  work  to  be  mastered  for  the  next 
recitation  / 

I  have  again  and  again  heard  this:     "Be  prepared  to  pronounce  cor- 


FUNDAMENTAL  PROPOSITIONS.  H 

Tectly  every  word  in  the  reading  lesson."  Do  you  suppose  the  pupils 
were  prepared?  Not  at  all.  There  were  perhaps  half  a  dozen  new  words 
in  the  lesson,  but  because  those  new  words  were  not  indicated,  the 
pupil  assumed  that  because  he  could  pronounce  most  of  them,  he  could 
pronounce  the  rest.  When  asked  why  he  was  not  prepared,  he  an- 
swered, "I  thought  I  knew  it." 

One  01  the  essentials  for  a  student  is  that  he  shall  early  learn  how  to 
study  wisely.  There  is  no  way  of  mastering  the  art  of  study  except 
through  study.  And  there  is  no  better  way,  I  believe,  of  teaching  this 
.art,  than  by  presenting  to  the  pupil  definitely  and  clearly  just  what  he 
is  to  do  and  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  to  be  done.  The  third  proposi- 
tion, if  applied,  will  secure  exactly  this  result. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  of  course,  that  a  teacher  who  is  dealing  with 
the  same  class  from  day  to  day  oir  a  continuous  and  related  line  of 
work,  will  know  at  any  given  time  quite  clearly  what,  of  the  things 
which  must  be  known  or  done,  the  pupil  now  knows  or  can  now  do. 
It  is  equally  clear  that  in  preparing  for  the  assignment  of  a  lesson  it 
is  unnecessary  to  go  over  ground  which  he  has  already  traversed  in 
preceding  recitations  and  to  test  pupils  when  he  already  knows  that 
they  can  meet  the  tests.  It  is  equally  true  that,  in  almost  every  reci- 
tation, in  the  preparation  for  the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson,  some 
additional  tests  as  to  the  status  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  new 
matter  should  be  made. 

The  application  of  the  third  proposition  determines  for  the  teacher 
what  of  tne  things  determined  by  applying  the  second  proposition  the 
pupil  has  yet  to  know  or  to  do,  and  the  fourth  prpoposition  simply 
demands  that  the  order  in  which  these  things  are  to  be  known  or  done, 
if  the  order  is  essential,  shall  be  made  clear. 

I  have  thus  shown  what  seems  to  me  to  be  the  fundamental  nature 
•of  these  four  propositions  and  the  necessity  for,applying  them  in  the 
assignment  of  work  for  any  given  recitation. 

It  will  be  evident  that  with  any  unit  of  knowledge  the  first  and  sec- 
ond propositions  may  be  applied  and  worked  out  fully  throughout  the 
entire  unit. 

The  third  proposition  cannot  be  applied  strictly  except  in  the  p**s~ 
ence  of  the  class  and  from  day  to  day. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  fourth. 

But  whenever  a  given  unit  has  been  worked  out  a  little  thought  will 
show,  that  as  the  work  progresses  from  day  to  day  with  this  particular 
unit,  each  of  the  propositions  becomes  applicable  again  so  far  as  the 
day's  work  is  concerned.  The  aim  for  each  day  will  be  a  portion  of 
the  larger  and  more  complete  aims  for  the  whole  unit. 

The  application  of  the  second  proposition  for  each  day's  work  on 
the  unit  will  consist  in  a  determination  of  what  portion  of  the  formula- 
tion of  the  entire  unit  is  essential  for  the  day's  work. 

The  application  of  the  third  proposition  will  be  concerned  with 
testing  on  what  the  second  proposition  showed  to  be  essential. 

The  application  of  the  fourth  proposition  is  clear. 

A  little  consideration  will  make  clear  how  far  these  propositions  are 
applicable  in  each  of  the  three  phases  of  the  teacher's  work  in  the 
recitation, — teaching,  testing  and  drilling.  The  moment  he  begins  to 
test,  that  moment  the  necessity  for  what  is  called  for  in  the  second 


12  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

proposition  is  evident..  Otherwise  his  testing  is  purposeless,  as  has 
been  shown.  The  moment  that  testing  has  shown  him  that  it  is  neces-  • 
sary  to  teach  during  that  recitation  period,  that  moment  the  applica- 
tion of  the  first,  second  and  fourth  propositions  becomes  a  necessity  for 
him.  The  moment  his  testing  has  developed  that  drill  work  is  neces- 
sary, that  moment  he  has  applied  the  first  proposition,  for,  in  deter- 
mining the  necessity  for  it,  he  must,  if  it  has  been  determined  wisely, 
do  so  in  the  light  of  a  definite  purpose.  That  purpose  is  made  clear  by 
the  application  of  the  second  proposition;  while  every  stage  of  the  drill 
work  is  also  an  application  of  the  third  proposition. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  propositions  have  to  do  with  the  "what" 
of  the  recitation.  The  "how"  is  not  a  consideration  at  the  present 
time.  I  am  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  if  due  care  and  attention  be 
given  to  the  "what,"  very  many  questions  as  to  "how"  will  become  un- 
important or  answer  themselves.  The  very  analysis  required  of  the 
teacher  in  this  determination  of  the  "what"  will  give  him  such  an  in- 
sight into  the  nature  of  learning  and  of  teaching  as  to  materially 
strengthen  his  method  of  the  "how." 

I  have  sometimes  heard  the  fear  expressed  that  if  teachers  are  re- 
quired to  deal  in  the  manner  indicated  with  the  subject  matter  of  each 
recitation  and,  especially,  if  they  are  required  to  put  in  definite  form 
on  paper  the  requirements  of  the  several  propositions,  it  will  become 
a  piece  of  formalism  and  result  in  more  harm  than  good.  I  wish  to 
state  here,  once  for  all,  that  the  writing  out  of  the  lesson  plan  is  no 
essential  part  of  the  plan  itself.  It  is  merely  a  device,  but  a  most  val- 
uable one,  to  compel  teachers  to  do  the  work  necessary  to  be  done,  and 
to  put  it  into  such  form  as  will  make  it  possible  for  them  to  criticise 
their  own  work  and  to  submit  it  for  the  criticism  of  others  in  the  in- 
terests of  better  preparation. 

This  definite  formulation  and  putting  into  permanent  form  of  what 
is  demanded  by  these  propositions,  if  continued  sufficiently  long,  will 
develop  skill  through  close  attention  and  clear  analysis.  The  purpose 
of  this  work  is  to  develop  a  habit  of  mind,  so  that  the  teacher  will  un- 
consciously do  the  thing  which  ought  to  be  done.  The  freedom  which 
some  people  fear  will  be  abridged  by  this  process  is  the  freedom  of 
lawlessness,  of  carelessness,  of  indifference,  of  ignorance  and  of  irre- 
sponsibility. The  freedom  that  is  desired  is  the  freedom  that  comes 
through  the  reign  of  law,  and  in  this  case  it  is  pedagogical  freedom 
through  the  reign  of  pedagogic  law. 

Skill  in  any  art  is  not  acquired  by  accident.  Skill  in  the  art  of  all 
arts,  that  of  training  the  human  mind,  can  only  be  acquired  by 
careful  study,  continued  experiment  and  pains-taking  examination  of 
methods  and  results. 

In  beginning  the  mastery  of  any  art  it  is  essential  to  see  what  is  to 
be  done.  It  is  essential  that  the  first  efforts  toward  doing  the  required 
thing  shall  be  made  with  the  greatest  care.  This  means  laborious, 
painful  work,  and  often  then,  meagre  results.  But  continued,  persist- 
ent, intelligent  practice  finally  develops  the  skill  which  gives  that 
which  is  so  much  prized, — freedom  of  action.  The  skill  is  the  result- 
ant of  mental  and  perhaps  physical  habits. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  develop  a  habit  of  thought  and  when 
that  has  been  developed,  the  necessity  for  the  written  formulations  no 


DISCUSSION  OF  PROPOSITIONS. 


13 


longer  exists.  It  will  be  well,  however,  for  the  teacher  even  then  to 
occasionally  give  himself  the  practice  and  the  test  of  writing  out  what 
is  called  for  in  these  propositions.  The  same  reason  for  this  exists  as 
in  the  case  of  the  skillful  pianist  who  delights  thousands  at  the  evening 
recital  and  spends  hours  the  next  day  in  practicing  the  scales. 

If  I  am  right  in  assuming,  and  it  is  an  assumption  proved,  that  all 
good  teaching  must  take  cognizance  of  what  is  required  in  these  propo- 
sitions, then  the  demand  that  they  shall  be  applied  is  not  a  fad,  nor  a 
piece  of  formalism  or  of  mechanical  organization  of  matter.  Whatever 
merit  these  propositions  have  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  compel  the  do- 
ing of  the  things  which  must  be  done,  in  such  a  way  that  the  doer  is 
conscious  of  what  he  is  undertaking,  and  also  in  such  a  way  that  the 
person  responsible  for  having  it  done  will  know  that  it  is  done. 


DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Harvey — We  will  now  take  a  little  time  for  the  discussion  of  the 
paper  just  presented,  and  I  should  like  to  hold  the  discussion  reason- 
ably close  to  the  question — "Are  the  propositions  submitted  funda- 
mental?" 

Mr.  Salisbury — Those  in  this  body  who  have  attended  the  school  for 
institute  conductors  during  the  last  two  years  are  probably  familiar 
with  the  line  of  thought  presented  this  morning.  It  is  the  first  time 
that  I  have  heard  the  presentation  of  Mr.  Harvey,  therefore  I  may  be 
pardoned  for  a  few  questions  of  an  elementary  sort.  In  the  first  place, 
what  definition,  Mr.  Chairman,  are  you  putting  upon  the  term  "recita- 
tion"? .  Do  you  mean  all  school  exercises?  Or  do  you  mean  only  those 
involving  the  acquisition  of  knowledge?  Can  they  be  made  to  apply  in 
a  class  exercise  in  drawing? 

Mr.  Harvey — These  propositions  are  applicable,  as  I  understand  it, 
wherever  and  whenever  any  definite  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assigned  for 
the  pupils'  preparation,  whether  it  be  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
or  in  the  acquisition  of  skill  through  doing.  They  apply  also  in  all 
cases  where  no  work  is  assigned  by  the  teacher  for  preparation  by  the 
pupils  in  advance  of  the  recitation,  but  where  the  teacher  plans  to 
present  the  matter  and  to  have  pupils  master  it  during  the  class 
period.  In  the  latter  case  they  would  apply  to  the  teacher's  prepara- 
tion and  the  application  of  the  third  proposition  would  be,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  making  an  assignment,  but  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining for  himself  what  he  must  teach,  and  the  application  of  the 
fourth  proposition  would  determine  for  him  the  order  in  which  it  is  to 
l)e  taught. 

I  am  glad  you  mention  a  specific  case.  The  answer  to  that  will  an- 
swer all  other  similar  questions.  Has  the  teacher  any  purpose  in  the 
exercise  in  drawing?  If  so,  then  that  teacher  ought  to  know  it  definitely 
and  ought  to  be  able,  if  asked,  to  formulate  that  purpose.  In  order 
to  realize  that  purpose,  is  there  anything  that  the  individual  pupils 
must  know  or  do  in  order  to  work  that  out  and  accomplish  it?  If  so, 
the  teacher  ought  to  know  that,  and  he  ought  further  to  know  what  of 
those  things  those  pupils  can  now  do,  in  order  to  direct  them  in  the 
further  doing. 


14  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Salisbury — Does  it  involve  a  new  or  distinct  formulation  in  the 
drawing  exercise  for  each  day's  work? 

Mr.  Harvey — It  is  possible  that  there  may  be  practically  the  same 
aim -or  purpose  continued  from  day  to  day  and  whenever  the  purpose 
is  the  same,  then  no  new  formulation  becomes  necessary,  but  when- 
ever a  new  purpose  develops,  then  a  formulation  becomes  necessary. 

Mr.  Pray — If  I  understand  the  matter  rightly,  it  would  depend  upon 
the  degree  of  defmiteness  with  which  that  purpose  is  stated  by  the 
teacher  in  the  beginning.  I  mean  the  purpose  in  the  exercise, — 
whether  it  will  be  the  same  from  day  to  day  in  most  cases  will  depend 
upon  the  defmiteness  with  which  the  purpose  is  stated  in  the  beginning. 

Mr.  Harvey — Yes, — if  you  will  notice  in  my  statement  of  the  appli- 
cation of  those  propositions — perhaps  some  particular  phase  of  work 
in  drawing,  and  that  whole  unit  had  been  worked  out  so  definitely  and! 
fully  that  there  would  be  no  other  formulation.  If  only  worked  out 
in  the  rough,  in  bold  strokes  (I  believe  you  say  that)  then  there  would 
be  a  need  to  work  it  out  in  detail. 

Mr.  Salisbury — In  the  discussion  of  an  assignment,  should  we  have- 
in  mind  our  own  subjects,  psychology  perhaps,  or  should  we  have  in! 
mind  the  children  that  our  pupils  are  going  to  teach? 

Mr.  Harvey — You  should  have  in  mind  the  class  you  are  teaching.  I 
see  no  reason  why  in  teaching  psychology  there  should  be  a  violation 
of  every  principle  of  psychology,  or  why  in  teaching  pedagogy  there 
should  be  at  every  stage  a  violation  of  the  very  precepts  that  are  being 
taught;  and  so  I  say  that  for  our  purpose  here,  what  I  should  like  to 
have  in  the  discussion  of  these  propositions  is  for  each  to  consider 
them  with  reference  to  his  own  particular  work  in  teaching. 

Mr.  Salisbury — How  far  may  our  test  to  find  out  what  the  pupil  al- 
ready knows  be  delusive?  Are  not  pupils  often  more  able  to  answer 
than  their  response  to  our  testing  would  indicate?  Can  we  make  any 
test  that  would  be  very  reliable  for  determining  what  they  are  able  to 
do?  Have  you  not  to  go  on  trying  to  see  what  they  can  do,  after  all? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  that  if  you  had  had  an  opportunity  to  go  over 
the  paper  as  read,  you  would  see  that  I .  have  anticipated  that,  in  that 
I  say  that  in  every  recitation  there  will  come  a  time  when  the  test  will 
show  that  the  pupil  is  not  prepared  and  that  probably  indicates  that 
your  test  the  day  before  did  not  do  just  what  you  anticipated,  and  that 
then  and  there  comes  the  necessity  for  the  teaching  in  order  to  sup- 
plement the  preparation  made  in  advance,  by  work  in  the  class. 

Now,  to  answer  your  specific  question  more  definitely,  I  will  say  that 
the  testing  is  not  positively  an  assurance  of  definite  knowledge  on  the 
teacher's  part;  that  it  may  avail  to  disclose  the  pupil's  capacity  to  go- 
on;  that  it  may  give  the  teacher  an  estimate  of  his  knowledge  that  is 
not  warranted  by  subsequent  developments.  Both  of  these  things  may 
happen,  but  the  alternative  is  this:  "Shall  I,  because  I  am  not  able 
to  do  all  I  would  do  by  testing,  do  nothing?" 

Mr.  Salisbury — Is  there  not  here  too  strong  an  assumption  that  the 
only  legitimate  result  of  the  recitation  is  the  mastery  of  a  certain  pre- 
conceived unit  or  amount  of  knowledge?  Is  not  stimulation  to  elicit 
the  impromptu  in  the  class  a  legitimate  aim  as  well? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  it  may  seem,  and  doubtless  does  seem,  to  those 
who  have  given  it  little  thought,  open  to  that  objection.  Now  I  am  not 


DISCUSSION  OF  PROPOSITIONS.  ^5, 

going  to  object  to  that,  except,  as  I  have  stated  in  the  paper,  that  it 
comes  in  line  with  the  purpose  that  the  teacher  had  in  mind,  or  di- 
rectly growing  out  of  it,  because,  if  we  once  yield  to  that  and  assume 
that  anything  which  may  be  brought  in  to  stimulate  is  a  good  thing, 
at  once  the  whole  worK  of  the  recitation  becomes  chaos.  I  think  what 
we  need  is  to  hold  closely  to  a  line  of  work,  but  1  am  in  hearty  sympa- 
thy with  the  idea  of  stimulation,  and  if  you  will  notice  I  have  used  the 
words  "guidance  and  inspiration  by  the  teacher  in  that  teaching."  Some 
of  the  best  work  of  the  recitation  comes  out  as  an  incident,  and  the 
training  that  the  teacher  gets  in  this  close  analysis  of  his  work  re- 
sults in  the  power  which  enables  him  to  see  those  salient  points  and 
the  opportunities  for  just  that  work. 

Mr.  Hardy — There  is  one  question  which  I  want  to  ask.  Is  it  not 
sometimes  well  for  the  pupil  to  determine  what  must  be  known  or  done 
to  reach  a  certain  aim?  Is  it  well  for  the  teacher  always  to  determine 
for  the  pupil  what  is  to  be  known  or  done?  He  should  see  the  logical 
relations  and  connections  between  the  aim  and  what  must  be  done  to 
gain  that  aim. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  want  to  answer  in  this  way:  We  are  training  teachers 
who  are  to  do  this  work  for  themselves,  for  their  own  classes;  but  I 
take  it  that  the  best  way  to  do  it  is  for  the  teachers  themselves  in  the 
Normal  school,  in  their  own  classes,  to  exemplify  this  process  and 
make  clear  the  order  of  progression  in  doing  it  for  the  pupil,  so  that 
definiteness  and  clearness  and  proper  relation  between  the  parts  may 
exist  in  the  pupil's  mind,  and  that  by  this  exercise  there  will  be  devel- 
oped a  power  which  will  enable  the  pupil  the  better  to  do  this  for  him- 
self. 

I  would  answer  specifically  that  we  should  hope,  before  the  end  of 
the  Normal  school  course  is  reached,  that  the  student  would  have  de- 
veloped this  power.  And  now  the  question  comes — How  early  may  that 
be  developed?  There  are  several  people  here  who  can  give  you  some  in- 
formation on  that.  There  are  several  people  here  who  began  doing 
this  work  two  years  ago  for  the  first  time,  some  of  whom  have  been 
teaching  a  long  time,  and  I  think  that  if  they  were  to  be  heard  from 
they  would  say  that  they  did  not  find  it  an  easy  thing  to  do,  and  that 
they  thought  they  had  been  doing  this,  and  when  they  really  did  un- 
dertake it  definitely  and  closely,  they  found  that  there  had  been  a 
vagueness  and  incompleteness  in  their  former  woVk. 

I  have  tested,  as  a  number  of  people  here  have,  thousands  of  teachers 
in  this  state,  and  I  have  put  them  to  the  test  of  their  capacity  to  do- 
just  the  thing  that  Prof.  Hardy  suggests,  that  of  determining  exactly 
what  the  pupil* knows,  and  I  have  even  found  people  who  had  been 
teaching  for  a  number  of  years  who  were  not  able  to  do  this  rightly. 
Shall  we  undertake  to  do  it  for  our  classes  and  develop  that  habit  in 
those  pupils  and  then  exercise  them  in  the  doing  of  it?  I  should  have- 
specific  exercises  for  these  Normal  school  students  in  doing  exactly 
what  I  am  asking  here. 

Mr.  Emery — And  apply  those  principles  in  the  doing  of  it. 

Mr.  Hutton — I  am  glad  that  question  was  asked  and  answered.  Am 
I  right  in  this,  that  when  we  have  trained  our  pupils  so  that  they  may 
themselves  determine  the  purpose  and  these  other  fundamentals  here,, 
we  are  not  even  then  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  doing  it? 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


FUNDAMENTAL   QUESTIONS. 

TO  WHAT  EXTENT,  WHERE,  AND  FOR  WHAT  PURPOSES  SHOULD  THE  FOREGOING 
FUNDAMENTALS   BE   APPLIED   IN    NORMAL    SCHOOL   WORK? 

L.  D.  HARVEY,  State  Superintendent. 
(Copyrighted.) 

If  what  I  have  stated  thus  far  is  correct  this  question  answers  itself. 
If  in  the  Normal  school  anything  is  learned  or  done  for  and  in  the  reci- 
tation by  the  students  and  because  of  the  teacher,  then  if  that  which  is 
so  learned  or  done  is  what  ought  to  be  learned  or  done,  and  if  it  is  so 
learned  or  done  when  it  should  be,  and  in  the  order  it  should  be.  then 
these  fundamentals  must  be  applied  at  every  step  in  determining  what 
shall  be  so  learned  or  done  and  the  order  of  the  learning  or  doing. 

If  in  the  Normal  school  many  things  are  learned  or  done  which  it 
is  unnecessary  to  learn  or  do,  or  if  not  learned  or  done  at  the  proper 
time  or  in  the  proper  order,  then  it  is  because  these  fundamentals  are 
ignored  or  not  skillfully  applied. 

If  teachers  are  trained  in  applying  these  fundamentals  until  they 
have  become  skillful  in  so  doing,  then  by  their  application  of  them 
they  become  able  to  determine  whether  they  are  teaching  or  requiring 
students  to  learn  many  things  which  are  unnecessary,  or  out  of  place 
when  taught  or  learned,  and  so  able  to  secure  the  necessary  results  in 
less  time,  with  less  work  by  both  teacher  and  student.  They  also  pre- 
sent better  ideals  of  correct  teaching  to  the  student,  and  in  so  much 
as  what  he  is  required  to  learn  or  do  is  essential  and  better  organized 
and  related,  he  is  better  trained  and  therefore  is  better  prepared  to 
train  others.  I  know  that  my  own  experience  as  a  teacher  in  the  Nor- 
mal school  and  as  an  institute  conductor,  in  consciously  applying  these 
fundamentals  has  resulted  in  the  elimination  of  much  which  I  had 
been  requiring,  in  the  better  organization  and  arrangement  of  what 
was  required  as  a  result  of  their  application,  with  greater  clearness  of 
thought  and  comprehension  of  subject  matter  by  the  students,  and  a 
considerable  saving  of  time  for  them  and  for  myself.  It  has  also  re- 
sulted in  all  I  have  been  claiming  in  the  way  of  better  ideals,  stand- 
ards, and  training.  I  know  further,  that  as  I  have  observed  the  con- 
scious and  skillful  application  of  these  fundamentals  by  others,  either 
in  the  school  or  in  the  institute,  similar  results  have  followed  from 
their  efforts  in  this  direction.  I  know  further,  tnat  as  I  have  observed 
unskillful  work  by  teachers  and  institute  conductors,  resulting  in  con- 
fusion of  thought,  in  lack  of  definiteness  in  effort  or  results,  in  waste 
of  time  and  loss  of  interest,  it  has  resulted  much  more  frequently  from 
a  lack  of  skilled  effort  in  applying  these  fundamentals  in  the  daily  de- 
termination of  what  the  students  were  to  learn  or  to  do,  than  from  a 
lack  of  skill  in  the  method  of  the  "how." 

A  teacher  may  show  skill  in  the  way  he  does  a  piece  of  work  because 
his  method  of  the  "how"  may  be  good  and  still  the  work  may  be  a  com- 
plete waste  of  time  because  it  is  not  worth  doing,  or  is  done  at  a  time 
when  it  bears  no  proper  relation  to  other  things  done,  and  so  has  lit- 
tle lasting  value.  One  of  the  most  just  criticisms  upon  our  modern 


FUNDAMENTAL  QUESTIONS.  -tf 

teaching  is  that  so  much  is  taught  that  is  not  worth  the  teaching,  and 
so  much  time  is  wasted  upon  things  which  the  pupil  already  knows 
or  can  do,  and  so  much  more  time  is  wasted  in  trying  to  have  pupils 
master  what  they  are  not  prepared  at  the  time  to  master. 

I  believe  that  the  application  of  these  fundamentals  will  remove  the 
cause  for  these  criticisms.  I  think  I  appreciate  as  clearly  as  any  one 
that  there  are  other  things  of  importance  in  teaching  besides  these 
four  propositions.  I  make  no  claims  for  them  which  imply  an  ignor- 
ing of  the  other  important  facts  in  skillful  teaching,  but  I  believe  that 
for  the  Normal  school  teacher,  as  well  as  for  every  other  teacher  who 
would  master  the  art  of  teaching,  it  is  essential  for  success  that  he 
shall  master  first  the  fundamentals  of  his  art,  and  if  these  are  funda- 
mentals then  we  can  not  too  strongly  insist  that  they  shall  be  under- 
stood and  applied. 

While  as  I  have  said,  this  is  true  of  the  Normal  teacher  as  of  every 
other  teacher,  it  must  be  said,  further,  that  it  is  of  more  importance 
to  his  success  than  to  any  other  teacher,  because  he  is  not  only  teach- 
ing subjects,  but  he  is  teaching  and  training  his  students  to  teach 
others,  which  is  an  added  demand.  He  is  not  simply  teaching  others 
to  teach  the  subjects  he  is  teaching  them,  to  others  like  themselves, 
but  he  is  teaching  them  to  teach  other  subjects  to  others  unlike  them- 
selves in  attainments,  capacity,  and  interests.  A  student  who  becomes 
a  teacher  unconsciously  absorbs  much  of  the  method  of  his  teacher  and 
either  consciously  or  unconsciously  attempts  to  apply  it  in  his  teach- 
ing. He  too  often  fails  to  recognize  that  his  teacher's  method  was 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  students  altogether  different  in  maturity  and 
power  from  his  pupils. 

The  Normal  school  teacher  must  of  necessity  do  such  work  as  will 
give  his  students  a  grip  on  the  fundamentals  in  teaching  in  such  a  way 
that  they  can  apply  them  to  the  needs  of  their  pupils  instead  of  becom- 
ing thoughtless  imitators. 

We  can  not  attempt  to  deal  with  every  phase  of  the  art  of  teaching 
during  this  week,  and  in  determining  what  phases  should  be  considered 
I  have  thought  it  wise  to  focus  attention  closely  at  the  very  outset  upon 
the  fundamentals.  To  paraphrase  a  profound  truth  uttered  centuries 
ago, — 

Seek  ye  first  the  fundamentals  in  the  art  of  teaching,  and  all  other 
things  shall  be  added. 


TO  WHAT  EXTENT  DO  THESE  FUNDAMENTALS  FURNISH  A  UNIFYING  BASIS  FOB 
THE  PROFESSIONAL  WORK  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS? 

If  they  are  fundamental,  the  recognition  of  their  character,  and  their 
application  by  all  teachers  in  the  Normal  schools  will  put  the  entire 
work  of  the  schools  upon  a  common  basis.  No  sounder  basis  for  pro- 
fessional work  can  oe  found  than  this,  because  it  is  fundamental. 

It  affords  an  opportunity  for  students  to  see  in  every  recitation,  un- 
der every  teacher  one  common  basis  of  work,  one  common  standing 
ground.  They  see  how  these  propositions  are  applied  by  different 
teachers  to  different  subjects  in  different  classes,  until  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  course  to  them.  They  see  that  here  at  least  the  work  in  the 

2 


18  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

strictly  professional  classes  is  re-inforced  by  every  other  teacher,  no« 
matter  what  he  is  teaching.  The  strictly  professional  work  is  then 
seen  to  have  some  force  outside  of  the  particular  class  in  which  it  is 
done.  As  it  is  now,  much  of  the  work  that  is  so  carefully  and  labor- 
iously done  in  the  strictly  professional  classes  is  never  heard  of  or 
thought  of  outside  these  classes.  In  a  professional  school  where  the 
sole  purpose  is  to  train  teachers  there  can  be  no  justification  of  such  a 
condition.  Every  teacher  should  do  something  more  than  teach  well 
if  he  is  to  teach  in  a  professional  school  where  the  purpose  is  to  train, 
teachers.  If  he  do  nothing  more,  he  should  do  nothing  in  the  profes- 
sional school.  His  place  is  in  another  kind  of  school. 

What  more  shall  he  do?  I  take  it  that  this  is  what  should  be  done 
by  every  teacher  who  is  teaching  what  may  be  called  the  non-profes- 
sional subjects.  He  should  show  in  his  own  work  a  recognition  on 
his  part  of  normal  processes  in  teaching,  based  upon  normal  processes 
in  thinking.  Not  only  should  he  sliow  that  in  his  work,  but  he  should 
take  occasion  to  make  his  pupils  see  that  that  is  what  he  is  doing,  so- 
thai  they  shall  become  conscious  of  the  fact  that  what  was  taught  in 
the  pedagogy  class,  or  the  psychology  class,  or  in  the  practice  teaching, 
is  practiced  by  the  teacher,  so  far  as  the  fundamentals  go,  in  every  de- 
partment of  the  Normal  school.  So  that  when  a  student  comes  from 
a  professional  class  to  a  class  in  any  other  subject,  he  shall  find  some- 
thing there  to  deepen  the  impression  made  of  the  work  in  that  profes- 
sional class,  to  re-inforce  that  impression,  to  help  the  supervisor  of 
practice  and  the  critic  teacher  when  they  undertake  to  get  these  pupils 
to  do  work  on  sound  pedagogic  bases.  If  that  is  left  out,  it  seems  to- 
me we  are  leaving  out  an  important  phase  of  the  work  which  should 
be  done  in  every  Normal  school  by  every  teacher. 

And  I  want  to  say  further,  that  I  believe  the  best  professional  work 
that  it  is  possible  to  do  in  a  Normal  school  is  the  work  done  in  the  aca- 
demic classes  under  these  conditions,  because  there  theory  and  practice 
go  hand  in  hand.  Theory  is  tested  by  practice  at  that  moment,  and 
practice  is  judged  by  theory.  Put  the  theory  in  the  northeast  corner, 
in  room  40,  for  the  first  ten  weeks,  and  it  hardly  ever  gets  out  of  that 
room  tne  other  thirty  weeks,  and  I  appeal  to  the  people  who  are  re- 
sponsible for  the  practice  teaching  if  this  is  not  true,  if  they  do  not 
feel  that  there  should  be  more  re-inforcement  for  the  work  they  are  do- 
ing in  every  department  of  the  school. 

Now,  if  what  I  have  been  saying  this  morning  in  my  discussion  as 
to  whether  these  four  propositions  are  fundamental,  is  true,  then  it 
seems  to  me  that  these  fundamentals  ought  to  be  recognized  and  prac- 
ticed by  every  teacher  in  the  Normal  school.  As  I  said  before,  the 
work,  so  far  as  these  fundamentals  are  concerned,  should  be  upon  a 
common  basis.  Take  plans  that  are  prepared  for  the  practice  work 
not  upon  some  fundamental  basis  (and  excellent  plans  may  be  pre- 
pared) and  tell  me  where  the  student  ever  finds,  as  he  goes  from  room 
to  room  and  from  teacher  to  teacher,  anything  in  the  plans  of  the 
teachers  under  whom  he  is  working  today  that  has  any  relation  or  any 
likeness  to  the  plan  which  he  made  out  last  night  to  submit  to  the  prac- 
tice teacher.  Answer  me  this, — whether  it  is  not  true  that  the  stu- 
dents, as  they  go  out  from  the  strictly  professional  classes  to  other 
classes  fail  to  find  such  a  re-inforr.ement  of  the  professional  work  as  is 


FUNDAMENTAL  QUESTIONS.  19 

desirable,  unless  some  common  fundamental  basis  for  work  in  all 
classes  has  been  adopted  and  is  used.  The  teacher  may  have  been  do- 
ing good  teaching,  but  does  this  question  come  to  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent?— "I  wonder  what  have  been  the  mental  processes  of  my  teacher 
as  he  planned  this  recitation.  I  wonder  whether  they  have  any  rela- 
tion to  my  mental  processes  in  planning  for  my  practice  class  under 
the  direction  of  the  supervisor  of  practice."  I  believe  that  when  these 
student  teachers  come  to  face  this  proposition — -"What  am  I  to  do  for 
this  class  tomorrow?"  if  it  is  made  clear  in  the  field  of  science,  of  liter- 
ature, of  English,  in  the  languages,  in  mathematics, — in  every  depart- 
ment of  the  Normal  school  work, — that  there  are  certain  fundamentals, 
just  as  applicable  in  one  case  as  in  another,  the  close  application  of 
them,  involving  critical  analysis  of  the  work  of  the  teachers,  will  insure 
better  results  in  the  student's  work.- 

I  believe  that  if  this  is  done  so  .that  the  student  will  see  that  in  arith- 
metic, in  grammar,  in  literature,  in  geometry,  in  music,  in  drawing,  in 
German  and  in  Latin,  there  is  a  common  basis  in  the  preparation  of 
what  is  to  be  taught  and  what  is  to  be  assigned,  and  if  he  sees  it 
worked  out  in  this  subject  by  this  teacher  today,  and  by  another  teacher 
in  another  subject  tomorrow,  etc.,  from  day  to  day  and  week  to  week 
there  comes  a  re-inforcement  from  every  side  that  helps  him  in  his 
work  of  planning  for  his  practice  class  and  in  the  carrying  out  of  that 
plan. 

Now,  if  that  is  true,  there  is  at  least  one  common  basis  that  we  may 
work  upon,  and  there  may  be  others.  As  I  said  before,  we  do  not  ex- 
pect to  solve  all  the  problems  this  week. 

I  have  already  indicated  that  one  of  the  purposes  of  the  Normal 
school  is  to  train  pupils  to  study.  I  want  to  go  over  that  again  briefly. 

If  your  experience  is  like  mine  (covering  thirteen  years  of  Normal 
school  work)  you  have  discovered  that  one  of  the  greatest  needs  of 
your  pupils  is  a  knowledge  of  good  methods  of  study.  They  have  to 
be  trained  to  study  to  get  the  best  results,  and  if  we  acquire  an  art  by 
the  practice  of  it,  and  if  for  economical  and  effective  practice  we  need 
to  know  the  necessary  steps  and  their  order,  then  it  seems  to  me  that; 
this  kind  of  work  with  the  pupils  puts  in  place  of  vagueness  and  in* 
definiteness  (which  must  exist  without  it),  definiteness,  accuracy  and!' 
clear  thinking  upon  the  part  of  the  pupils,  and  that  you  can  thus  get 
the  training  which  is  needed  to  develop  in  them  a  mastery  of  the  art  of 
study. 

We  have  volumes  written  on  the  training  of  the  apperceptive.  It  is 
an  important  topic.  We  all  know  what  it  means.  But  I  want  to  call 
your  attention  to  this  fact,  that  it  is  a  great  deal  more  important  to- 
get  a  pupil  to  apperceive  than  it  is  to  talk  to  him  about  what  appercep- 
tion is.  I  have  read  a  great  many  books  on  apperception,  but  I  have* 
never  yet  read  one  which  gave  me  the  slightest  suggestion  as  to  how 
I  could  go  to  work  to  determine  definitely  whether  the  pupils  had  the* 
necessary  apperceptive  mass  to  do  the  work;  and,  secondly,  if  they  did 
not  have  it,  how  I  was  to  go  to  work  to  see  that  they  did  have  it. 

Proposition  II  demands  that  you  shall  determine  for  yourself  in  every 
case  what  is  the  apperceptive  material  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
reaching  of  a  given  end. 

I  want  to  call  your  attention  to  a  second  fact, — that  the  third  prop- 


20  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

osition,  that  is:  "What  of  the  things  which  must  be  known  or  done 
does  the  pupil  now  know  or  can  he  now  do?"  applied  successfully  de- 
termines definitely  and  accurately  what  the  apperceptive  mass  of  the 
pupil  now  is  and  what  further  apperceptive  material  he  has  yet  to  ac- 
quire. So  then  these  propositions  become,  if  applied,  a  basis  for  uni- 
fied, definite  work  in  this  field  of  apperception. 

Tell  me,  if  you  will,  any  better  way,  any  other  way,  by  which  it  is 
possible  to  determine  what  is  necessary  in  the  preparation  of  the  pupil 
for  the  mastery  of  his  lesson. 

On  practice  teaching  I  have  already  said  something,  but  I  want  to 
«ay  a  little  more. 

If  in  the  planning  of  the  work,  which  I  take  it  is  required  in  all  Nor- 
mal schools,  the  student  in  the  practice  class  shall  be  trained  thus  to 
organize  what  he  has  to  teach,  with  his  particular  class  in  a  particular 
subject  under  given  conditions,  then  you  have  as  a  basis  for  the  plan- 
ning something  that  is  absolutely  fundamental.  There  are  other  ways 
-of  planning,  but  note  this — if  you  have  a  basis  that  is  fundamental  and 
therefore  necessary,  and  if  in  addition  to  requiring  the  work  of  the 
[practice  teachers,  the  planning  for  the  recitation  in  every  department 
••of  the  Normal  school  by  every  teacher  is  put  upon  this  basis,  then 
-every  recitation  becomes  a  definite  aid  to  that  pupil  who  is  undertak- 
ing to  plan  and  organize  his  work  definitely  for  his  practice  teaching. 
If,  in  the  recitations  conducted  by  the  regular  teachers  in  what  we 
•call  the  academic  subjects  in  the  Normal  school,  the  teacher  puts  before 
his  students  the  plan  of  work  which  he  has  been  pursuing  and  which 
:he  purposes  to  pursue  through  the  coming  week;  shows  them  what 
were  his  mental  processes,  what  the  order  of  procedure  in  his  mind  in 
the  organization  of  his  work  for  that  recitation,  is  it  not  clear  that 
there  would  be  a  re-inforcement  of  the  work  which  the  supervisor  of 
practice  is  requiring  of  the  pupils?  If  that  be  done  in  another  and 
another  and  another  class,  will  there  not  come  out  of  it  for  these  stu- 
dents before  they  leave  the  Normal  school  that  which  I  have  said  was 
the  purpose  of  the  work, — a  habit  of  thought  that  will  give  them  a 
rfundamental  basis  upon  which  to  build  in  a  logical  and  related  manner? 

The  teachers  outside  of  the  professional  classes  are  apt  to  have  no 
Interest  in  what  the  professional  teachers  are  doing.  They  say,  "I  do 
not  teach  that.  That  is  not  my  business.  My  business  is  something 
•else."  I  take  it  that  this  is  a  misconception  of  the  Normal  school 
uacher's  business.  If  he  were  teaching  in  a  college  or  in  a  high  school 
•or  university  that  might  be  true.  But  here  he  is  teaching  as  a  member 
•of  a  Normal  school  faculty,  whose  united  purpose  is  to  train  teachers. 
If  in  addition  to  teaching  his  special  subject  he  can  so  bring  in  these 
fundamentals  and  give  his  students  practice  in  applying  them  and  an 
opportunity  to  criticize  the  teacher's  modes  of  applying  them,  these 
students  secure  a  mastery  of  these  fundamentals  which  I  do  not  believe 
can  be  gotten  in  any  other  way.  I  have  seen  the  results  of  this  kind 
of  work.  I  have  seen  students  in  the  first  year  of  the  Normal  school 
tinder  this  regime  arranging  more  systematic,  more  logical  lesson  plans 
than  I  have  seen  students  in  the  middle  of  the  senior  year  doing,  where 
this  plan  was  not  followed.  This  was  because  they  had  been  having, 
this  work  in  every  department  of  the  school  and  there  came  to  be  such 
a  re-inforcement  from  every  point  that  the  habit  of  thought  came  to 
be  developed  which  resulted  in  correct  practice. 


FUNDAMENTAL  QUESTIONS.  21 

As  I  said  at  the  outset,  what  we  want  first  is  the  development  of  a 
habit  of  thought  so  that  we  shall  unconsciously  do  this  work.  Mark 
this:  While  we  may  be  unconsciously  doing  these  things,  and  many 
teachers  are  and  every  teacher  should  be,  that  is  not  enough  in  a  Nor- 
mal school.  They  must  be  brought  into  the  consciousness  of  these  stu- 
dents somewhere  else  than  in  room  B  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
building  and  at  some  other  time  than  in  the  first,  second  or  third  quar- 
ter; until  they  come  to  see  that  what  is  being  done  by  the  teacher  is 
or  is  not  in  accordance  with  what  is  fundamentally  correct;  until  they 
come  to  have  skill  in  the  preparation  of  their  own  work  and  in  the  ap- 
plication of  these  fundamentals. 


HOW  CAN  THE  ACQUISITION  OF  THE^E  FUNDAMENTALS  BE  SECUEED? 

If  what  I  have  been  saying  is  correct,  if  it  be  true  that  every  teacher 
of  an  academic  subject  has  a  duty  to  perform  from  a  professional  stand- 
point (and  if  it  is  not  true  we  ought  to  know  it,  and  if  it  is  true  we 
ought  to  accept  it),  then  the  next  question  is,  "What  shall  we  do  in 
order  that  this  duty  may  be  performed?" 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  have  every  teacher  in  the  Normal 
school,  from  the  president  to  the  kindergartner,  plan  his  work  in  the 
recitation  upon  these  fundamentals.  At  the  outset,  each  teacher  should 
take  some  one  subject,  not  everything  at  once,  and  begin  formulating 
what  is  demanded  in  propositions  I,  II,  and  III.  In  III,  what  he  may 
assume  from  his  knowledge  of  the  class,  and  then  in  his  class  the  test- 
ing to  find  if  his  assumptions  were  correct,  and  from  that  testing  reach 
the  conclusions  called  for  in  proposition  IV. 

The  principal  of  a  high  school  said  to  me  the  other  day:  "I  would 
like  to  know  whether  it  is  necessary  to  have  my  teachers  write  out  un- 
der these  propositions  everything  that  is  asked  for  from  day  to  day, 
and  whether  it  is  necessary  to  do  it  with  every  subject  they  are  teach- 
ing, or  whether  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  it  in  their  minds,  and 
if  that  is  all  that  is  necessary,  how  shall  I  find  out  whether  it  is  in  their 
minds?"  I  thought  that  was  a  very  pertinent  question.  Now,  keep  in 
mind  what  I  said  to  you.  The  writing  is  no  essential  part  of  the  plan- 
It  is  simply  a  process  of  training, — merely  a  device  for  training.  Let 
the  teacher  take  just  one  subject  and  work  out  his  plans  on  that  until 
he  has  acquired  some  skill  in  doing  it;  until  he  can  do  it  easily.  It 
will  not  be  easy  at  first.  Then  let  him  take  another  subject  where  the 
material  is  different, — requiring  a  different  bo^y  of  thought, — different 
organization.  Let  him  work  on  that  until  he  has  acquired  skill  in  or- 
ganizing his  lesson  plan.  When  that  is  acquired,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
write  out  plans  in  detail  daily. 

Now,  you  may  say  to  me,  as  others  have  said — "I  have  always  done 
that."  Some  others  have  said — "I  thought  I  had  done  it,  but  I  find  out 
that  I  have  not."  Some  others  said  that  they  had  done  it,  and  I  found 
on  observing  their  work  in  the  recitation  that  they  had  not. 

I  have  examined  hundreds  of  plans  written  by  the  best  teachers  in 
the  State  of  Wisconsin  outside  of  the  Normal  schools, — one  hundred 
and  eighty  this  spring  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  last  spring,  per- 
sons in  attendance  at  the  institute  conductors'  schools,  and  I  have 
talked  with  high  school  principals,  city  superintendents,  teachers  in 


22  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Normal  schools  and  elsewhere.  I  know  what  they  said  this  work  did 
for  them  and  their  experience  confirms  my  experience,  observation,  and 
judgment  as  to  the  value  of  this  plan  of  work.  When  the  Normal 
school  teacher  has  acquired  some  skill  in  planning  work  for  his  recita- 
tions in  accordance  with  these  fundamentals,  I  would  have  him  plan  a 
week's  work  in  advance  in  a  subject,  and  then  at  some  time  during  the 
week,  take  such  a  portion  of  a  recitation  period  as  might  be  necessary 
to  put  before  his  class  his  week's  plan,  and  to  explain  his  mode  of  pro- 
cedure in  making  it.  He  should  invite  the  criticism  of  the  class  upon 
the  plan  as  presented,  and  should  answer  inquiries  as  to  points  not 
understood. 

Some  of  the  best  work  I  have  seen  done  in  the  Normal  schools  was 
the  criticism  of  the  teacher's  plan  by  the  pupils  in  his  class.  They 
criticised  good-naturedly  and  in  a  pleasant  way  and  each  was  helping 
the  other. 

I  would  put  every  practice  teacher  upon  this  basis  in  planning  his 
work  so  far  as  determining  what  is  to  be  done.  Then  the  work  which  he 
is  planning  today  interests  him  in  the  plan  of  the  teacher  of  arithmetic, 
of  geography,  of  history,  or  of  literature,  as  he  goes  from  room  to  room 
and  meets  those  teachers.  He  is  looking  to  his  academic  teachers  to 
get  some  help  in  his  professional  work.  And  if  these  teachers  are  do- 
ing this  work  skillfully,  he  is  not  looking  in  vain.  He  does  not  get 
merely  an  imitative  process  of  work  adapted  to  mature  minds,  which 
he  attempts  to  impose  upon  the  immature  second  and  third  grade 
pupils. 

In  further  answer  to  the  question  as  to  how  to  make  these  funda- 
mentals a  basis  for  unifying  the  professional  work,  I  would  say  this 
work  must  be  supervised.  The  plans  prepared  by  the  teachers  in  the 
Normal  school  should  be  submitted  to  some  one  or  more  persons  skill- 
ful in  determining  whether  they  have  been  properly  made.  I  know 
from  experience  that  one  who  has  had  practice  and  has  skill  in  this 
will  be  able  to  render  very  effective  assistance  to  others. 

Unless  the  work  is  carefully  supervised,  especially  at  the  outset,  you 
will  get  what  some  fear, — mere  formalism;  you  fail  to  get  a  definite 
statement  of  aim;  a  proper  formulation  of  what  is  essential,  what  must 
be  known;  you  fail  to  get  a  proper  test  to  determine  what  has  yet  to  be 
known  or  aone.  But  with  suggestions  and  careful  and  kindly  criticism 
and  guidance,  skill  is  developed  and  the  value  of  the  work  is  realized. 

Before  beginning  practice  teaching,  students  should  receive  training 
in  making  lesson  plans.  This  training  should  be  begun  before  the  reg- 
ular work  in  observatiojj.  is  undertaken,  so  that  students  in  observing 
work  in  the  model  school  may  have  an  intelligent  view  of  the  plan  ar- 
ranged by  the  teacher  whose  work  is  being  observed.  The  earlier  in 
the  course  students  come  to  understand  this  mode  of  preparing  plans 
for  work  the  better,  for  then  they  will  be  better  able  to  understand  the 
plans  of  the  teachers  of  academic  subjects. 

Let  me  recur  to  the  first  question,  namely:  — 

"To  what  extent  do  these  fundamentals  form  a  unifying  basis  for  the 
professional  work  in  the  Normal  school?" 

They  furnish  a  unifying  basis  so  far  as  the  determination  of  what 
is  to  be  taught  in  any  given  subject  by  any  teacher  is  concerned,  and 
no  further.  That  is  all  I  claim.  As  I  said  to  you  at  the  outset,  the 


DISCUSSION  OF  FUNDAMENTALS. 


23 


"what"  comes  before  the  "how."  This  is  fundamentally  essential,  and 
if  we  can  make  the  fundamental  a  unifying  basis,  it  seems  to  me  we 
have  started  right.  Some  time  later  on  we  may  be  able  to  take  up  the 
large  question  of  the  "how,"  and  find  some  unifying  basis  there  upon 
which  we  can  work.  What  would  be  the  result?  I  have  already  indi- 
cated what  I  think  would  be  the  result.  I  believe  we  should  get  a  bet- 
ter professional  spirit  in  the  school.  There  would  be  such  a  re-inforce- 
ment  of  the  professional  work  now  done  as  we  have  never  yet  seen,— 
a  re-inforcement  that  would  come  from  every  teacher  of  academic  sub- 
jects and  would  bring  them  in  closer  touch  with  the  professional  side 
of  their  work.  These  are  the  results  that  I  wish  to  see.  I  think  that 
we  should  see  the  students  developing  a  power  which  they  do  not 
always  now  have, — a  power  to  organize  on  a  fundamental  basis  that 
which  they  are  to  do  with  their  pupils. 

I  want  to  say  to  you  that  all  over  Wisconsin,  in  the  high  schools  and 
elsewhere,  there  are  scores  of  teachers  doing  this  kind  of  work;  there 
are  boards  looking  for  teachers  and  superintendents  looking  for 
teachers  who  can  do  this  kind  of  work.  I  can  name  a  dozen  cities  in 
this  state  where  the  work  is  upon  just  this  basis.  I  can  name  a.  dozen 
counties  in  this  state  where  the  county  superintendents  are  undertak- 
ing to  have  this  work  done  and  are  getting  it  done  by  the  teachers  in 
the  district  schools.  I  have  had  sent  to  me  scores  of  the  plans  which 
these  district  school  teachers  have  made.  For  two  years  we  have  put 
the  entire  institute  work  of  the  state  upon  this  basis  so  far  as  the  de- 
termination of  the  "what"  is  concerned.  If  we  can  go  on  with  this 
work  in  the  Normal  schools,  the  result  will  be  a  better  unification  of 
the  work  in  our  educational  system  from  one  end  of  the  state  to  the 
other. 

I  want  to  express  the  hope  that  if  there  is  any  one  here  who  takes 
exception  to  these  propositions  and  to  the  discussion  which  has  been 
going  on  this  morning,  he  will  here  and  now  make  known  that  objec- 
tion and  his  reasons  for  it. 


DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Lynch — I  do  not  wish  to  enter  into  any  disagreement,  but  I  would 
like  to  ask  a  question  or  two  in  order  to  have  one  or  two  things  brought 
out. 

The  second  proposition  deals  only  with  the  logical  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject matter;  that  it  is  not  merely  what  the  pupil  must  know  or  the 
teacher  must  know  in  order  to  present  the  aim,  but  it  is  what  anyone 
must  know.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  purpose  of  the  text-book  is  largely 
to  do  that,  to  present  the  subject  in  logical  order,  and  I  would  like  to 
ask  the  Superintendent  of  what  value  he  considers  the  text-book  being 
used  under  proposition  II. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  would  like  to  answer  that  question  by  asking  another. 
Do  you  consider  the  logical  order  of  any  importance? 

Mr.  Lynch — Certainly. 

Mr.  Harvey — Do  you  consider  that  the  use  of  the  text-book  secures 
the  desired  result  under  existing  conditions? 

Mr.  Lynch — I  do  not  know  that  I  do.  I  do  not  know  that  I  can  an- 
swer that  question. 


24  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  'Harvey — That  must  be  answered. 

Mr.  Lynch — I  should  think  it  would  depend  upon  the  way  the  text- 
book was  used. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  am  with  you  there. 

Mr.  Salisbury — A  good  deal  on  the  way  the  text-book  is  made. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  want  to  answer  your  question  as  fairly  as  I  can.  It 
seems  to  me  that  my  second  question  brings  out  the  salient  point,  and 
if  so  and  as  a  result  of  a  good  many  years  of  observation,  I  have  reached 
the  conclusion  that  the  use  of  the  text-book  does  not  do  all  that  ought 
to  be  done.  That  while,  perhaps,  for  a  person  who  can  understand 
the  text-book  and  who  does  understand  it,  the  logical  order  or  develop- 
ment may  be  clear,  for  the  pupil  who  does  not  understand  it,  who  has 
not  mastered  it,  there  is  a  very  wide  divergence  as  to  conditions.  This 
plan  of  procedure,  as  I  understand  it,  and  I  have  experimented  a  little, 
is  the  best  possible  way  of  using  the  text-book  to  get  just  what  you  have 
in  mind. 

Mr.  Lynch — I  do  not  know  that  I  fully  understand  one  point  brought 
out.  Should  the  lesson  plan  as  made  out  by  the  teacher  be  given  to  the 
students  in  the  class  in  the  Normal  school  in  advance,  or  should  they 
first  be  required  to  attempt  a  plan  of  their  own  in  the  professional  re- 
view class,  for  illustration,  and  then  have  their  plans  criticized  by 
every  member  of  the  class  and  by  the  teacher,  resulting  in  the  end  in  a 
plan  of  what  the  teacher  would  have  given  them  in  the  first  place? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  it  is  a  good  plan  to  get  at  it  in  both  ways.  Say 
to  the  pupil:  "I  want  you  to  make  a  plan  now,  and  this  is  what  I 
want."  The  student  makes  it  and  it  is  a  total  failure.  Then  say  to  the 
pupil:  "I  will  put  into  your  hands  a  plan,"  and  the  fact  of  his  failure, 
perhaps,  has  aroused  his  interest  and  he  makes  an  effort  to  master  it. 

Mr.  Shutts — Would  it  be  possible  to  have  the  pupil  make  out  a  plan 
unless  it  be  upon  a  review  subject?  This  plan  must  fit  into  the  entire 
unit.  The  pupil  can  not  know  the  whole  unit. 

Mr.  Harvey — May  not  the  practice  teacher  make  a  plan? 

Mr.  Lynch — He  may  in  the  professional  review  class,  where  they  are 
supposed  to  know  the  subject  matter  pretty  well. 

Mr.  Sims — The  teacher's  plan  in  the  purely  academic  subjects  woull 
be  evident  to  the  pupils  from  the  very  start  in  the  Normal  school. 

Mr.  Harvey — How  do  you  know  that? 

Mr.  Sims — I  put  that  as  a  question.  Should  the  pupil  know  from 
the  start,  under  these  four  propositions,  in  the  purely  academic  sub- 
jects? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  so. 

Mr.  Sims — For  instance,  in  the  first  term  of  geometry  or  the  first 
term  of  history,  should  that  plan  be  evident  to  the  pupils? 

Mr.  Harvey — Most  assuredly.  That  is  practice  work.  That  is  the 
professional  side  of  the  work,  and  it  is  exemplified  not  only  in  his 
work  but  by  calling  the  attention  of  the  students  to  the  plan.  We  go 
into  the  observation  class  and  see  a  piece  of  work  and  in  order  to  judge 
of  it  wisely,  we  must  know  the  purpose  of  that  work.  And  these  stu- 
dents in  criticizing  that  work  do  so  in  the  light  of  the  pedagogical 
precedents  they  have  had.  They  are  doing  exactly  the  same  thing  in 
the  academic  classes.  Every  recitation  becomes  an  observation  class 
for  improvement  .along  certain  lines. 


DISCUSSION  OF  FUNDAMENTALS.  25 

Mr.  Adrian — I  understand  this  applies  to  the  practice  teacher  and 
also  to  the  student  in  doing  the  professional  review  work.  Will  it  ap- 
ply to  a  student  in  the  pursuit  of  a  new  subject? 

Mr.  Harvey — What  do  you  mean? 

Mr.  Adrian — I  mean  this:  Can  the  student  make  out  a  plan  for  him- 
self for  the  lesson  for  tomorrow  in  new  work?  * 

Mr.  Harvey — Not  until  he  has  mastered  the  work  for  tomorrow. 

Mr.  Adrian — Then  we  understand,  do  we,  that  these  plans  apply  first 
to  the  practice  teachers,  and  second  to  the  professional  review  students, 
and  not  to  the  mass  of  students? 

Mr.  Harvey — My  purpose  would  be  to  have  the  work  in  making  these 
plans  apply  first  to  the  president  of  the  institution;  second,  to  every 
other  teacher  in  the  institution,  and  before  any  such  work  were  done 
in  the  classes,  to  see  that  the  teachers  had  mastered  their  lessons. 

I  would  train  the  practice  teachers,  I  would  train  the  people  in  the 
professional  classes,  in  pedagogy,  in  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  to  make  lesson  plans  on  subjects  that  they  knew, 
simply  for  experiment  work  and  practice  in  plan  making.  I  would  re- 
quire the  practice  teachers  to  make  their  plans  for  their  work  on  this 
basis. 

Mr.  Perisho — Then  it  does  not  apply  to  the  student  in  the  pursuit  of 
a  new  subject? 

Mr.  Harvey — No,  sir.     He  cannot  do  it. 

Mr.  Young — I  wish  to  ask  one  further  question:  If  this  plan  is  to 
be  placed  before  the  students  as  a  teaching  outline,  does  it  not  more 
than  half  digest  his  food  for  him? 

Mr.  Harvey — My  observation  has  been  that  it  does  exactly  the  con- 
trary. It  puts  definiteness  and  conciseness  in  the  place  of  vagueness, 
inaccuracy  and  incompleteness. 

We  fool  ourselves  by  thinking  that  we  are  developing  power  when 
we  leave  a  thing  for  people  to  do  for  themselves  and  they  do  not  do 
it.  The  fact  of  leaving  it  to  them  does  not  develop  power.  The  power 
comes  in  doing  and  in  doing  thoroughly;  so  I  would  train  the  students 
at  the  outset  to  do  this  work  and  do  it  well. 

If  you  have  traveled  as  I  have  over  the  state  of  Wisconsin  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  and  have  seen  the  work  in  the  institutes,  you  have  found 
that  the  lack  of  power  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  who  are  in  these 
institutes  is  the  power  of  putting  anything  definitely  and  clearly,  and 
you  people  who  have  to  deal  with  students  in  the  Normal  school  know 
as  well  as  I  do,  that  there  is  the  same  condition  there.  You  know  that 
of  the  people  who  come  from  the  high  schools  not  one  in  ten  can  give 
you  half  a  dozen  rules  from  beginning  to  end, — a  straight,  clear  state- 
ment,— and  it  is  because  of  this  vagueness  and  indefiniteness  that  has 
been  allowed  by  the  teacher, — encouraged  by  the  teacher  perhaps. 

We  snail  have  to  stop.  I  believe  in  always  closing  promptly.  I 
shall  be  very  glad  to  have  this  discussion  followed  for  a  little  time 
this  afternoon,  if  it  is  desired. 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


MONDAY  AFTERNOON. 

Conductor  Harvey — Some  suggestions  and  questions  which  have  come 
;to  me  since  adjournment  this  morning  have  led  me  to  think  that  it  will 
be  well  to  devote  a  portion  of  the  afternoon  to  a  further  discussion  of 
this  morning's  topic.  A  few  questions  have  been  handed  in.  and  I 
shall  be  glad  to  have  you  formulate  more  and  drop  them  into  the  box 
here  at  our  first  recess,  and  we  will  take  time  to  discuss  these  ques- 
tions and  any  others  that  may  be  presented. 

I  want  to  urge  upon  those  here  to  use  the  utmost  freedom  in  asking 
questions,  in  stating  what  seem  to  you  to  be  objections,  or  difficulties  in 
the  plan.  Some  things  that  occur  to  one  of  you  may  occur  to  a  dozen 
others,  and  if  the  matter  is  brought  up  and  discussed,  the  discussion 
will  make  clear  or  modify  the  views  already  presented.  We  are  here 
for  the  purpose  of  free  discussion,  and  I  hope  you  will  avail  yourselves 
of  the  opportunity. 

I  want  to  say,  in  apology  perhaps,  that  a  question  asked  by  Professor 
Perisho  was  not  understood  by  myself,  and  my  answer  did  not  answer 
his  question.  I  understood  him  to  ask  whether  or  not  a  teacher  could 
.have  his  pupils  prepare  a  plan  for  the  new  recitation, — that  which  he 
had  not  had.  In  a  talk  with  him  later,  he  told  me  I  was  in  error. 
Professor  Perisho  had  this  in  mind:  In  the  organization  of  a  review 
lesson,  it  may  be  where  the  advance  is  indicated,  is  it  a  wise  thing  to 
ask  pupils,  so  far  as  possible,  to  formulate  what  is  to  be  known  in  order 
that  that  piece  of  knowledge  may  be  mastered?  Most  assuredly  yes. 
That  is  simply  an  application  of  just  what  I  was  discussing  this  morn- 
ing,— training  the  pupil  to  do  the  very  thing  as  a  pupil  which  he  must 
do  as  a  teacher.  There  is  no  question  as  to  its  value.  In  the  attempt 
to  do  that  with  a  new  lesson  there  is  just  one  limitation  to  be  put 
upon  it, — unless  the  content  of  that  lesson  is  in  the  pupil's  mind,  it  is  of 
-course  impossible  for  him  to  formulate  what  is  to  be  known.  Just  so 
far  as  that  is  there  he  may  formulate,  but  beyond  it  he  can  not  go.  In 
a  review,  he  has  that  in  his  mind  which  will  enable  him  to  do  this  very 
thing,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  exercises  possible.  It  is  the 
-very  thing  he  has  to  do  when  he  attempts  to  plan  his  first  lesson  for 
practice  teaching. 

The  Recitation. 

Taking  up  the  subject  of  the  recitation  this  afternoon,  it  is  not  my 
purpose  to  take  very  much  of  your  time,  but  to  give  you  opportunity  to 
discuss  the  subject  and  present  your  views.  After  we  have  disposed  of 
this  subject,  then  we  will  take  further  time  for  the  discussion  of  this 
morning's  topic. 

WHAT,  SHOULD   BE   DEMANDED   OF  THE   PUPIL   IN   THE   RECITATION? 
(Copyrighted.) 

I  shall  have  to  apologize  here,  I  think,  for  not  having  prepared  as 
definitely  and  as  clearly  as  I  would  like  to  have  done,  the  answers  to 
these  questions.  It  has  simply  been  a  physical  impossibility  to  get 


THE  RECITATION.  27 

time  to  do  it.     So  I  may  be  somewhat  rambling  in  what  I  have  to  say, 
but  pernaps  it  will  serve  to  open  the  discussion. 

There  are  two  or  three  points  that  I  have  jotted  down. 

First,  the  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  subject  in  hand.  That 
should  be  demanded  of  the  pupil  in  the  recitation.  That  is  a  funda- 
mental condition  for  getting  anything  out  of  the  recitation  or  under- 
standing what  is  treated  in  the  recitation,  for  the  correction  of  false 
or  erroneous  impressions  in  the  recitation,  and  for  the  reaching  of 
'dennite  and  correct  conclusions  in  the  recitation.  Now,  this  is  one  of 
the  things  which  cause  very  little  trouble  in  the  Normal  school,  but  the 
•students  who  are  training  to  become  teachers  find  it  a  very  serious 
problem  when  they  begin  teaching,  and  one  reason  why  I  have  put 
this  topic  upon  the  program  is  that  it  seems  to  me  that  something 
dennite  ought  to  be  done  in  the  training  of  those  students,  to  the  end 
that  they  shall  have  power  in  concentrating  the  attention  of  pupils 
under  them.  One  may  say:  "If  your  pupils  are  interested,  they  will 
concentrate  their  attention;"  but  what  often  grows  out  of  that  is  that 
the  recitation  is  made  the  place  to  interest  students,  not  in  the  subject 
matter  necessarily,  not  to  accomplish  a  definite  thing,  but  just  to  be 
interesting.  Anything  that  is  interesting  will  concentrate  attention. 
A  story  or  a  dozen  stories  will  interest;  an  organ  and  a  monkey  will 
interest;  any  number  of  things  will  interest,  and  you  and  I  have  seen 
recitations  where  there  was  no  other  apparent  purpose  than  to  enter- 
tain, nothing  definite  done  toward  a  given  end  because  of  this  effort 
to  interest  and  so  command  attention. 

It  seems  to  me  that  what  ought  to  be  in  the  teacher's  mind  in  this 
-effort  to  command  attention  is  definiteness  of  purpose  in  what  he  ex- 
pects to  get  out  of  the  recitation  first,  and  then  a  definite  plan  of  work 
in  his  own  mind  toward  the  realization  of  that  purpose  and  a  reason- 
ably close  adherence  to  that  plan.  Now,  if  that  purpose  is  clear  in  his 
mind,  if  he  has  set  something  for  his  pupils  to  do  in  which  he  be- 
lieves, and  has  made  clear  to  his  pupils  what  they  are  to  do,  then  he 
has  the  conditions  for  attention;  the  effort  to  arouse  interest  should 
always  be  within  the  field  of  the  purpose,  not  outside  of  it.  To  lug 
in  inconsequential,  immaterial  and  irrelevant  things  just  to  arouse  in- 
terest is  utterly  inexcusable.  The  teacher  needs  to  develop  the  power 
shaping  that  work*  as  to  demand  something  of  them, 
of  interesting  his  pupils  in  the  work  to  be  done,  and  that  means  so 

And  this  leads  to  the  second  point  which  I  have  here.  "There  should 
be  demanded  of  the  pupils  a  high  order  of  mental  activity  throughout 
the  entire  recitation."  You  and  I  have  seen  recitations  in  which  the 
major  part  of  the  class  were  exercising  no  mental  activity.  They  were 
simply  in  a  passive,  quiescent  state, — not  a  wave  of  trouble  passed 
over  their  peaceful  brows.  They  were  thinking  nothing  about  what 
was  going  on.  They  cared  nothing  about  what  was  going  on.  Now 
while  that  is  not  ordinarily  true  of  the  students  in  the  Normal 
school,  is  it  not  true  in  the  schools  which  they  go  out  to  teach 
often  times?  If  your  youthful  experiences  were  like  mine,  and  I  sus- 
pect that  we  had  about  the  same  experiences,  you  will  recall  that 
many  a  time  in  the  recitation  you  sat  there  in  a  passive  state,  oblivious 
of  what  was  going  on.  Your  thoughts  were  wool  gathering.  There 
might  have  been  a  line  of  mental  activity,  but  it  was  not  directed  to 
the  end  sought. 


28  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

If  that  is  one  of  the  difficulties  in  the  recitation  which  your  students 
are  going  to  meet,  then  it  becomes  an  essential,  it  seems  to  me,  to  call 
their  attention  to  it,  not  only  in  the  professional  class,  but  in  every 
other  class. 

Suppose  you  have  a  set  of  pupils  who  go  to  school  simply  because  they 
have  to  go  to  school,  and  whose  highest  ambition  is  to  get  out  of  the 
recitation  with  the  least  possible  trouble.  What  will  you  do  there? 
How  are  you  to  organize  your  work  so  as  to  command  the  attention  and 
give  the  largest  opportunity  for  work  by  the  greatest  number?  The 
teacher  who  makes  the  demand  upon  the  pupil  must  say  something 
more  than  "pay  attention."  "I  want  you  to  think  now."  There  comes 
the  question  "How  shall  I  secure  and  hold  the  attention  of  the  class  to 
the  worK  in  hand?"  That  is  one  of  the  questions  which  it  seems  to  me 
can  be  very  well  discussed  incidentally  by  every  teacher  in  the  Normal 
school,  and  that  the  discussion  will  be  helpful  I  know. 

Third — "The  student  shall  give  evidence  of  careful  preparation  of 
work,  such  preparation  to  be  shown  through  expression."  This  is  only 
another  way  of  stating  that  you  are  going  to  ask  the  pupil  to  recite. 
But  how  can  the  pupil  give  evidence  of  preparation  through  expression 
if  at  every  moment  he  is  interrupted  by  the  teacher  and  his  line  of 
thought  broken  up,  and  he  gets  to  thinking  about  something  else?  It 
seems  to  me  that  if  I  am  going  to  demand  of  him  that  he  shall  show 
the  quality  of  his  preparation  through  expression  in  one  form  or  an- 
other; it  may  be  written,  by  a  drawing  upon  the  blackboard,  or  it  may 
be  oral,  I  must  give  him  an  opportunity  to  meet  that  demand.  I  must 
let  him  understand  in  advance  that  that  is  expected  of  him  and  nothing 
short  of  that,  and  that  he  will  have  his  chance  when  he  comes  to  the 
recitation. 

Mr.  Rockwood — Beg  pardon  for  saying  that  for  the  nearly  six  years 
that  I  have  been  visiting  the  recitations  conducted  by  the  teachers  sit- 
ting here,  the  most  universal  fault  I  have  observed  lies  right  there. 
They  seemed  to  have  assigned  a  lesson  and. required  the  students  to 
come  to  the  recitation  with  due  preparation,  but  they  did  not  then 
give  the  students  a  fair  chance  to  show  what  they  had  done  and  what 
they  could  do,  without  interruption. 

Mr.  Harvey — Did  you  see  my  paper? 

Mr.  Rockwood — I  say  that  emphatically,  because  I  have  felt  it  so- 
keenly  for  five  years. 

Mr.  Harvey — It  is  suspiciously  like  the  next  thing  I  have  written 
here:  "The  expression  should  be  accurate,  complete,  definite  and  unin- 
terrupted." 

I  want  to  modify  that  a  little.  I  do  not  expect  that  the  pupil,  when 
he  stands  up  to  recite,  will  do  any  one  of  those  things  perfectly.  But 
that  is  what  he  is  to  aim  at.  That  is  not  what  we  are  going  to  get.  But 
we  are  going  to  come  nearer  to  getting  it  if  we  demand  it  and  insist 
upon  it  and  make  it  possible  for  him  to  do  it,  than  we  shall  if  we  da 
not  demand  it,  do  not  insist  upon  it,  and  make  it  impossible  for  him  to 
do  it. 

There  are  places  where  the  expression  should  be  accurate.  You  as- 
sign a  student  a  clause  in  the  Constitution  to  be  learned  and  recited. 
Will  any  recitation  serve  which  is  not  accurate?  If  it  is  a  statement  of 
a  mathematical  problem,  it  must  be  accurate  or  nothing.  If  inaccurate 
it  is  good  for  nothing.  If  it  is  possible  to  have  an  accurate  statement 


THE  RECITATION. 


made  and  learned,  and  if  that  has  been  assigned  as" a'lTdfT.  6Tthe  prepa- 
ration, then  an  accurate  and  complete  statement  should  be  demanded, 
should  it  not?  And  it  ought  to  be  insisted  upon,  not  simply  for  these 
students  themselves  in  their  preparation,  while  that  would  be  ample 
reason,  but  for  a  larger  reason  than  that, — for  the  establishment  of 
ideals  and  standards  of  what  they  are  to  do  in  making  demands  upon 
their  pupils.  The  statement  will  not  be  accurate  perhaps  when  the 
preparation  involves  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  pupil;  it  may  not  be 
complete;  it  may  not  be  definite  because  of  the  newness  of  the  subject. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  recitation  to  make  it  definite  and  to  make  it 
complete.  But  so  far  as  the  pupil  is  concerned,  he  has  a  right  to  make 
his  statement,  such  as  it  is,  without  interruption,  without  being 
switched  off  the  track  again  and  again.  Let  him  make  his  statement 
and  then  see  whether  that  statement  is  correct  and  complete,  see 
wherein  he  has  failed,  and  subsequently,  if  possible  (  and  it  ought  gen- 
erally to  be  possible)  get  a  full,  complete  and  accurate  statement  from 
him. 

"Whatever  definite  work  the  pupil  has  been  asked  to  prepare,  that 
he  should  be  held  responsible  for." 

If  preparation  has  not  been  made  as  requested,  the  pupil  should  be 
required  to  give  his  reasons  for  his  failure: 

I  know  some  students  in  a  higher  institution  than  a  Normal  school 
who  sometimes  "flunk,"  as  they  call  it.  And  I  have  sometimes  asked 
them,  "Did  the  teacher  ask  you  the  question  as  to  why  you*  had  not 
prepared,  whether  you  had  any  good  reason  why  you  had  not  prepared 
the  lesson?"  "Oh,  no,  he  never  asks  such  questions,  but  I  was  busy." 
"I  was  out  last  night."  "I  was  reading  an  interesting  book."  Let  that 
go  on  and  what  is  the  attitude  of  the  student?  Why,  it  is  that  he  is 
not  expected  to  be  responsible  in  the  recitation  for  the  work  assigned; 
that  he  may  or  may  not  do  it  as  he  pleases.  That  may  be  entirely 
proper  in  that  kind  of  an  institution.  It  may  be  entirely  proper  to  say 
to  those  people:  "Do  just  as  you  please.  The  responsibility  rests 
upon  you.  The  results  of  it  will  come  back  upon  you." 

But  I  take  it  that  in  the  Normal  school  and  on  down,  there  is  a  re- 
sponsibility a  little  larger  than  that  upon  the  teacher.  The  students 
are  younger  and  they  need  to  have  their  ideals  a  little  better  in  hand. 
They  need  to  have  standards  made  a  little  more  clear  and  pretty  firmly 
established.  I  submit  to  you  that  that  is  one  of  the  great  lessons  in  life 
to  teach.  When  these  people  go  out  from  the  school,  no  matter  what 
they  do,  when  they  come  into  the  activities  of  society  in  any  form 
whatever,  they  find  the  necessity  of  doing  what  ought  to  be  done; 
that  their  position  in  the  business  world,  or  in  the  professional  world, 
depends  upon  the  reputation  they  have  for  doing  the  thing  they  ought 
to  do  and  when  it  ought  to  be  done.  And  the  same  thing  is  true  as 
to  the  necessity  of  making  accurate  statements,  definite  statements.  I 
am  a  great  sufferer  in  my  lack  of  ability  to  make  a  definite  statement. 
I  have  realized  it  more  fully  the  last  two  weeks  than  ever  before  in 
my  life,  and  I  will  tell  you  how,  confidentially, — by  the  questions  that 
have  come  back  to  me  from  you  people  as  to  what  was  meant  and  what 
was  required  and  what  was  asked  for.  Why,  I  never  realized  as  clearly 
before  how  bad  my  training  had  been,  how  utterly  I  had  failed  in  try- 
ing to  make  a  thing  clear.  I  want  you  to  bear  with  me  for  that. 


30  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

But  take  the  lesson  home  to  your  students,  and  say  to  them  that  here 
is  a  man  who  has  to  confess  with  shame  that  his  early  training  does 
not  make  it  possible  for  him  to  put  a  statement  so  that  people  can  un- 
derstand it,  and  emphasize  to  them  the  fact  that  the  best  training  they 
can  get  in  the  school  is  the  training  which  will  develop  the  power  of 
making  people  understand. 

I  want  to  press  one  thing  further,  that  this  power  of  expressing 
definitely  and  clearly  what  is  in  the  mind  means  the  training  also  to  de- 
velop power  to  understand  what  another  means. 

Now  as  to  this  matter  of  holding  the  pupil  accountable  for  his  failure. 
He  may  have  a  very  excellent  reason,  and  if  he  presents  it,  do  not  blame 
him.  Simply  accept  it  without  question  and  try  to  make  conditions 
possible  so  that  his  misfortune  will  not  work  an  injury  to  him.  Do 
not  let  the  pupil  feel  that  if  it  has  been  impossible  for  him  to  prepare 
his  lessons  because  of  conditions  which  he  could  not  control,  that  he  is 
to  be  blamed.  It  is  unfortunate,  but  do  not  blame  him.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  failure  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  he  did  not  use 
the  opportunities  which  he  had,  make  it  clear  to  him  that  that  is  a 
serious  failure  and  that  it  ought  not  to  be  repeated,  much  less  become  a 
habit. 

We  should  demand  of  the  pupil  that  he  should  know  exactly  what 
he  is  to  prepare  for  the  next  recitation.  It  is  the  pupil's  business  to 
know  what  is  demanded  for  tomorrow.  It  is  the  teacher's  business  to 
present  it  so  that  he  can  know  what  is  to  be  prepared  for  tomorrow. 

These  are  some  of  the  demands.  I  do  not  mean  that  they  are  all,  but 
they  are  some  of  the  important  demands  which  it  seems  to  me  should 
be  made  upon  the  pupil. 

There  is  one  other,  and  that  was  suggested  this  morning,  I  think, 
in  a  question,  that  there  arises  in  the  recitation  a  condition  which 
necessitates  going  a  little  beyond  the  purpose,  a  little  outside  of  it. 
This  giyes  an  excellent  opportunity  for  thinking.  The  demand  should 
be  that  the  pupil  shall  do  some  thinking  here,  and  if  these  other  condi- 
tions of  attention  and  opportunity  are  furnished,  that  thinking  will 
follow. 

WHAT  SHOULD  BE  DEMANDED  OF  THE  TEACHER? 

First,  I  should  say  that  the  teacher  should  recognize  that  the  recita- 
tion is  to  be  made  by  the  pupil  and  not  by  the  teacher.  If  Prof.  Rock- 
wood  is  right  in  his  statement,  and  he  ought  to  know,  there  has  possi- 
bly been  some  failure  to  recognize  this;  and  if  Professor  Parker  is  right 
in  the  reports  which  he  brings  me  weekly  as  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions in  the  high  schools  of  the  state  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  er- 
rors, perhaps  one  of  the  most  serious  errors  that  he  observes.  The 
teacher  does  the  reciting.  The  teacher  puts  the  answer  in  the  form  of 
a  question  or  indicates  by  his  inflection  what  the  answer  is  to  be.  The 
pupil  would  get  it  right  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  time,  if  he  were  blind. 
Half  of  the  time  he  would  hit  it  without  a  bit  of  thinking.  There  is  a 
large  amount  of  that  going  on.  There  seems  to  be  more  of  it  than  we 
are  conscious  of  in  our  Normal  schools.  I  know  how  easy  it  is  to  get 
into  a  habit  of  this  kind.  I  know  how  delightful  it  is  for  the  teacher 
who  is  master  of  his  subject,  to  make  it  clear  to  his  pupils  by  doing  the- 


THE  RECITATION.  gj 

reciting.     He  wants  to  show  them  how  clear  it  is  to  him,  and  how  much 
he  knows  of  it. 

What  is  the  result  of  that?  The  student  very  soon  finds  that  he  is 
not  expected  to  do  much.  He  at  first  puts  an  hour  or  two  hours  of 
preparation  upon  his  recitation,  and  then  finds  he  does  not  have  a 
chance  to  talk  at  all.  He  cannot  present  what  he  has  done.  He  can- 
not show  that  he  has  put  thought  and  time  upon  it.  Very  soon  he  says, 
"What  is  the  use?  The  teacher  will  give  us  all  that  in  the  recitation 
anyhow."  There  are  times  when  that  is  what  the  teacher  ought  to  do. 
Unquestionably  there  are  times  when  that  is  the  proper  thing,  but  I  sub- 
mit that  there  ought  to  be  times  when  the  pupil  should  say  something; 
when  he  should  have  the  floor. 

Now,  my  suggestions  to  you  are:  First,  when  next  you  go  into  your 
schoolrooms  just  have  a  look  at  yourselves.  See  whether  you  are  doing 
most  of  the  reciting  or  not.  See  whether  you  are  giving  the  pupils  a 
chance  to  do  what  they  ought  to  do,  and  whether  you  are  demanding 
of  them  that  they  shall  do  what  they  ought  to  do. 

Second,  and  perhaps  this  is  a  restatement,  the  teacher  should  respect 
the  rights  of  the  pupil  to  show  what  he  has  done  in  preparation  for  the 
recitation;  it  should  be  put  as  a  demand  upon  him,  and  if  it  be  a  de- 
mand, then  he  has  a  right  to  show  what  he  has  done,  and  the  teacher 
can  do  no  less  in  fairness  than  respect  that  right. 

Third,  in  questioning  to  test,  the  teacher  should  confine  himself  to> 
work  assigned  or  to  work  previously  done.  I  want  to  limit  that.  I 
do  not  want  you  to  thing  for  a  moment  that  I  would  not  ask  a  ques- 
tion to  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  what  lies  beyond.  But  when  I  am 
dealing  with  the  subject  matter  of  the  recitation,  with  the  questioning 
to  test,  the  questioning  should  be  upon  what  the  pupil  has  been  asked 
to  prepare.  And  you  will  see  now  how  important  it  is  that  the  second 
proposition  which  we  discussed  this  morning  shall  have  been  worked 
out  in  the  teacher's  mind,  "What  things  must  he  know  or  do  to  reach 
this  end?"  That  guides  and  directs  the  teacher  in  his  questioning. 
One  of  the  best  exercises  I  ever  had  in  the  art  of  questioning  was 
many  years  ago  when  before  the  recitation  I  formulated  upon  paper 
the  questions  I  proposed  to  ask  during  the  recitation,  arranging  them 
in  logical  order  when  a  logical  relation  existed.  I  frequently  discov- 
ered in  the  recitation  that  the  answer  obtained  to  the  first  question 
necessitated  leaving  all  the  others  unasked  until  I  had  again  questioned 
the  pupil  and  brought  him  to  the  point  where  my  second  question  was 
the  proper  one;  or  perhaps  it  disclosed  the  fact  that  a  new  line  of 
questioning  was  necessary.  That  was  the  most  excellent  training  I 
ever  had  in  the  art  of  questioning,  because,  though  I  did  not  use  a 
single  question  after  the  first,  the  practice'  which  I  had  in  framing  that 
set  of  questions  in  logical  order  enabled  me  the  better  in  the  presence 
of  a  new  set  of  conditions  and  an  unexpected  answer,  to  frame  the  ques- 
tion which  ought  to  be  asked  next  and  which  had  to  be  asked  next;  and 
again  and  again  as  I  did  that  and  looked  at  my  questions,  I  made  the 
discovery  that  I  was  asking  for  something  which  I  had  no  right  to  ask 
for,  something  which  did  not  lie  in  the  content  of  that  lesson  and 
which  was  not  related  to  it,  and  so  that  question  was  stricken  out. 
And  that  kind  of  training  is  what  it  seems  to  me  we  need,  to  get  our- 
selves into  a  critical  attitude  toward  our  own  questioning.  As  I  have 
listened  to  questions  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state,  I  believe  I  am 


32  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

entirely  within  the  mark  when  I  say  that  three  fourths  of  the  questions 
for  testing  are  utterly  useless.  They  are  worse  than  useless.  They  are 
confusing.  If  they  have  any  effect  at  all,  they  lead  the  pupil  away  from 
the  thing  that  he  ought  to  be  going  toward. 

And  so  tEis  questioning  to  test  should  be  kept  sharply  within  proper 
lines,  the  lines  which  circumscribe  the  amount  of  work  to  be  prepared. 
This,  then,  demands  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher  careful  preliminary 
preparation.  Some  teachers  have  mastered  the  art  of  questioning,  and 
the  question  comes  just  as  it  ought  to  come,  at  the  right  time.  The 
more  one  has  studied  over  this  matter,  the  more  logically  one's  mind 
work3  and  the  better  his  form  of  question.  But  all  the  time  he  must 
keep  in  mind:  What  is  the  range  within  which  the  questions  shall 
be  put? 

The  questions  should  be  clear,  pointed  and  in  logical  order.  The 
question  designed  to  test  the  pupil  should  not  be  leading,  irrelevant,  or 
immaterial. 

Now  we  sometimes  put  in  a  leading  question  when  we  are  question- 
ing to  test,  that  is,  when  we  think  we  are.  The  moment  we  do  that  we 
have  changed  from  testing  to  teaching  or  suggesting,  and  here  the  lead- 
ing question  may  have  its  place.  It  may  be  that  we  have  discovered  a 
weak  place  and  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  teaching  a  little.  But  the 
teacher  ought  to  practice  in  the  discrimination  of  the  two  classes  of 
questions;  he  ought  to  be  able  to  so  analyze  his  work  that  he  will 
know  for  what  purpose  the  question  is  being  asked  and  whether  or  not 
it  is  the  proper  question  to  ask. 

A  leading  question  may  be  proper  for  certain  purposes.  An  imma- 
terial question  has  no  place  in  the  recitation.  An  irrelevant  question 
has  no  place  in  the  recitation.  . 

Questioning  to  test  precedes  questioning  to  teach.  Often  times  we 
find  this  order  reversed,  and  the  teachers  do  not  know  that  they  are  so 
reversing  it.  I  know  a  man  who  has  taught  in  this  state  for  thirty 
years  and  I  have  heard  him  in  his  recitations  put  question  after  ques- 
tion and  the  only  answer  was  "Yes"  or  "No."  Had  these  questions  been 
recast  in  the  form  of  statements,  they  would  have  made  a  complete 
recitation.  And  that  man  thought  he  was  questioning  his  students  to 
test  their  preparation.  Was  he?  Most  assuredly  not.  The  students 
very  quickly  discovered  that,  and  they  used  to  pride  themselves  upcn 
the  skill  with  which  they  could  tell  by  some  inflection  or  some  expres- 
sion of  the  face  whether  the  answer  was  to  be  "Yes"  or  "No."  "We 
never  have  to  do  anything  for  his  recitation.  If  we  cut  anything,  vra 
cut  thac."  And  that  is  just  what  happens  when  that  kind  of  work  is 
done. 


HOW   MAY  THESE   DEMANDS   BE   ENFORCED? 

I  know  of  no  way  of  enforcing  tne  demands  made  upon  the  teacher 
except  by  the  teacher's  seeing  clearly  what  should  be  demanded  and 
then  seeing  clearly  what  he  must  do  to  meet  the  demands.  Proposi- 
tions II  and  III  apply  there.  It  is  a  matter  to  be  settled  by  each  teacher 
for  himself.  We  unconsciously  get  into  certain  habits  in  our  modes  of 
teaching  and  conducting  our  recitations,  so  that  when  our  attention  is 
called  to  them  we  are  surprised. 


THE  RECITATION.  33 

So,  I  wouid  suggest,  that  it  is  the  business  of  every  teacher  to  keep 
a  strict  watch  and  guard  upon  himself  in  these  respects,  to  see  whether 
he  is  doing  what  ought  to  be  done,  what  his  own  intelligence  tells  him 
ought  to  be  done.  Ascertain  what  has  been  observed  to  be  a  failure  by 
those  qualified  to  judge,  and  then  address  himself  to  the  correction  of 
those  shortcomings. 


HOW   MAY   THESE   DEMANDS    MADE   UPON   THE   PUPILS   BE   ENFORCED? 

They  may  be  enforced  simply  by  the  teacher's  understanding  clearly 
what  the  demands  are,  making  them  definite,  and  making  the  pupils 
understand  them,  and  then  persistently  insisting  that  those  demands 
shall  be  met.  That  is  the  only  way  that  I  can  suggest. 


MODES  OF  TESTING CHARACTERISTICS  OF  A  PROPER  TEST. 

Testing  is  simply  one  of  the  phases  of  a  recitation  and  the  question  is 
one  mode  of  testing.  The  putting  of  a  certain  thing  to  be  done  which 
requires  the  pupil  to  show  his  capacity  or  power,  is  another  way.  There 
are  a  variety  of  these  ways,  but  the  proper  test  is  the  one  which  is  made 
with  reference  to  what  is  expected  to  be  known  and  what  must  be 
known  and  in  view  of  the  logical  order  in  which  what  is  to  be  known 
shall  be  stated,  if  there  ue  a  logical  order. 

Now,  what  constitutes  a  proper  test?  With  some  grades  of  pupils  the 
oral  test  is  the  proper  one,  with  some  grades  sometimes  the  oral  and 
sometimes  the  written.  I  am  a  believer  in  the  doctrine  that  it  would 
be  well  if  we  made  more  of  the  oral  test  in  our  classes  than  we  do 
make  of  it.  That  demands  something  more  than  a  written  test.  That 
will  strike  you  as  a  strange  proposition,  but  the  fact  is  that  the  writing 
which  the  pupil  does  is  often  a  test  rather  of  his  ability  to  find  things 
in  the  encyclopedia  and  dictionaries  and  get  them  together  and  put  them 
on  paper,  than  it  is  a  test  of  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter;  and 
in  any  event,  when  the  pupil  can  sit  down  leisurely  and  take  his  time 
to  arrange  what  he  knows,  think  it  over  and  recast  it,  he  is  likely  to 
do  better  work  in  the  end  than  though  he  presents  it  orally;  but  if  he 
has  so  prepared  himself  that  he  is  able  to  make  an  oral  presentation  as 
clearly  and  in  as  orderly  a  manner  as  though  he  had  written  it  at  his 
leisure,  that  is  certainly  a  higher  order  of  attainment.  I  do  not  mean 
to  discourage  the  written  test.  It  has  a  very  high  value  for  certain 
definite  purposes,  for  exactness,  conciseness,  and  orderly  arrangement, 
but  we  shall  never  teach  people  to  talk  by  having  them  write  eternally. 
They  must  do  some  talking.  They  should  understand  that  in  the  school 
the  preparation  to  talk  needs  to  be  made  with  the  greatest  care,  and 
that  means  to  talk  it  again  and  again  until  they  feel  they  can  do  it.  In 
the  students'  preparation  for  the  recitation,  how  many  of  you  have  made 
the  discovery  that  ninety-nine  out  of  one  hundred  of  your  pupils  never 
liave  tested  themselves  as  to  whether  they  have  mastered  the  lesson  so 
that  they  can  present  it.  Try  it  and  see.  What  will  they  do?  They 
will  read  the  lesson  or  study  it,  and  they  will  say  "I  understand  that." 
The  pupil  who  looks  through  his  geometry  proposition  says,  "That  is 


34  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

all  clear.     I  know  that."     And  he  gets  up  tomorrow  and  finds  it  a  dif- 
ferent proposition  to  state  it  so  that  other  people  will  see  it. 

Now,  if  we  shall  get  the  pupils  to  feel  that  the  recitation  is  not  pre- 
pared until  they  have  prepared  themselves  by  practice  and  experiment 
to  talk  it  and  to  talk  it  well,  we  have  done  a  great  thing,  and  we  have 
prepared  those  pupils  to  meet  this  demand  for  a  test  in  an  oral  presen- 
tation of  what  they  have  to  say.  And  remember  that  in  all  their  ac- 
tivities outside  of  the  school  room  afterwards,  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of 
the  demands  made  upon  them  are  for  prompt,  accurate  oral  expression. 
So  I  should  demand  more  of  that  in  the  school  room. 


PURPOSES   OF  DRILL   EXERCISES,   THE   NECESSITY   FOR,    AND    HOW   DETERMINED. 

I  have  already  indicated  this  morning  that  which  should  guide  the 
purposes  of  the  drill  exercise.  Perhaps  you  may  say  that  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  a  drill  exercise  is  to  develop  skill.  I  think  that  that  will  cover 
it.  We  give  exercises  to  quicken  the  perceptive  powers.  We  give  drill 
exercises  to  train  the  reasoning,  for  quick,  sharp,  prompt,  decision.  We 
give  drill  exercises  to  secure  skill  in  the  movements  of  the  hand,  in 
writing,  drawing,  constructive  work  of  whatever  kind.  There  must 
always  be  a  definite  purpose,  and  skill  and  readiness  is  the  end  in  view. 

The  question  comes  for  us  as  teachers:  Is  this  thing  of  sufficient  im- 
portance so  that  the  drill  necessary  to  develop  skill  will  be  worth  the 
time  and  energy  put  upon  it.  Is  not  that  a  fair  question?  Have  you 
not  seen  drill  exercises  that  were  carried  on  to  an  extent  that  made  it 
doubtful  in  your  minds  whether  the  time  and  energy  put  upon  the 
drill  was  met  by  the  proper  return?  I  think  I  have.  And  so  the 
teacher  must  keep  in  mind.  Is  this  skill  an  essential  in  the  training  of 
the  individual?  In  his  training  for  teaching,  is  there  any  necessity  for 
drill  which  does  not  exist  in  his  training  as  a  student,  not  as  a  teacher? 
If  so,  what  shall  those  things  be?  And  if  we  examine  closely  and  criti- 
cally we  shall  find  that  tne  result  of  such  an  examination  would  elimi- 
nate quite  a  number  of  those  drill  exercises.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
teacher  in  the  Normal  school  to  make  that  clear.  Will  you  tell  me 
where  the  best  place  is  to  discuss  that  question?  Is  it  for  the  teacher 
of  pedagogy  to  discuss  it,  or  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  in  the  arithmetic 
class,  to  say- — "Tell  me  what  I  am  doing  this  for."  Prepare  yourselves 
in  advance  for  this,  and  sometimes  when  you  have  made  this  prepara- 
tion you  will  conclude  that  it  will  not  be  best  to  try.  Now,  suppose  you 
make  it  clear  that  this  particular  drill  is  given  in  this  place  for  this 
particular  purpose  pedagogically.  Will  not  that  make  an  impression 
upon  these  students  who  are  going  out  to  teach  that  will  help  them  the 
better  to  determine  what  are  the  conditions  under  which  a  drill  is 
necessary  in  their  classes?  Will  not  that  be  of  far  more  value  than  a 
theoretical  discussion  of  the  subject  in  a  class  in  pedagogy  which  has 
long  since  been  forgotten?  in  whatever  class  the  drill  becomes  a 
necessity.  Do  you  not  see  that  at  every  point  in  the  Normal  school 
there  should  be  discussed  and  exemplified  the  pedagogic  purpose  of  a 
drill  exercise  when  that  drill  exercise  is  given?  If  the  teachers  in  the 
Normal  school  can  get  together  and  agree  upon  the  conditions  which 
control  the  selection  of  these  drill  exercises,  then  there  is  united  ac- 


THE  RECITATION. 


35 


tion  and  reinforcement  at  every  point,  and  the  pupil  does  not  go  out 
imitating  the  drill  exercises  he  has  seen  his  teacher  give  until  he  has 
settled  this  question:  That  was  right  for  me  there;  but  is  it  right  for 
these  pupils  here? 

Now,  what  are  the  essentials  of  a  good  drill  exercise?  When  I  have 
settled  the  question  as  to  what  the  drill  exercise  is  for  and  what  par- 
ticular kind  of  skill  is  to  be  developed,  and  when  I  have  worked  out,  as 
I  said  this  morning,  every  step  in  that  exercise  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  required  skill  (and  until  I  have  done  that  I  have  no 
business  as  a  Normal  school  teacher  to  conduct  a  drill  exercise),  having 
previously  determined  what  had  to  be  done  to  develop  this  skill,  and 
then  when  I  have  determined  how  my  drill  exercise  shall  be  adjusted 
to  meet  these  demands,  I  have  settled  the  essentials  of  a  good  drill  exer- 
cise. That,  it  seems  to  me,  is  ttfe  kind  of  an  analysis  which  the 
Normal  school  teacher  needs  to  make  in  order  to  determine  the  char- 
acter ot  his  drill  exercise,  having  determined  that  drill  is  necessary. 

Just  one  suggestion  as  to  the  mode  of  conducting  the  drill  exercise. 
I  am  not  going  into  the  question  of  the  "how,"  but  simply  to  state  one 
guiding  principle,  that  is  to  say:  Give  the  drill  exercise  to  the  people 
who  need  it  and  not  to  the  people  who  do  not  need  it.  It  is  barely  pos- 
sible that  you  have  seen  a  class  being  drilled  and  the  best  pupils  in  the 
class,  who  did  not  need  the  drill  at  all,  were  the  only  ones  who  answered, 
and  there  was  no  mental  activity  on  the  part  of  those  not  answering  ex- 
cept to  hear  what  the  others  said  and  perhaps  to  repeat  it,  parrot  like. 
If  you  have  people  in  the  class  who  do  not  need  the  drill,  sent  them  to 
their  seats.  Do  not  bother  them. 

The  drill  exercise  should  be  of  the  kind  to  demand  the  highest  pos- 
sible mental  activity  upon  the  part  of  the  people  who  need  it.  I  do  not 
want  to  modify  this  statement  in  any  way,  because  drill,  to  be  ef- 
fective, must  be  quick,  sharp,  short,  and  decisive. 


TEACHING    IN     THE    RECITATION — ITS    RELATION     TO    TESTING    AND    DRILLING. 
ASSIGNMENT  OF  THE  NEXT  LESSON. 

I  do  not  think  I  need  to  say  anything  further  upon  this  topic.  I 
only  care  to  reinforce  what  I  said  this  morning,  that  the  things  which 
are  to  be  demanded  of  the  pupil  are  conditioned  upon  the  kind  of  an  as- 
signment made;  that,  if  the  assignment  has  been  vague  and  indefinite, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  demands  will  be  met  by  the  pupil.  The 
demand  comes  upon  the  teacher  to  make  preparation  for  such  an  as- 
signment as  will  make  the  demands  upon  the  pupil  proper  and  make 
it  proper  for  him  to  enforce  those  demands.  When  in  the  recitation 
it  appears  that  a  pupil  has  done  his  best  and  still  does  not  understand 
portions  of  the  lesson  or  does  not  see  the  relation  of  part  to  part,  there 
actual  teaching  has  to  be  done.  What  that  teaching  shall  be  is  de- 
termined by  the  purpose  of  the  teacher,  by  what  has  to  be  known  or 
done  to  accomplish  this  purpose,  and  by  the  testing  to  disclose  what 
the  pupil  still  needs.  When  the  teaching  has  been  done  a  further  test 
may  disclose  the  fact  that  drill  is  necessary  to  fix  the  knowledge  or 
to  give  skill  in  using  it. 


36  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


ANSWERS   TO    QUESTIONS. 

Mr.  Harvey — A  few  questions  have  been  handed  in  which  I  want  to 
take  up  now.  "To  what  extent  does  the  making  of  a  topical  outline  or 
syllabus,  and  the  occasional  revising  of  it,  necessitate  the  proper  atten- 
tion to  these  fundamentals?  Your  propositions  have  never  been 
brought  to  my  attention  before,  but  it  seems  to  me  that  I  have  always 
observed  them  and  most  especially  when  I  have  revised  an  outline  of  a 
subject  preparatory  to  having  it  reprinted."  (F.  R.  Clow.) 

In  answer  to  the  first  part  of  the  first  question,  whether  in  the  making 
of  a  topical  outline  it  requires  the  use  of  these  propositions,  it  de- 
pends upon  the  outline  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  made.  If  it  be 
the  purpose  simply  to  organize  the  matter  in  logical  order,  then  I  have 
to  see  exactly  what  is  needed  and  I  have  to  know  some  things  outside 
of  it  that  are  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  it,  in  order  to  so  ar- 
range it.  If  it  is  for  my  own  use,  it  will  not  involve  the  use  of  tne 
third  proposition;  it  will  not  involve  the  first  proposition.  If  a  topical 
outline  is  to  be  made  out  for  the  purpose  of  formulating  the  subject 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  it,  an  added  use  of  these  propositions  might 
occur.  A  topical  analysis  of  a  subject  is  a  somewhat  different  thing 
from  an  assignment  of  a  lesson.  I  make  the  topical  analysis  for  my 
own  use,  or  for  another's.  If  I  make  it  for  another's,  my  responsibility 
ceases  when  I  have  arranged  the  matter  in  logical  order  so  that  a  mind 
working  normally  shall  see  it  in  that  order.  My  responsibility  ceases 
there.  When  I  have  presented  the  outline  to  the  pupil,  if  I  am  going 
to  assign  it  or  any  part  of  it  as  matter  to  be  prepared  for  the  recita- 
tion, I  need  to  go  still  further  and  determine  for  myself  what  knowledge 
must  be  possessed  in  order  that  the  portions  assigned  may  become 
known. 

And  next  I  must  determine  what  of  this  the  pupils  know,  because  I  am 
dealing  now  with  the  individuals, — the  other  part  of  the  equation.  The 
first  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  knowledge.  The  second  is  de- 
termined in  view  of  the  individual  who  is  to  do  it,  and  thus  from  these 
two  standpoints  I  get  clearly  before  myself  and  my  pupil  what  he  is 
to  do  for  the  next  day.  So  there  would  seem  to  be  more  in  the  assign- 
ment of  a  lesson  demanding  the  use  of  these  propositions  than  in  the 
outlining  of  a  topic.  The  outlining  of  a  topic  compels  the  logical  order 
of  arrangement  of  the  materials. 

"Why  cannot  questioning  to  teach  be  combined  with  questioning  to 
test?  Prof.  Birge  and  many  other  teachers  in  the  state  so  combine 
them?"  (Name  of  person  asking  the  question  not  given.) 

Most  assuredly.  I  have  not  said  to  the  contrary,  I  hope.  I  did  say 
that  the  question  to  test  must  precede  the  question  to  teach,  and  I 
want  to  repeat  that,  and  I  am  very  sure  that  that  is  what  Dr.  Birge  does, 
for  if  he  does  not  do  it,  he  has  the  cart  before  the  horse,  because  the 
questioning  to  test  determines  the  necessity  for  teaching,  and  teaching 
without  the  test  is  only  an  assumption  of  necessity  which  may  or  may 
not  exist.  Oftentimes  the  question  to  teach  follows  immediately  upon 
the  question  to  test,  because  the  next  subject  can  not  be  taken  up  until 
that  is  mastered.  It  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

"Under  proposition  II,  in  the  assignment  of  a  new  lesson,  how  far 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS.  37- 

should  a  teacher  give  information  which  he  deems  necessary  for  the 
pupils  to  know,  and  how  far  should  he  leave  the  pupils  to  get  this  in- 
formation themselves  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson?"  (H.  N.  G.) 

That  is  a  very  difficult  question  to  answer.  I  do  not  think  I  can 
answer  it  completely  and  fully.  But  I  want  to  say  this,  as  a  part  of 
the  answer:  I  think  there  is  no  other  pedagogical  maxim  more 
mischievous  than  the  one  so  often  quoted:  "Never  tell  a  child  any- 
thing he  can  find  out  for  himself."  If  there  is  any  better  way  of  wast- 
ing time  than  that,  I  have  yet  to  discover  it. 

Let  me  say  this,  that  some  of  the  worst  practices  I  have  ever  seen 
in  teaching  have  been  at  this  point.  The  pronunciation  of  a  word  to  be 
learned,  and  perhaps  a  piece  of  an  old  dictionary  in  the  school  house, 
and  forty  pupils  are  sent  to  look  it  up.  Think  of  the  waste  of  time 
when  an  instant  would  have  sufficed  to  teach  the  meaning  and  pro- 
nunciation of  that  word.  Would  it"  not  have  been  better  to  teach  it 
than  to  waste  the  time  spent  in  looking  at  the  pictures  in  the  diction- 
ary? There  are  a  great  many  things  which  it  seems  to  me  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  teacher  to  tell,  and  make  the  telling  teach.  I  may  tell  a 
thing  and  not  teach  it.  I  should  test  to  see  whether  that  telling  is 
really  teaching.  Of  course,  this  may  be  open  to  criticism  on  the  part 
of  people  who  want  to  have  the  children  rediscover  everything  that 
has  ever  been  discovered  and  work  out  anew  these  things.  I  would 
just  as  soon  live  in  the  first  century  as  in  this  one  if  I  thought  I  were 
not  going  to  be  able  to  take  some  things  for  granted  that  have  been 
wrought  out  in  the  last  twenty  centuries;  if  I  thought  I  were  not  go- 
ing to  be  able  to  get  some  things  without  this  process  of  rediscovery. 
There  are  plenty  of  things  which  may  be  presented  to  the  pupil  with- 
out any  prolonged  process  of  rediscovery  and  there  are  plenty  of  other 
good  things  for  him  to  exercise  his  powers  of  discovery  upon  without 
wasting  them  on  the  things  that  have  been  discovered  over  and  over 
again. 

So  I  say  that  that  is  a  question  which  no  one  can  answer,  except  in  a 
very  general  way.  I  cannot  answer  it  any  more  definitely  than  that* 
I  know  it  is  not  very  satisfactory. 

"It  seems  to  me  that  pupils  should  be  given  some  opportunity  to  hold! 
themselves  to  their  daily  work.  Let  them  sometimes  have  the  single 
responsibility  to  do  this  work  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  produce  the 
results  at  the  end  of  the  quarter.  It  is  imposing  a  large  responsibility 
rather  than  a  small  one.  I  am  aware  that  this  is  allowable  only  to  a 
degree.  I  employ  it  more  than  most  other  teachers."  (P.  R.  Clow.) 

That  is  a  proper  thing  to  do  under  certain  carefully  guarded  restric- 
tions. It  would  not,  in  my  judgment,  be  a  proper  thing  to  do  as  a 
matter  of  general  practice  in  a  Normal  school,  because  it  leaves  out 
one  kind  of  training  which  these  pupils  need  to  fit  them  for  the  work 
which  they  are  to  do.  It  takes  maturity  of  mind  in  order  that  one 
may  properly  have  this  responsibility  put  upon  him.  No  one  who  is. 
not  quite  mature  can  do  that.  There  are  certain  phases  of  work  which, 
the  immature  student  may  be  set  to  work  upon  with  a  degree  of  hope 
for  success,  but  I  think  they  are  within  rather  narrow  limits,  and  as  I 
have  gauged  the  classes  of  pupils  we  meet  in  the  Normal  schools,  it 
seems  to  me  that  there  is  need  for  the  guidance  and  direction  of  the 
teacher  to  the  end  that  there  may  not  be  a  waste  of  time  and  energy; 


38  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

and  yet  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  not  intending  to  have  any 
responsibility  put  upon  the  pupil.  I  would  furnish  enough  of  that  kind 
of  work  to  make  him  feel  that  he  had  a  responsibility.  But  what  he 
needs  now  in  his  training  as  a  teacher,  is  training  in  the  organization 
of  his  method  upon  the  basis  of  organizing  it  for  his  pupils.  I  would 
furnish  some  opportunity  to  test  his  power  in  this  direction.  I  say  it 
must  be  guarded  carefully,  or  we  shall  discover  a  little  late  perhaps, 
that  the  pupil  has  not  been  grasping  what  is  to  be  done. 

"Assuming  that  the  Normal  teacher  has  a  lesson  plan,  is  it  wise  to 
state  to  the  class  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  the  purpose  of  the 
lesson?" 

I  certainly  should  do  that  sometimes.  I  should  sometimes  conduct 
my  recitation  and  ask  them  to  tell  me  my  purpose.  I  should  sometimes 
conduct  my  recitation  and  try  to  have  them  organize  my  plan  for  me 
when  through,  trying  to  train  the  power  to  do  that  work  for  them- 
selves, in  one  way  at  one  time  and  in  another  way  at  another  time. 

"How  may  the  four  propositions  be  applied  in  the  physical  training 
department  under  conditions  that  now  exist  there?" 

I  cannot  answer  that  because  I  do  not  know  the  conditions  that  exist 
there.  Under  the  conditions  which  exist,  do  you  have  any  definite  pur- 
pose in  the  work  to  be  done  tomorrow?  If  not,  and  no  purpose  can  be 
determined  and  there  is  no  purpose,  they  cannot  be  applied. 

If  there  is  a  purpose  and  that  purpose  demands  anything  in  the  way 
of  knowledge,  then  it  is  possible  to  formulate  what  are  the  essential 
elements  of  that  knowledge.  In  other  words,  what  must  be  known  in 
order  that  that  knowledge  may  be  mastered?  Is  there  anything  to  be 
done  in  the  way  of  training  for  tomorrow?  If  so,  then  it  devolves  upon 
the  teacher  to  know  what  are  the  essential  elements  of  the  work  which 
it  is  the  purpose  to  do  tomorrow  as  it  should  be  done.  If  it  be  any  sort 
of  a  physical  exercise  which  has  a  certain  definite  purpose  to  accom- 
plish, what  are  the  conditions  under  which  that  can  be  done?  There 
you  have  proposition  II.  These  are  the  things  which  must  be  clearly 
in  the  teacher's  mind.  If  not,  he  is  very  likely  to  give  a  kind  of  exer- 
cise that  is  not  adapted  to  the  purpose.  It  may  possibly  have  value 
and  it  may  possibly  work  damage  to  ihe  pupil,  so  there  is  the  necessity 
for  formulation  in  the  teacher's  mind  of  what  it  is  necessary  to  do  in 
order  that  a  given  purpose  may  be  realized  tomorrow. 

If  there  is  any  work  to  be  assigned  to  the  pupil  in  the  way  of  prep- 
aration for  tomorrow,  then  the  third  proposition  comes  in  to  determine 
what  that  work  shall  be.  What  does  he  know  now?  What  can  he  do 
now?  Wnat  needs  to  be  known  or  done  between  now  and  tomorrow  in 
his  preparation?  It  would  seem  to  me  that  this  depends  upon  whether 
the  conditions  are  such  that  you  expect  to  have  the  pupils  prepared 
and  to  show  as  a  result  of  that  preparation  enlarged  knowledge  tomor- 
row, or  prepared  to  show  as  the  result  of  that  preparation  greater  skill 
in  some  physical  movement  tomorrow.  If  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  make 
the  preparation,  but  to  do  the  work  in  the  class  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  then  the  teacher  needs  to  know  what  is  involved  under 
proposition  II.  He  needs  to  know  what  is  involved  under  proposition 
III,  so  that  he  may  confine  himself  to  doing  what  is  left  under  propo- 
sition IV,  and  not  waste  his  time  in  doing  something  else. 

"Is  there  not  danger  that  the  uninterrupted   recitation,  in  which 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS. 


39 


'talking  well'  is  the  ideal,  will  result  in  inaccuracy  and  sacrifice  of 
truth?     We  have  found  library  reading  recitations  to  give  this  result." 

No,  not  at  all.  The  uninterrupted  recitation  is  not  the  whole  recita- 
tion. When  the  individual  has  proceeded  to  state  what  he  has  to  say 
uninterrupted  by  the  teacher,  it  is  not  to  be  left  there  if  he  is  inac- 
curate, incomplete,  or  indefinite.  But  he  has  had  his  chance.  You 
have  given  him  fair  play.  You  have  shown  him  that  when  you  asked 
him  to  make  preparation  yesterday  you  expected  10  give  him  a  chance 
to  show  it  today.  Now,  either  through  the  work  of  the  other  students, 
or  through  the  teacher's  own  work,  may  come  the  correction  of  that 
statement,  the  enlargement  of  the  students'  knowledge,  the  making 
definite  what  was  indefinite,  and  making  clear  what  was  cloudy  in  his 
mind,  and  you  will  remember  that  I  said  this  morning,  there  should 
follow,  if  possible,  another  statement  on  the  part  of  that  pupil.  Per- 
haps tomorrow  a  restatement  in  the  light  of  the  supplementary  prep- 
aration. It  does  not  seem  to  me  that  that  involves  any  inaccuracy.  It 
involves  giving  the  pupil  a  chance  to  do  his  best.  When  that  is  done 
it  involves  making  his  recitation  better  and  making  that  better  his  best. 

Mr.  Rock-wood — Would  you  advise  that  the  teacher  should  not  come 
to  the  rescue  with  his  own  knowledge  until  he  had  exhausted  the  re- 
sources of  his  class? 

Mr.  Harvey — It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  fair  to  give  to  the  pupils  in  the 
class  a  chance  to  show  what  they  know.  If  I  start  in  with  a  single 
pupil  and  he  covers  that  recitation,  and  then  go  on  to  furnish  the  sup- 
plementary matter  myself,  I  ignore  the  rest  of  the  pupils  in  the  class. 
I  ought  to  give  them  a  chance 'to  see  if  they  can  improve  upon  what 
has  been  stated. 

As  to  this  library  reading — "We  have  found  library  reading  recita- 
tions to  give  this  result." 

I  do  not  think  library  reading  is  given  simply  for  the  purpose  of  se- 
curing accurate  information.  I  do  not  think  that  is  its  purpose  at  all, 
not  that  there  may  not  be  that  in  it,  but  if  that  is  all,  it  is  pretty  dry 
stuff.  I  want  library  reacting  for  something  more  than  that.  I  want 
to  saturate  the  child  with  literature,  I  want  him  to  know  something 
about  literature,  to  read  because  he  loves  to  read,  and  to  read  that 
which  he  likes  to  read.  I  do  not  want  to  question  him  too  closely  upon 
it.  I  do  not  want  to  hold  him  too  closely  for  results.  I  do  not  want 
to  as*  him  to  write  out  a  full  synopsis  of  every  book  he  has  read.  I  read 
two  or  three  books  a  week  and  I  would  not  think  for  a  moment  of  doing 
it  if  I  haa  to  write  out  a  synopsis  of  them. 

I  want  to  tell  you  another  thing.  The  written  synopsis  of  a  book 
is  not  worth  a  hundredth  part  of  the  statement  which  the  pupil  makes 
when  he  talks  to  you  about  what  he  has  gotten  out  of  that  book. 
There  is  one  of  the  most  excellent  language  exercises  that  has  ever 
been  devised,  and  you  cannot  put  anything  into  your  school  which  will 
take  the  place  of  it.  The  pupil  gets  in  this  wide  reading  an  acquaint- 
ance with  books  and  a  vocabulary.  He  does  not  know  why.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  he  should.  We  do  many  things  and  cannot  tell  why  we 
do  them.  It  would  be  pretty  hard  10  tell  why  you  fall  in  love.  It, 
might  be  discouraging  to  have  to  write  a  synopsis  of  it. 

I  should  grant  the  statement  made  if  the  purpose  were  simply  to  get 
information,  but  if  the  purpose  be  to  get  inspiration,  if  the  purpose  be 


40  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

to  get  acquainted  with  literature,  to  know  books  and  to  love  books  and 
to  love  some  things  in  the  books  without  having  to  love  all,  if  that  be 
the  purpose,  then  I  do  not  think  that  result  will  follow. 

"Are  the  fundamental  propositions  strictly  applicable  to  the  study  of 
literature?  I 'do  not  mean  information  about  literature  or  any  scien- 
tific phase  of  it,  but  pure  literature.  A  love  lyric  of  Burns,  for  instance, 
or  anything  in  the  realm  of  the  affections.  Is  it  psychologically  possi- 
ble to  prepare  pupils  for  a  deferred  emotional  experience?  If  it  were 
possible,  should  not  that  experience  be  deferred  until  the  meeting  of 
the  class  to  utilize  the  stimulation  of  the  number  enjoying  it?" 

The  application  of  these  propositions  is  most  easily  made  to  the  exact 
subjects,  to  mathematics,  to  science,  and  so  on.  They  are  less  easily 
applied  to  geography,  history,  and  literature.  But  I  shall  have  to  come 
back  at  you  with  this  proposition:  Do  you  have  any  definite  purpose 
when  you  assign  a  piece  of  work  for  your  pupils  to  master  for  the  next 
day?  If  you  have  not,  that  settles  it.  I  have  nothing  further  to  say. 
These  propositions  do  not  apply.  I  think  it  will  be  altogether  likely 
that  there  will  be  times  when  you  cannot  tell  whether  you  have  the 
purpose  or  not;  when  you  do  not  know  what  is  coming;  when  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell.  Wnat  the  pupil  is  getting  out  of  that  love  lyric  nobody 
knows.  There  are  certain  periods  when  the  pupil  would  get  nothing 
out  of  it.  He  has  not  come  to  it,  and  then  he  may  have  passed  to  the 
stage  where  it  is  purely  reminiscence.  It  depends  upon  the  conditions 
of  the  pupil.  If  I  am  right  in  what  I  have  been  saying,  you  have  to 
settle  this  for  yourselves:  Have  you  any  purpose  in  the  work?  If 
you  have,  can  you  state  it.  If  you  cannot,  would  it  not  be  a  good  idea 
to  work  until  you  can?  A  purpose  in  life  which  I  cannot  state,  which 
I  cannot  put  into  language,  is  rather  a  vague  sort  of  a  thing.  Would 
it  not  be  better  to  make  it  a  little  more  definite?  If  there  are  these  il- 
lusory things  in  literature,  I  would  simply  take  them  as  the  flowers, 
the  ornamentations;  they  simply  come  as  the  decorative,  the  beautiful. 

Going  on  with  the  subject  of  the  purpose,  the  question  is:  Is  it 
necessary  that  there  shall  be  any  new  knowldege  for  tomorrow?  If  so, 
then  how  shall  we  determine  what  these  pupils  are  to  do,  how  shall  we 
determine  when  they  have  done  it?  If  you  are  not  able  to  state  what 
knowledge  must  be  mastered  to  the  realization  of  that  purpose,  I  must 
leave  you  to  answer  the  question. 

" —  not  studying  about  literature,  not  studying  about  and  scientific 
phase  of  literature" — just  plain  literature.  That  is  one  of  the  beauties 
of  it,  one  of  the  things  that  this  library  reading  does.  It  gives  you 
something  and  you  cannot  tell  just  what  it  is. 

I  want  to  ask  you  to  do  something.  You  will  notice  that  we  have  as  a 
part  of  our  program  for  Friday  the  consideration  of  questions  which, 
may  grow  out  of  our  work  here,  or  which  perhaps  may  not  be  touched 
by  our  work  here,  and  which  some  of  you  would  like  to  have  taken  up. 
I  would  like  to  have  you  formulate  these  questions  as  early  as  possible. 
We  will  take  up  such  of  them  as  we  can.  We  cannot  undertake  to  dis- 
cuss very  fully  questions  outside  of  the  present  scope  of  our  work,  but 
we  will  do  all  we  can,  ana  I  hope  you  will  be  free  in  your  discussion. 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  agree  entirely  that  it  is  possible  to  overdo  this  drill- 
ing, as  Mr.  Harvey  said  some  time  ago.  I  should  like  to  know  if  Mr. 
Harvey  conceives  that  it  is  overdone  in  the  Normal  schools  of  Wiscon- 


ANSWERS  TO  QUESTIONS. 


41! 


sin.  My  observation  is  that  this  drilling  has  rather  gone  out  of  fashion.. 
It  is  rather  hard  to  find  any  of  it,  and  the  reason  is  that  the  teachers 
do  not  like  to  do  it.  The  teachers  do  not  like  to  drill  classes  because 
the  pupils  do  not  like  it. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  you  are  entirely  right.  My  reason  for  putting 
that  so  strongly  is  that  in  the  schools  outside  of  the  Normal  schools  I 
have  seen  so  much  of  it. 

Mr.  Salisbury — Do  you  find  Normal  school  graduates  doing  it? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  have  seen  it  sometimes. 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  do  agree  as  to  the  importance  of  oral  expression, 
and  doubly  so  in  the  case  of  Normal  school  students.  I  say  to  my 
students:  "As  teachers  you  will  have  to  talk.  If  you  cannot  talk  in 
the  recitation  upon  prepared  matter,  where  are  you  ever  going  to  talk?" 
And  so,  for  their  own  sake,  I  urge  upon  them  the  necessity  of  talking 
and  that  they  should  deem  it  a  privilege  to  have  a  chance  to  talk  in  the 
recitation. 

Is  it  your  thought,  Mr.  Harvey,  that  this  oral  test  should  have  a  place 
outside  of  the  daily  test?  Would  you  favor  such  a  thing  as  an  oral  ex- 
amination at  any  other  time? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  would,  yes. 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  should  not  expect  it  to  take  the  place  of  a  written^ 
examination. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  think  there  is  a  decided  advantage  in  having  the  pupil 
come  out  oefore  the  school  and  give  an  oral  presentation,  and  1  should 
like  to  have  him  do  it  sometimes  before  a  group  that  is  not  so  large. 
I  think  there  is  value  in  it. 

Mr.  Salisbury — In  regard  to  the  teacher  who  does  the  reciting,  I 
do  believe  that  it  is  the  greatest  evil  in  our  teaching.  This  widespread 
practice  is  a  matter  for  serious  contemplation.  What  are  we  going  to- 
do  about  this  habit  of  the  teacher  of  doing  the  greater  part  of  the  re- 
citing? There  are  three  or  four  reasons  for  it.  One  may  be  the  simple 
loquacity  of  the  teacher, — pure  loquacity;  there  are  others  with  whom 
it  is  a  sort  of  scholarly  conceit.  I  rather  thought  this  morning  that 
Supt.  Harvey  considered  that  to  be  the  common  cause.  It  hardly  seems 
so  to  me.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  most  active  cause  of  this  talking, 
habit  on  the  part  of  teacners  is  pure  indolence.  It  is  so  much  easier  to 
do  the  talking  than  it  is  to  make  the  pupils  to  do  it;  so  they  recite  be- 
cause the  pupils  cannot  or  will  not.  They  follow  the  line  of  least  re- 
sistance. Is  not  that  the  trouble  four  times  out  of  five?  I  have  this 
habit  myself,  but  I  do  not  get  it  that  I  am  aware  of  in  any  of  these 
ways.  I  was  an  institute  conductor  for  nine  years.  This  would  de- 
velop that  habit  in  any  man. 

Mr.  Livingston — I  do  not  know  whether  it  is  safe  for  an  institute 
conductor  to  get  up  after  that  speech.  The  most  common  objection 
made  to  these  four  propositions  next  to  the  one  you  spoke  of  last  is 
"the  tendency  to  formalism."  It  seems  to  me  that  the  application  of 
these  four  propositions  is  something  like  putting  a  skeleton  into  our 
teaching.  Of  course,  a  skeleton  is  a  formal  thing.  But  because  I  have 
a  skeleton  that  I  live  upon,  I  do  not  have  to  center  my  thought  on  that. 
The  principle  is  "Ye  shall  know  the  truth  and  it  shall  make  ye  free." 

Mr.  Pray — I  am  going  to  add  a  remark  to  what  Mr.  Salisbury  has 
said.  Perhaps  no  one  of  these  three  reasons  he  speaks  of  is  applicable' 


42  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

in  some  cases.  In  an  institute,  if  the  conductor  finds  that  a  certain 
thing  is  not  coming  out  and  it  is  a  valuable  thing  to  have  brought  out, 
.and  he  applies  the  screw  without  avail,  he  talks  it  himself.  And  I  sus- 
pect that  oftentimes  teachers  do  that  same  thing,  because  they  are 
under  the  same  necessity  that  the  institute  conductor  is.  They  want  to 
.get  the  thing  done. 

Mr.  Salisbury — Do  they  get  it  done? 

Mr.  Shutts — Can  it  not  be  accomplished  in  this  way:  Put  the  pupil 
before  the  class  and  say,  "You  are  responsible  for  making  the  class  un- 
derstand this  proposition."  Let  him  consider  the  class  as  his,  and  that 
he  must  be  responsible  until  he  has  finished.  The  teacher  must  in  some 
way  prevent  the  class  from  losing  time.  It  seems  to  me  that  that  puts 
him  in  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  his  own  school  and  has  pedagogi- 
cal value. 

Mr.  Harvey — Especially  valuable  to  the  Normal  school  student. 

Mr.  Walker — Just  one  thought  in  connection  with  two  or  three  ques- 
tion you  have  answered.  If  the  purpose  is  inspiration,  as  we  grant 
.that  it  is  for  the  pursuit  of  some  studies,  there  is  still  a  necessity  for 
the  application  of  these  propositions  in  order  to  have  definiteness  of 
aim,  clearness  as  to  what  the  pupil  needs  and  definiteness  as  to  the 
teacher's  order  of  procedure. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  want  to  say  a  word  in  confirmation  of  that  and  to 
strengthen  it  if  possible.  That  the  inspiration  we  are  trying  to  de- 
-velop  that  is  not  guided  and  guarded  and  purposeful  is  too  often  not 
inspiration.  It  is  mere  effervescence, — soda  water.  We  need  to  con- 
sider this:  If  this  is  inspirational  work  and  I  am  to  be  the  inspirer, 
then  it  is  just  as  amenable  to  inexorable  law  as  anything  else.  You 
may  bubble  and  effervesce  and  get  excited  and  all  that  sort  of  thing,  but 
this  inspiration,  this  process  by  which  you  inspire  pupils,  may  very 
largely  be  worked  out  as  a  matter  of  cold-blooded  thought.  There  are 
some  people  who  will  be  an  inspiration,  and  perhaps  they  have  never 
.thought  of  it.  But  the  individual  who  has  studied  the  individuals  he  is 
to  inspire;  who  knows  what  their  attitudes  are;  what  will  appeal  to 
them;  what  their  mental  condition  is  at  that  moment;  how  it  has 
come  about;  what  will  be  the  next  natural  step, — that  individual  is 
better  prepared  to  do  the  work  required.  And  so  it  seems  to  me  that 
there  is  great  truth  in  what  Mr.  Walker  says, — that  there  is  the  same 
need  for  study  along  this  line  of  how  to  inspire.  How  shall  I  inspire 
•of  love  of  literature?  Just  get  it.  Well,  that  is  one  way.  But  when 
I  come  to  address  myself  to  the  problem  "What  are  the  elements  in  it?" 
I  ought  to  be  able  to  analyze  that  problem  with  a  reasonable  degree 
-of'  accuracy,  and  then  I  ought  to  address  myself  to  determining  how  to 
reach  those  conditions.  When  you  say  it  cannot  be  done,  it  is  a  fatal 
-admission,  because  it  means,  fellow  teachers,  that  there  is  not  any  such 
thing  as  the  application  of  the  science  of  teaching  to  that  phase  of  the 
•work. 


PSYCHOLOGY  FOR  TEACHERS.  4.3 


GENERAL   SESSIONS. 

TUESDAY,  Dec.  18,  1900. 
Forenoon. 

Mr.  Harvey — The  first  subject  on  the  program  this  morning  is, 
"Should  all  teachers  in  a  Normal  school  have  some  knowledge  of 
psychology?  If  so,  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  essentials?"  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Lough  of  Oshkosh. 

NOTE. — Professor  Lough  was  placed  at  great  disadvantage  by  the 
failure  of  the  printer  to  deliver  "A-  Syllabus  of  Psychology"  which  he 
had  prepared,  and  he  was  thereby  forced  to  speak  from  a  mere  Index. 
His  presentation  of  the  matter  and  the  discussion  which  followed  oc- 
cupied a  large  part  of  the  forenoon.  The  following  short  papers  be- 
came involved  in  the  discussion  and  their  presentation  was  requested 
for  the  information  of  the  institute. 


SHOULD   ALL   TEACHERS   IN  A  NORMAL   SCHOOL  HAVE   SOME 
KNOWLEDGE  OP  PSYCHOLOGY? 

PRESIDENT  ALBERT  SALISBURY,  Whitewater. 

Every  teacher  in  a  Normal  school  should  have  at  least  as  extensive  a 
knowledge  of  psychology  as  the  school  expects  its  graduates  to  have. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  vital  points  in  psychology, 
from  the  educational  standpoint,  which  should  be  firmly  lodged  in  the 
mind  of  every  teacher  of  children  and  every  teacher  of  teachers. 

1.  An  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  perceptive  process  and  a 
realization  of  the  fact  that  sense-experience  must  furnish  the  original 
data  of  the  mind,  tne  raw  material,  so  to  speak,  on  which  all  the 
other  mental  powers  may  exercise  themselves. 

2.  An  appreciation  of  the  dependence  of  memory,  and  hence  of  other 
activities,  on  (a)  Depth  of  impression,  through  Interest  and  Attention. 
(The  whole  doctrine  of  interest  comes  in  here.)     And  (b)  on  strength 

.and  breadth  of  Association.     (Out  of  this  grows  the  argument  for  cor- 
relation ot  studies.) 

3.  An  appreciation,  seldom  possessed,  of  the  importance  of  the  cog- 
nitive imagination  as  the  means  through  which  our  knowledge  gains 
its  widest  extension.     Sense-data  go  but  a  little  ways  till  taken  up  and 
recast  by  the  imagination;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  imagination  has 
nothing  on  which  to  work  till  experience  has  furnished  its  materials. 

The  pedagogical  application  in  this  case  may  be  embodied  in  the 
broad  maxim,  "From  the  known  to  the  unknown,"  a  formula  rather  un- 
necessary, however,  since  we  cannot  possibly  proceed  in  any  other 


44  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

4.  A  clear  apprehension  of  the  truth  that  Abstraction  (analysis)  and 
Generalization  (synthesis)  are  the  fundamental  elements  in  all  think- 
ing, that  without  them  there  can  be  no  general  knowledge,  no  science. 
They  are  the  basis  of  all  definition  and  all  classification;  though,  like 
imagination,  they  are  dependent  on  experience  for  their  data.     English 
grammar  properly  taught,  is  an  excellent  discipline  for  these  activities. 

5.  A  thorough  insight  into  the  nature  of  Language  and  its  necessary 
relation  to  thinking.     It  should  be  clearly  recognized  that  the  first  use 
of  language  is  to  think  in,  and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  "con- 
veying" of  ideas  from  one  mind  to  another.     "Langauge  is  an  appeal  to 
the  ideational  consciousness  of  another."     Nothing  absolutely  new  can 
be  put  into  the  mind  of  another  by  language.     He  must  construct  his 
own  ideas;  language  can  only  excite  his  mind  to  this  activity. 

6.  Enough  of  logic  to  apprehend  clearly  the  difference  between  in- 
duction and   deduction   and  the   relation   of   each   to   the   intellectual 
growth  of  the  child.     (This  involves  an  appreciation  of  the  relation 
of  the  general  notion  to  the  individual  notion.)     The  connection  of  all 
this  with  the  doctrines  of  General  Method  should  be  grasped;  and  the 
teacher  should  be  conscious  at  each  moment  whether  he  is  teaching  in- 
ductively or  deductively. 

7.  A  familiarity  with  what  is  covered  by  the  Herbartian  use  of  the 
term  Apperception,  such  that  he  (the  teacher)  may  always  be  on  the 
qui  vive  to  discover  the  pupil's  standpoint  of  apprehension,  thus  becom- 
ing watchful  as  to  the  causes  of  misconception  and  non-apprehension. 
Here,  again,  the  maxim  "From  the  known  to  the  unknown"  has  applica- 
tion. 

8.  An  adequate  apprehension  of  the  relation  of  feeling  to  volition,  as- 
furnishing  motives  to  both  thought  and  action.     It  is  an  important  part 
of  the  teacher's  work  to  supply  motives.    He  therefore  needs  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  gamut  of  motives,  their  relative  value  and  ele- 
vation.    The  function  of  feeling  as  interest,  forming  the  basis  of  at- 
tention, and  consequently  of  all  intellectual  conquest  needs  to  be  clearly 
understood. 

9.  An  understanding  of  the  nature  of  reflex  action,  and  the  ability  to- 
recognize  its  manifestation.    Also  of  the  nature  and  conditions  of  in- 
voluntary attention. 

10.  Second  to  none  of  the  foregoing  in  importance  to  the  educator 
is  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  habit,  of  their  conserving  and 
economizing   force   and   the   inexorably   destructive   power   of   wrong 
habits.     A  realization  that  in  the  formation  of  habits  "a  stitch  in  time 
saves  nine,"  and  that  the  mischief  of  early  bad  habits  can  never  be 
overtaken. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL   TRUTHS. 

NOTE. — These  truths,  or  principles,  were  agreed  upon  by  the  Faculty 
of  the  Milwaukee  Normal  and  presented  by  Pres.  Charles  McKenny. 

I.  The  mind  develops  only  through  its  self  activity.  Knowledge  or 
power  cannot  be  inherited  nor  transferred  from  one  mind  to  another 
but  must  be  acquired  and  developed  by  individual  activity. 

11.  Development    intellectual,    emotional    and    volitional    proceeds 


ESSENTIALS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY.  45 

through  the  interpretation  of  new  experiences  by  means  of  those  past 
•experiences  which  have  been  assimilated. 

III.  The  unfolding  of  the  mental  powers  and  the  development  of 
the  organs  of  the  mind,  i.  e.,  faculties,  always  proceeds  in  a  definite 

•order  from  infancy  to  maturity. 

IV.  Mental  development  is  due  to  the  constant  interaction  of   (1) 
the  hereditary  characteristics,  and  (2)  the  various  factors  of  environ- 
ment which  the  mind  selects  from  the  complex  whole. 

V.  The  exercise  of  a  mental  or  physical  activity  gives  rise  to  certain 
modifications  which  tend  to  persist,  i.  e.,  to  become  habitual.     The  ex- 
tent and  permanence  of  such  modifications  depend  largely  upon  age 

(brain  plasticity)   and  nutrition  on  the  one  hand,  and  thoughtful  at- 
tention (interest)  on  the  other. 

VI.  All  mental  activity  is  conditioned  by  brain  activity,  brain  activ- 
ity in  turn  is  modified  by  general  bo*dily  conditions,  chief  of  which  are 
nutrition  and  fatigue. 

VII.  A  sensory  stimulus  or  an  idea  is  incomplete  until  its  motor 
tendencies  have  found  expression  in  physical  movement  of  some  sort. 
This  expression  clarifies,  intensifies,  enriches  and  makes  concrete  the 
original  experience,  giving  it  significance  and  permanency. 

Essentials  of  Psychology. 

(Copyrighted.) 

Mr.  Harvey — I  have  just  a  few  moments  left  for  the  consideration  of 
the  next  topic*  I  do  not  need  very  much  time  because  the  proper  dis- 
cussion of  this  topic  would  suppose  that  we  had  reached  a  determina- 
tion as  to  the  essentials  of  psychology.  I  am  just  a  little  at  sea,  I  con- 
fess in  that  matter.  I  am  a  good  deal  of  a  believer  in  the  idea  that 
there  are  some  essentials  in  psychology  for  the  Normal  school  teacher 
and  that  you  can  name  them  and  that  you  can  number  them  and  that 
you  ought  to  do  it.  I  am  not  a  believer  in  the  idea  that  because  one 
knows  an  immense  amount  of  psychology  that,  therefore,  he  is  a  better 
teacher.  Some  of  the  worst  teachers  I  have  Known  are  the  people  who 
teach  psychology.  It  is  not  simply  because  one  knows  psychology  that 
he  is  a  good  teacher.  Some  of  the  best  teachers  I  have  ever  seen  had 
read  very  little  of  psychology  and  knew  very  little  about  it.  Somehow 
the  mind  has  a  way  of  working  inspite  of  the  school  teacher.  The 
pupil  oftentimes  learns  in  spite  of  his  teacher.  How  many  of  us  have 
had  that  experience  as  pupils?  Before  psychology  was  thought  of  or 
worked  out,  people  did  learn  something.  People  did  know  something. 
People  did  exercise  their  will,  and  I  suspect  that  the  children  of  today 
are  going  to  do  the  same  thing.  And  then  it  occurs  to  me  that  the  prob- 
lem comes  for  the  Normal  school  teacher  in  about  this  shape:  Is 
there  anything  in  this  field  of  psychology  which  has  been  developed 
through  a  careful  study  of  the  mind,  its  nature  and  processes,  that 
this  teacher  can  seize  upon  and  because  of  his  knowledge  of  it,  be 

*a.  Do  all  Normal  school  teachers  have  a  knowledge  of  the  essentials 
of  psychology,  and  such  a  recognition  of  their  value  as  will  result  in  the 
application  of  these  essentials  in  their  teaching  processes? 

b.  If  not,  how  can  such  knowledge  be  acquired  and  the  application  se- 
cured? 


46  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

better  able  to  cause  the  pupil  to  know,  to  do,  and  to  be  what  he  should 
know,  do,  and  be  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  life? 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  some  things  in  psychology  that  are 
essential  and  that  the  teacher  may  never  have  heard  of  psychology  and 
still  be  using  these  essentials.  But  that  is  no  warrant  for  saying  that, 
therefore,  a  teacher  need  know  nothing  about  psychology,  because- 
those  people  are  as  rare  as  angels'  visits  and  hens'  teeth.  It  is  only 
occasionally  that  you  see  them.  There  are  pupils  whose  minds  work 
in  a  logical  manner  naturally,  and  who  somehow  instinctively  do  the 
right  thing  at  the  right  time.  But  our  whole  system  of  Normal  school 
training,  in  this  and  in  other  countries,  is  built  upon  the  assumption, 
that  it  is  best  to  aid  tne  less  fortunate  mortal  who  has  not  this  powerr 
this  genius.  It  is  to  enable  him  to  do  what  he  is  undertaking  to  do 
more  systematically,  better,  and  more  economically.  Therefore,  I  be- 
lieve that  every  teacher  will  be  benefited,  other  things  being  equal,  by 
a  knowledge  of  psychology,  and  when  I  say  "other  things  being  equal," 
I  mean  that  he  shall  use  such  portions  of  his  psychology  as  are 
usable. 

You  nave  gone  over  this  field  and  discussed  the  second  question  as 
fully  as  the  first  this  morning.  I  have  been  very  much  interested  in 
your  discussion.  It  has  disclosed  how  wide  apart  we  are  and  how  near 
together  we  are. 

It  seems  to  me  that  our  business  in  the  Normal  school  is  three-fold,  to 
train  our  students — to  know,  to  do,  and  to  be.  If  that  be  true,  then 
psychology  ought  to  aid  us  to  have  our  pupils  know  better  that  which 
they  ought  to  know;  to  do  better,  more  surely,  more  economically,  and 
at  the  proper  time,  what  ought  to  be  done;  and  to  be  more  fully  and 
completely  what  they  ought  to  be. 

If  there  be  anything  in  our  psychology  that  enables  us  to  bring  to 
the  consciousness  of  the  pupils  and  to  the  guiding  and  directing  of 
their  activities,  elements  which  will  result  in  greater  power  and  ability 
on  the  part  of  those  pupils  to  know  or  to  do  what  they  ought  to  know 
or  to  do,  that  is  an  essential  in  psychology  and  the  teacher  ought  to 
know  it  and  to  use  it  to  that  end. 

If  there  be  anything  in  our  psychology  which  will,  when  mastered  by 
the  teacher,  enable  him  the  better  to  guide,  direct  and  stimulate  the- 
will  power  of  the  pupils,  to  so  train  them  that  they  shall  the  better- 
control  and  guide  themselves  in  school  and  out  of  it,  that  is  an  essential 
in  psychology  which  every  teacher  should  recognize  and  apply  in  his 
work.  In  the  Normal  school  it  is  important  for  us  to  apply  those 
principles  of  psychology  concisely,  definitely  and  persistently,  to  the- 
end  that  we  shall  get  the  result  which  we  are  seeking. 

I  have  stated  briefly  in  these  three  propositions  practically  what  you 
have  been  going  over  this  morning,  simply  to  give  another  phase  or  as- 
pect of  the  question.  It  seems  to  me  there  are  two  or  three  things  to 
be  considered  in  order  to  reach  these  ends.  The  first  thing  is  the' 
processes  of  knowing.  People  have  known  before  they  knew  there  was 
such  a  thing  as  psychology. 

It  is  the  teacher's  business  to  determine,  and  it  is  for  the  pupil's  best 
interest  that  he  shall  determine,  what  the  pupil  has  to  know,  and  what 
he  does  not  know,  and  hence,  what  is  yet  to  be  known,  and  then  through 
proper  guidance,  direction,  and  stimulus  of  the  pupil,  to  lead  him  to  the? 
point  of  mastery  of  what  is  to  be  known. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  PSYCHOLOGY.  47 

Observation  of  the  work  of  many  teachers  leads  me  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  matter  is  largely  neglected.  We  read  or  lecture  to  our  pupils, 
as  though  we  did  not  realize  that  they  get  nothing  from  words  oral  or 
written,  beyond  a  stimulus  which  serves  to  bring  up  in  their  minds 
the  ideas  for  which  these  words  are  symbols.  If  the  ideas  are  not  there, 
the  words  are  meaningless.  It  is  true  that  a  pupil  may  as  a  result  of 
reading  or  listening,  have  some  ideas  which  were  not  previously  in  his 
mind  in  the  same  form,  but  this  is  because  new  relations  between  old' 
ideas  have  been  established,  thus  creating  new,  and  perhaps  enlarged 
ideas. 

If  it  be  important,  then,  that  the  teacher  shall  know  in  advance  what 
must  be  known  by  the  pupil,  in  order  to  master  a  given  piece  of  knowl- 
edge; if  it  be  important  that  he  shaj.1  determine  from  day  to  day  what 
of  this  the  pupil  already  knows,  for  the  purpose  of  making  clear  to 
hinvwhat  he  has  yet  to  master,  then  is  it  not  important  that  we  shall 
focus  our  attention  upon  these  essentials  in  the  Normal  school;  that 
we  shall  discuss  them  in  our  faculty  meetings;  that  we  shall  examine 
critically  our  own  work  in  this  respect;  shall  report  to  others  and  dis- 
cuss with  them  what  we  and  they  are  doing  in  this  direction? 

The  second  proposition  is,  that  one  of  the  important  lines  of  work  in 
the  Normal  school,  is  to  train  pupils  to  do  something.  One  of  the  first 
essentials  in  the  training  to  do  is  training  to  develop  the  power  of  at- 
tention, and  if  the  teacher's  psychology  does  not  focus  strongly  upon 
that,  if  he  does  not  recognize  the  psychological  principles  governing  at- 
tention and  does  not  apply  them,  he  has  failed  materially  to  do  the 
thing  which  ought  to  De  done. 

More  than  that,  attention  lies  at  the  foundation  of  interest,  or  in- 
terest at  the  foundation  oi  attention — whichever  you  please.  Both  are 
true.  That  being  a  fundamental  thing  in  making  progress,  that  being 
fundamental  in  getting  a  well  regulated  self-activity  to  a  given  end, 
it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  worth  while  for  us  to  discuss  in  our  faculty 
meetings  the  question:  What  can  we  do  to  train  the  power  of  atten- 
tion in  these  pupils  so  that  we  may  better  hold  to  the  work  in  hand  un- 
til that  work  is  mastered? 

The  main  thing  in  education  is  the  formation  of  habits.  I  believe 
that  one  of  the  essentials  for  the  teacher  in  a  Normal  school  is  that  he 
shall  understand  definitely  and  clearly  and  thoroughly  the  psychology 
of  habit  forming;  that  it  shall  be  just  as  much  a  part  of  his  work  to 
train  his  pupils  in  habit-forming,  as  it  is  a  part  of  his  business  to  teach 
him  arithmetic,  geography  or  history.  It  is  the  thing  which  will  stick 
to  him  through  life.  It  will  shape  his  future  career.  It  will  determine 
his  success.  The  teacher  in  the  Normal  school  is  the  one  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  see  that  habits  are  formed  and  formed  correctly,  and  to 
train  the  students  under  his  tuition  so  that  they  shall  go  out  to  train 
others  in  the  formation  of  correct  habits. 

The  third  proposition  relates  to  the  training  of  the  will.  If  there  be 
any  such  thing  as  training  the  will  power,  if  that  is  vital  in  the  future 
welfare  of  the  child,  then  it  seems  to  me  that  the  teacher  in  the  Normal 
school  should  thoroughly  understand  the  psychology  of  the  will,  and  not 
only  understand  it,  not  only  be  able  to  discuss  it,  (I  do  not  care  if  he 
cannot  settle  all  the  mooted  questions),  but  he  must  bring  to  bear  upon 
his  pupil  who  has  no  will-power  or  control  over  himself  some  stimulus 


•48  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

that  gradually  will  develop  and  unfold  that  will-power  until  that  in- 
dividual Becomes  self-centered,  self-controlled.  Then  he  is  doing  the 
highest  work  that  any  teacher  can  do.  The  Normal  school  teacher  who 
leaves  that  to  accident,  or  to  inspiration  or  to  whatever  may  happen  to 
bring  it  out,  is  a  teacher  who  has  neglected  the  greatest  opportunity 
offered  in  his  work.  I  believe  a  study  of  psychology  will  enable  him  to 
do  this  better,  provided  he  shall  keep  this  in  mind:  "I  am  studying 
this  to  get  something  from  it  that  will  aid  me  in  my  practice  with  my 
pupils."  We  sometimes  lose  sight  of  that.  We  get  interested  in  our 
investigation  and  in  following  out  a  line  of  thought  and  do  not  think 
of  that. 

I  have  not  time  to  discuss  how  these  things  can  be  brought  about.  I 
believe  in  the  psychology  of  attention,  the  psychology  of  habit-forming, 
the  psychology  of  will-training,  and  in  the  application  of  that  psychol- 
ogy in  the  school.  I  believe  these  are  the  absolute  essentials  of  psychol- 
ogy in  Normal  schools.  There  are  other  things  that  are  valuable. 
When  I  use  the  word  "essentials,"  I  mean  the  things  we  must  have  if  we 
are  to  do  our  work  well.  It  does  not  mean  that  there  are  not  other 
things  which  will  aid  us  in  doing  our  work  well. 

We  need  to  have  an  apperceptive  mass  of  psychologic  truth  to  get  out 
of  literature,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  the  psychology  that  there  is  in  it. 
It  was  not  what  Professor  McGregor  got  out  of  McDonald,  but  what  Mi 
Donald  got  out  of  McGregor.  If  it  is  not  in  the  reader  it  cannot  be  got- 
ten  out.  Your  psychology  will  arrange  it,  organize  it  and  bring  it  to 
the  front.  I  would  like  to  have  a  study  of  psychology  that  shall  pave 
the  way  for  the  extensive  application  of  just  the  things  we  need. 


GE1STEKAL   SESSIONS. 

WEDNESDAY,  Dec.  19,  1900. 

Forenoon. 

Mr.  Harvey — The  first  topic  for  discussion  this  morning  is:  "What 
important  pedagogical  maxims,  truths,  or  principles  should  be  known 
;and  applied  by  Normal  school  teachers?" 

You  have  had  placed  in  your  hands  the  paper  prepared  by  President 
McGregor,  and  he  will  at  this  time  take  up  that  paper  and  give  some  il- 
lustrations, explanations  and  statements  with  reference  to  the  applica- 
tion of  these  maxims,  truths  and  principles.  His  presentation  will  be 
followed  by  a  discussion,  a  general  discussion,  in  which  I  hope  there 
will  be  the  utmost  freedom  of  participation. 

PEDAGOGICAL  MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 
PRESIDENT  DUNCAN  MCGREGOR,  Platteville. 

PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS. 

.A.  Normal  school  teachers  should  know  that  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  is 
the  most  important  factor  in  his  professional  growth,  for  in- 
stance : 


MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES.  49 

1.  That  the  most  important  qualification  of  a  teacher  is  admiration  for 

and  cultivation  of  noble  character.  Manhood  is  the  only  safe 
foundation  for  this  profession.  We  in  some  measure  assume  the 
qualities  we  admire. 

2.  That  the  teacher  must  have  unfaltering  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  edu- 

cation,— a  thorough  belief  in  the  Kantian  doctrine  that,  man  can 
become  man  only  by  education.     "Whatever  should  appear  in  the 
citizen,"  said  the  young  Kaiser  to  the  teachers  of  his  Kingdom, 
"you  must  put  in  the  school." 

3.  That  the  teacher  must  ever  seek  to  acquire  greater  teaching  power. 

He  who  is  not  a  learner  cannot  be  a  good  teacher. 

4.  That  whoever  would  make  a  business  of  teaching  should  have  a  large 

and  especially  a  ^well  organized  supply  of  teachable  material,  in- 
cluding enough  of  logical  sense  to  distinguish  between  inductive 
and  deductive  reasoning  and  tfieir  proper  applications.  We  can 
teach  only  what  we  know,  Jacotot  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing, and  let  me  add,  we  must  know  how  to  teach  what  we  do  know. 
B.  Normal  school  teachers  must  have  a  clear  conception  of  what  that 
process  we  call  education  really  means.  So  far  as  I  know  the  most 
recent  authoritative  delivery  on  this  subject  is  among  the  last 
words  of  Prof.  Thomas  Davidson  and  given  to  the  public  only  a 
month  or  two  ago.  "Education,"  he  says,  "is  conscious  or  volun- 
tary" evolution."  With  these  considerations  to  shape  ideals  and 
this  definition  as  a  sort  of  working  hypothesis,  the  following 
thoughts  are  offered  for  consideration: 

/.  These  relations  should  be  recognized. 

1.  Truth — Mind  and  body  constitute  a  partnership  and,  therefore,  each 

is  entitled  at  all  times  to  the  co-operation  of  the  other. 

Maxim— "A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  a  short  but  full  descrip- 
tion of  a  happy  state  in  this  world." — Locke. 

Principle — The  teacher  must  count  with  physical  condition. 

2.  T. — Through  sense  activity  the  raw  materials  of  knowledge  come 

into  consciousness. 
M.   (a) — "Nothing  is  in  the  intellect  which  has  not  previously  been  in 

sense." 

(b) — Sensations  are  the  mind's  capital. 
P. — In  the  earlier  stages  of  mental  life  the  child  must  be  encouraged 

patiently  and  carefully  to  collect  sensuous  materials. 

3.  T. — Repeated  reactions  of  sense  upon  an  object  result  in  significant 

sensation,  or  that  state  of  knowledge  called  perception. 

M. — Dead  or  unused  capital  brings  no  returns. 

P. — The  teacher  should  see  that  whatever  capital  the  child  has  on 
hand  shall  be  put  to  use.  The  net  balance  of  today  becomes  the 
live  capital  of  tomorrow.  This  principle  holds  true  throughout  ex- 
perience and  underlies  that  set  of  principles  to  which  belong, — 
from  the  familiar  to  the  unfamiliar;  from  the  indefinite  to  the 
definite,  etc.,  all  of  which  indicate  a  movement  that  mind  cannot 
evade". 

4>  T.— The  advance  to  rich  conceptions  is  through  clear  and  abundant 
perceptions. 


50  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

M. — We  reach  the  higher  rounds  of  a  ladder  only  by  making  use  of 
the  lower.  This  applies  to  all  stages  of  progress. 

P. — The  most  difficult  step  upward  is  from  perception  to  conception, 
from  particulars  to  generals.  This  step  can  never  be  made  short. 
Therefore,  at  this  point  the  teacher  needs  great  skill  and  the  pupil 
great  patience.  Here  scientific  method  first  manifests  itself. 

5.  T. — Every  act  of  mind  is  a  compound  of  knowing,  feeling,  and  will- 

ing. While  these  are  in  proper  balance  they  reinforce  each 
other,  where  either  one  is  in  excess  the  others  suffer  eclipse. 

M. — Energy  expended  in  emotion  is  not  available  for  reasoning,  and 
vice  versa.  Money  spent  in  luxuries  cannot  be  used  in  paying  for 
necessities. 

P. — An  illustration  similar  to  the  following  may  serve  to  give  em- 
phasis to  the  principle  here  applicable:  The  sum  of  the  sides  of 
any  triangle  is  constant;  when  these  are  equal  the  triangle  is 
balanced  and  encloses  the  greatest  space.  As  either  side  in- 
creases, one  or  both  of  the  others  must  diminish,  the  triangle  at 
the  same  time  becoming  more  and  more  unbalanced  or  lopsided" 
and  the  area  shrinking,  until  at  last  the  triangle  vanishes  in  a 
single  line  enclosing  no  space. 

6.  T. — All  knowledge, — all  mental  acquisition, — comes  by  self-activity. 
M. — No  activity,  no  growth. 

P. — The  chief  function  of  the  teacher  is  to  secure  right  mental  activ-  ' 
ity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.     This  thought  was  in  the  mind  of 
Philip  of  Macedon  when  he  entrusted  his  son  Alexander  to  the 
tutorship   of  Aristotle  with  the  one   direction, — "Make  yourself 
unnecessary  as  soon  as  possible." 

II.  Conditions  that  favor  right  activity. 

1.  T. — Interest  determines  the  direction  of  activity. 
M. — Where  no  interest  is,  effort  is  paralized. 

P. — Interest  may  be  aroused  by  a  happy  blending  of  the  familiar  an<f 
the  novel.  Excess  of  the  familiar  produces  monotony,  which  is 
mental  chloroform;  excess  of  the  novel  produces  distraction. 

2.  T. — Attention  follows  the  lead  of  interest  and  is  steadied  and  given 

purpose  by  interest. 
M. — "Interest  is  the  mother  of  attention,  attention  is  the  mother  of 

knowledge,  if  you  win  the  daughter,  make  sure  of  the  mother  and 

the  grandmother." — Joseph  Cook. 
P. — Fickleness  of  attention  is  natural  to  the  young  and  immature, 

but  in  older  and  more  mature  persons  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  weakness. 

and  should  receive  careful  treatment. 

III.  Choice  of  materials. 

1.  T. — Teachable  materials  are  far  from  being  of  equal  value  as  mental 
nutriment  to  all  pupils,  or  at  all  times  to  the  same  pupil.  Each 
stage  of  advancement  and  each  peculiar  condition  must  be  con- 
sidered in  estimating  educational  values.  Unassimilated  materials 
can  not  make  knowledge.  Cramming  comes  largely  through  the 
unsuitableness  of  materials. 


MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES. 


51 


M. — "Cramming  is  a  species  of  intellectual  feeding  neither  preceded 
by  appetite  nor  followed  by  digestion." — J.  S.  Blackie. 

P. — The  teacher  must  satisfy  himself  that  the  pupil  really  knows 
what  he  appears  to  know,  otherwise  it  may  be  a  case  of  cram  or 
probably  better,  sham.  Skillful  questioning,  oral  or  written,  will 
disclose  the  true  inwardness  of  the  case.  "Say  something,  that  I 
may  know  you,"  said  Socrates. 

IV.  Preparation  of  materials. 

A.  By  teacher. 

1.  T. — The  mere  fact  of  knowing  does  not  guarantee  ability  to  impart 
Knowing  for  self  alone  is,  by  no  means,  equivalent  to  knowing  for 
the  sake  of  others.  Even  knowing  for  the  purpose  of  telling  is 
not  sufficient  in  this  case.  The"  teacher  must  know  the  facts,  he 
must  know  the  attitude  of  the  pupil  toward  the  facts,  and  the  ef- 
fect that  the  facts  are  intended  to  produce  when  they  become 
knowledge  of  the  pupil. 
M. — Knowing  to  teach  —  Knowing  subject  -f  knowing  mind  to  be 

taught  -f-  foreknowing  effects. 

P. — The  Normal  school  teacher  must  prepare  himself,  his  materials, 
and  his  pupils  with  a  view  to  bringing  about  predetermined  re- 
sults. The  Method  of  the  What  secures  this  kind  of  preparation. 

B.  By  tne  pupils. 

1.  T. — Understanding  comes  by  relating  the  new  and  unfamiliar  to  the 

old  and  familiar.  The  mind  moves  step  by  step  and  step  after 
step  from  old  to  new.  Each  new  relation  established  enhances 
the  value  of  both  old  and  new.  This  makes  science  or  related 
knowledge.  An  isolated  fact  or  an  isolated  lesson  plays  no  part 
in  the  evolution  of  mind. 

M. — In  organizing  knowledge  we  organize  mind.  "With  all  thy  get- 
ting get  understanding." — Prov.  IV.,  7. 

P. — Proper  preparation  by  the  pupil  demands  proper  facilities,  and 
intelligent  direction  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

2.  T. — The  pupil's  preparation  should  be  independent  of  assistance  from 

other  pupils.     Thinking  is  individual.     Independent  work  is  the. 

profitable,  the  strong  work. 
M.— Beggary  is  debasing.     Soliciting  alms  for  show  in  a  recitation  la 

beggary  bordering  upon  dishonesty. 
P. — The  pupil  who  is  true  to  his  own  interests  will  not  allow  another- 

to  help  him  in  preparing  his  lessons. 

3.  T. — The  mere  fact  that  a  lesson  is  assigned  or  a  question  asked:  inir 

plies  that  effort  is  to  be  put  forth  to  meet  the  requirements. 
M. — The  business  of  the  pupil  is  changing  problems  into  postulates: 
P. — The  pupil  should  squarely  face  his  problem  without  flinching,, 
and  honestly  tackle  every  interference.  Probably  some  of  the  laws, 
of  the  football  field  could  be  used  here  to  advantage. 

Y.  The  Recitation. 

1.  T. — The  recitation  is  the  pupil's  opportunity  to  prove  to  teacher  and 
classmates  his  loyalty  to  his  calling,  his  trustworthiness  in  the  dis- 
charge of  duty. 


52  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

M. — The  reciter  is  the  star  performer  in  the  act  in  which  he  appears. 
P. — The  teacher  is  presiding  officer  of  the  meeting,  should  himself  ob- 
serve parliamentary  usage  and  require  like  observance  of  others. 

2.  T. — The  recitation  is  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  the  members  of  the 

class  and  each  member  should  be  allowed  to  reap  the  benefit. 

M. — The  pupil,  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the  reciting.  It  is  their 
inning,  not  his. 

P. — Since  impression  completes  itself  in  expression,  the  outward 
symbol  should  certainly  be  as  complete  and  perfect  as  possible. 
Utterance  is  only  utterance  of  an  idea.  Here  we  find  one  peda- 
gogical warrant  for  kindergartening,  modeling,  sketching,  compo- 
sition, and  manual  training. 

3.  T. — The  rights  of  listening  classmates  are  of  equal  validity  with 

those  of  the  reciter. 

M. — A  recitation  is  a  class  performance. 

P. — Members  of  the  class  should  have  the  first  chance  of  making  cor- 
rections or  amendments.  The  teacher  has  no  call  to  share  in  the 
reciter's  work  while  a  pupil  can  supply  what  may  be  wanting. 

4.  T. — The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  recitation  will,  more  than  any 

other  one  thing,  determine  the  attitude  of  the  pupil  toward  his 
work. 

M. — Children,  probably  adults,  too,  will  do  no  more  than  they  expect 
will  be  required. 

P. — The  recitation  is  a  job  or  piece  of  work  to  be  executed  in  a  work- 
manlike manner. 

P. — The  assignment  should  be  so  graduated  that  the  pupil  shall  have 
no  excuse  for  slighting  preparation  nor  the  teacher  for  hurrying 
the  recitation. 

5.  T. — Something  is  wrong  when  the  pupil  must  close  his  book  while 

the  teacher  may  keep  his  open. 

M. — "Consistency,  thou  are  a  jewel." 

P. — Every  teacher  should  so  master  the  lesson  that  the  text-book  may 
be  discarded.  The  text-book  in*  the  hands  of  the  teacher  is  a  dead 
wall  between  minds  that  ought  to  be  in  closest  communion. 

T7.  Management. 

1.  T. — Success  in  management  comes  through  sympathy  with  the  young 

on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  confidence  in  the  teacher  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils. 

M. — Mutual  respect  ensures  mutual  helpfulness. 

,  P. — The  child's  interests  determine  his  conduct,  and  through  these 
the  child  can  be  most  easily  influenced  whether  they  are  within  or 
without  his  school  life.  The  teacher  who  can  "enter  into  some 
right  interest  of  the  child  can  influence  that  child  to  better  con- 
duct. 

2.  T. — In  management  we  are  very  much  at  the  mercy  of  home  influ- 

ences.    Cordial    relations   between   teachers    and    parents    is    the 
most  powerful  aid  to  good  conduct.     The  establishment  of  such 
relations  is  impossible  when  the  teacher  holds  himself  aloof  from 
the  patrons  of  the  school. 
M. — "I  am  one  of  you,"  is  the  open  sesame  of  all  doors. 


MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES.  53 

P. — Teachers  should  be  actively  interested  in  tiie  enterprises,  the  in- 
dustries, the  welfare,  the  life  of  the'  community  as  a  whole  and  its 
individual  members. 

3.  T. — Rebuke  and  correction  will  frequently  be  needed,  but  the  man- 

ner of  the  true  teacher  will  show  that  the  very  thought  of  these  is 

distasteful. 
M. — From  all  nagging,  scolding,  and  sarcasm,  good  Lord  deliver  us 

and  our  children. 
P. — The  teachers  should  consider  the  incident  promptly,  completely, 

and  finally  closed  with  the  infliction  of  punishment. 

4.  T. — Heartiness  should  characterize  commendation. 

M. — Reluctant  praise  is  both  an  injustice  and  an  insult. 
P. — The  teacher  will  find  the  skillful  use  of  praise  and  the  sparing 
use  of  blame  great  aids  in  management. 


IN  CONCLUSION. 

We  have  considered  education  an  evolution,  a  continuous  progress 
from  indefiniteness  to  definiteness,  from  incoherency  to  coherency,  from 
want  of  organization  to  organization.  In  order  that  progress  shall  be 
permanent  we  form  a  habit  in  the  only  way  by  which  habit  can  be 
formed,  that  is  by  repetition.  Hence  it  becomes  necessary,  after  the 
right  activity  has  set  in,  that  it  shall  be  firmly  established  by  repetition 
or  drill. 

The  foregoing  principles  should  be  known  and  applied  by  all  teachers, 
but  by  Normal  school  teachers  to  such  purpose  that  pupils  shall  be 
convinced  of  their  practical  value  and  confirmed  in  the  underlying 
truths.  A  pedagogical  principle  must  always  hark  back  to  a  psycholog- 
ical truth. 

SUMMARJ. 

General  considerations. 

A.  1. — The  Normal  teacher  should  be  broad  minded  and  noble  in  char- 

acter. 

2. — The  Normal  teacher  must  believe  in  education. 
3. — The  Normal  teacher  must  be  scholarly. 

B.  I. — The  Normal  teacher  should  have  a  well  defined  notion  of  what 

education  means  and  govern  his  practice  accordingly. 

Special  considerations. 

I.— The  Normal  school  teacher  should  recognize  the  intimate  relation 
between  mind  and  body;  the  general  relation  of  exercise  to 
growth;  the  relation  of  sensation  to  knowledge;  the  relation  of 
any  one  stage  of  knowledge  to  every  other;  the  relations  existing 
between  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing;  and  the  relation  between 
self-activity  and  mental  growth. 

II.— The  Normal  teacher  should  understand  the  conditions  that  favor 
rignt  activity  and  how  to  secure  them. 


54  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

III. — The  Normal  teacher  should  be  a  competent  judge  of  the  educa- 
tional value  ot  the  different  school  studies;  know  at  what  stage  of 
progress  each  can  be  used  to  the  best  advantage;  and  how  the 
dangers  incident  to  the  want  of  foresight  and  forethought  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil  may  be  avoided. 

IV.  A. — The  materials  of  knowledge  should  be  most  carefully  prepared 

so  that  they  may  be  not  only  suitable  for  assimilation  but  attrac- 
tive in  the  manner  of  their  presentation. 

B. — The  pupils  should  so  prepare  themselves  that  each  may  give 
prompt  and  intelligent  response  to  the  work  in  all  the  stages  of 
its  progress,  remembering  that  ''To  him  who  hath  shall  be  given." 

V.  The  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  recitation  is  the  pupil's 

part  of  the  drama,  and  it  should  be  so  managed  that  each  reciter 
will  take  pleasure  in  doing  his  best. 

VI.  In  the  management  of  the  school,  the  teacher  must  count  with  the 

forces  in  the  homes  as  well  as  ihose  in  the  school;  he  is  in  the 
community  and  must  be  of  it;  he  must  be  an  organizer  as  well  as 
an  instructor;  and,  last  though  not  least,  must  abound  in  what  is 
next  to  the  most  effective  possession  of  all, — good  sense.  Gooa 
character  and  good  sense  are  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  teacher's 
equipment.  Other  qualification  can  be  secured  through  proper  ef- 
fort or  study  but  these  must  be  in  the  very  nature. 

NOTE. — The  above  paper  was  presented  by  Pres.  McGregor  with  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  contributions  from  many  of  the  teachers  present,  and 
also  with  a  running  body  of  comment  and  elucidation.  The  discussion 
that  followed  showed  that  a  further  effort  should  be  made  to  secure 
a  satisfactory  compilation.  In  justice  to  Pres.  McGregor  and  Prof. 
Lough,  it  should  be  stated  that  they  were  expected  to  present  the  mat- 
ters assigned  them  in  a  purely  tentative  manner. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  am  anxious  that  we  shall  have  a  formulation  of  what 
may  be  deemed  the  essentials  of  psychology.  I  am  going  to  ask  a  com- 
mittee that  I  shall  name  to  formulate  as  early  as  possible  (if  in  time 
to  report  at  this  meeting,  it  would  be  preferable),  and  report  to  the 
committee  having  charge  of  this  institute  as  appointed  by  the  Board, — 
a  formulation  of  those  psychological  principles.  I  will  ask  them  still 
further,  as  a  part  of  their  work,  to  consider  whether  the  formulation, 
just  presented  by  Mr.  McGregor,  which  has  been  in  your  hands  for 
some  days,  needs  re-casting  in  view  of  the  discussion  just  concluded. 
I  do  not  know  that  it  has  been  explained,  but  the  gentlemen  who  were 
asked  to  formulate  both  the  essentials  of  psychology  and  these  princi- 
ples and  maxims  understood  that  the  purpose  in  having  them  formu- 
lated and  presented  was  to  have  something  definite  before  the  institute 
for  discussion  and  that  out  of  that  discussion  there  might  arise,  if 
necessary,  a  re-formulation.  I  shall  name  as  the  committee  Messrs. 
Salisbury,  Jegi,  Lough,  Emery,  and  McGregor. 


APPLICATIONS  OF  MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES.     55 


ARE  THE  IMPORTANT  PEDAGOGICAL  MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  OR 
PRINCIPLES  NOW  KNOWN  AND  APPLIED  BY  NORMAL 
SCHOOL  TEACHERS? 

L.  D.  HARVEY,  State  Superintendent. 

As  I  have  listened  to  the  discussion  this  morning,  it  seems  to  me  that 
very  little  time  need  be  taken  up  on  that  question.  Unquestionably 
many  of  the  pedagogical  maxims,  truths  and  principles  are  known  and 
applied  by  teachers,  but  I  think  it  is  equally  true  that  many  important 
pedagogical  maxims,  truths  and  principles  are  either  not  known  or, 
being  known,  are  not  applied  by  teachers. 

I  was  struck  with  President  McGregor's  statement  that  it  was  much 
easier  to  talk  than  to  think.  That  is  a  very  forcible  way  of  putting 
it.  It  is  much  easier  to  think  a  t"hing  out  than  it  is  to  do  it  after 
thinking  it  out,  and  easier  to  do  it  than  it  is  to  get  somebody  else  to 
do  it.  The  most  difficult  problem  of  all  is  to  get  somebody  else  to  do 
with  their  pupils  what  ought  to  be  done  with  them.  We  know  more 
pedagogical  maxims,  truths  and  principles  than  we  apply. 

Now,  the  purposes  of  this  institute  should  culminate  finally  in  the 
highest  possible  development  of  teaching  power  on  the  part  of  the 
student  while  under  our  tuition,  and  that  means  ability  to  do  what 
ought  to  be  done,  wlien  it  ought  to  be  done  with  the  pupils  these  stu- 
aents  will  have  to  deal  with. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  specify  what  fundamental  principles,  or  what 
essential  principles,  or  maxims,  or  truths  are  not  known  and  are  not 
applied.  It  is  a  question  for  you  to  consider.  This  will  furnish  an 
excellent  text  for  many  a  sermon  which  you  may  preach  to  yourselves, 
and  out  of  that  may  come  such  an  examination  of  your  own  work  as 
will  settle  for  you  the  question  whether  you  are  applying  those  peda- 
gogical truths,  maxims,  and  principles. 

I  want  to  call  your  attention  to  one  or  two  things.  "The  teacher 
should  see  that  whatever  capital  the  child  has  on  hand  is  put  to 
use."  It  occurs  to  me  that  there  is  a  principle  that  is  not  always  ap- 
plied; that  it  cannot  be  applied  unless  we  know  what  capital  the  pupil 
has  on  hand.  I  want  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  third 
proposition  of  the  four  we  have  been  discussing  is  the  one  which  is  to 
be  made  to  answer  that.  And  further,  whether  you  do  it  as  the  third 
proposition  or  not,  it  is  material  that  you  do  it  sometime,  so  that  you 
shall  know  what  the  pupil  has  on  hand. 

"The  mere  fact  of  knowing  does  not  guarantee  ability  to  impart." 
I  think  there  are  very  few  teachers  in  the  Normal  schools  who  do  not 
recognize  the  truth  of  that  so  far  as  they  themselves  are  concerned. 
But  I  wonder  whether  we  always  recognize  that  so  far  as  our  students 
are  concerned.  In  other  words,  whether  in  much  of  our  academic  teach- 
ing there  is  nothing  more  than  academic  teaching;  there  is  no  thought 
of  anything  further.  If  that  truth  is  important  then  we  are  ignoring  it 
when  we  proceed  upon  the  assumption  that  all  our  pupils  need  is  know- 
ing, whereas  knowing  is  not  enough.  Now,  do  not  get  the  impression 
that  I  am  going  to  submerge  and  overwhelm  and  cause  to  disappear  en- 
tirely the  knowledge  side,  the  accuracy  side,  the  training  side,  with  a 


56  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

deluge  of  professional  work.  Not  at  all.  But  I  do  want  this  idea  to 
be  before  you,  that  we  must  teach  to  enable  our  students  to  wisely 
train  others.  It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  a  good  opportunity  there 
for  some  self-examination  and  self-improvement. 

"The  Normal  school  teacher  must  prepare  himself,  his  materials  and 
his  pupils  with  a  view  to  bringing  about  pre-determined  results."  There 
is  a  whole  volume  of  pedagogy  in  that  one  sentence. 

The  method  of  the  "what"  secures  this  kind  of  preparation.  Whether 
you  have  it  as  formulated  or  not,  that  kind  of  preparation  is  never  se- 
cured in  any  other  way.  I  have  said  that  several  times  and  I  expect 
to  say  it  several  more  times  because  it  is  fundamentally  true  in  the 
nature  of  knowledge  and  in  the  nature  of  mind.  And  that  is  why  I  am 
insisting  upon  it. 

"Understanding  comes  by  relating  the  new  and  unfamiliar  to  the  old 
and  familiar" — no  more  common  trutn;  no  one  more  frequently  stated. 
Every  teacher  understands  it.  The  pupil,  of  course,  if  he  gets  new 
knowledge  and  makes  it  old,  must  do  it  through  the  old.  The  question 
with  us  is:  Are  we  interf erring  with  the  only  processes  of  the  mind 
by  which  the  new  may  come  into  it?  If  we  are,  then  we  are  ignoring 
this  truth.  Are  we  to  assist  the  pupil  when  he  is  groping,  when  he 
does  not  know  what  is  needed,  when  he  cannot  relate  the  old  to  the  new, 
or  are  we  to  leave  him  simply  to  flounder,  or  is  it  our  business  to  study 
how  we  are  to  make  this  relation  of  the  old  and  familiar  to  the  new 
.and  the  unfamiliar  clear? 

And,  again,  I  want  to  call  your  attention  to  the  absolute  necessity  of 
knowing  what  is  called  for  in  the  second  proposition  that  we  consid- 
ered at  our  first  session;  because  if  that  is  not  known,  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty that  you  will  ever  be  of  any  earthly  use  to  your  pupils  in  making 
that  relation  known.  Further,  until  you  have  found  out  what  is  in  his 
mind,  there  is  no  certainty  of  your  helping  him  to  see  that  relation. 

Now,  I  take  it  that  these  are  some  of  the  maxims,  some  of  the  truths 
and  some  of  the  principles  that  are  not  always  applied.  And  as  I  said 
early  in  this  discussion,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  apply  them  as  to  think  and: 
talk  about  them. 

I  am  a  believer  in  the  value  of  the  maxim  as  a  starting  point.  When 
so  used  it  steadies  or  focuses  the  attention. 

In  discussing  these  different  questions  I  have  not  attempted  to  keep 
them  entirely  separate.  They  run  together. 

I  want  to  refer  briefly  to  the  statement  of  Professor  Hewitt  with  re- 
gard to  school  management  coming  before  the  psychology.  I  believe 
he  is  right  in  his  statement  that,  for  an  understanding  of  much  that  is 
essential  in  school  management  there  must  be  an  understanding  of 
some  things  in  psychology.  There  seems  to  be  a  pretty  firmly  fixed 
notion  that  is  steadily  growing,  that  really  about  the  only  place  for 
most  of  the  subjects  in  the  Normal  school  course  is  in  the  senior  year. 
That  idea  is  steadily  developing.  But  is  not  this  true,  fellow  teachers, 
that  in  order  to  have  a  psychological  principle  understood  on  which 
you  are  to  base  either  a  maxim  or  a  mode  of  procedure  in  a  single  phase 
of  school  management,  it  is  not  necessary  to  study  a  several-volume 
psychology,  nor  to  put  five  or  ten  or  any  number  of  weeks  upon  it? 
Is  it  not  entirely  feasible  and  possible  to  teach  only  what  psychology  is 
necessary  in  order  to  the  illustration  of  your  ideas  upon  management? 


APPLICATION  OF  MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES.      57 

If  that  psychology  is  essential  to  your  teaching  your  school  manage- 
ment, you  cannot  teach  without  it,  can  you?  As  Professor  Hewitt  says, 
proposition  II  determines  what  must  be  known  for  the  mastery  of  this 
phase  of  school  management,  and  when  the  teacher  has  formulated  that 
definitely  with  reference  to  any  particular  phase  of  school  manage- 
ment, or  with  reference  to  any  other  subject,  then  he  has  before  him 
the  field  of  knowledge  which  must  be  mastered  in  order  that  this  work 
can  be  done.  I  want  to  suggest  to  you  that  there  is  an  excellent  op- 
portunity there  for  some  fine  intellectual  work,  and  I  do  not  see  how 
you  can  possibly  teach  either  your  school  management  or  anything, 
else  without  doing  that.  And  when  that  is  determined,  then  I  should 
say  to  Prof.  Hewitt,  or  anyone  else  who  is  laboring  under  the  difficulty 
that  he  is  laboring  under,  if  these  pupils  have  not  the  preparation  that 
he  would  like  to  have  them  have,  he  js  to  determine  for  himself,  clearly 
and  definitely,  what  he  is  to  do  with  them  in  that  field  of  psychology 
under  those  conditions.  I  understand  what  the  difficulty  is.  Prof. 
Hewitt  will  at  once  say:  "I  am  expected  to  teach  so  much  of  school 
management  in  so  many  weeks  and  I  have  a  right  to  ask  certain  prep- 
aration." Well  and  good.  But  if  the  preparation  has  not  been  made, 
we  have  to  take  conditions  as  they  are  and  do  the  best  possible  under 
those  conditions.  That  same  thing  applies  in  your  science  work.  The 
science  teacher  would  like  to  have  his  subject  come  last.  Most  of  the 
teachers  would,  and  for  very  excellent  reasons.  The  teacher  of  chem- 
istry will  tell  you  why  some  knowledge  of  other  sciences  is  very  de- 
sirable for  his  work.  The  teacher  of  any  one  science  would  find  it  very 
desirable  if  his  students  had  certain  knowledge  of  other  sciences,  but 
they  do  not  have  it.  What  is  he  going  to  do?  Have  the  course  of 
study  changed?  He  would  if  he  could.  But  he  cannot,  and  he  must 
do  the  best  he  can.  What  is  the  best  he  can  do?  He  must  settle  for 
himself  this:  "In  order  to  teach  what  I  have  to  teach,  what  must  be 
known  by  these  students?"  And  that  settles  definitely  and  clearly  what 
essentials  must  be  known.  When  that  has  been  done  then  he  has  this 
proposition:  I  have  settled  what  must  be  known,  and  I  must  teach 
it,  because  if  it  has  to  be  known  my  purpose  cannot  be  accomplished 
until  it  is  known.  When  you  come  to  this  thing  which  needs  to  be 
known  before  you  can  make  further  progress,  teach  it  or  have  it  taught 
by  somebody  else.  If  you  cannot  teach  it,  get  the  teacher  who  can  to 
come  in.  I  want  to  tell  you  that  when  you  have  submitted  the  case  to 
this  analysis,  you  will  reduce  the  amount  of  those  things  which  must 
be  known  very  materially,  and  it  will  not  take  a  great  while  to  teach 
them,  and  right  there,  my  friends,  it  seems  to  me  is  the  valuable  thing 
in  the  whole  doctrine  of  correlation.  There  is  no  rational  correlation 
except  as  between  things  essentially  related,  and  any  attempt  to  do 
more  is  simply  lugging  in  extraneous  and  foreign  matter  which  has  no 
place  there;  and  its  only  result  is  "confusion  worse  confounded." 

Again,  the  second  and  third  propositions  settle  for  you  every  time 
what  is  the  correlated  truth  or  knowledge  that  applies  here;  that  is 
needed  here;  and  when  you  have  settled  that  you  have  a  standard  by 
which  to  determine  what  you  shall  attempt  to  correlate,  and  do  not 
need  to  take  someone  else's  say  so  for  it. 

I  do  not  know  but  what  I  am  wandering  away  from  this  particular 
topic,  but  I  think  not.  I  am  trying  to  discuss  this  question:  What 


.58  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

shall  be  done  first  in  order  to  apply  these  maxims,  truths,  or  princi- 
ples? As  a  general  proposition  it  seems  to  me  that  this  is  true:  That 
before  I  can  apply  any  common  maxim,  any  common  truth  or  any  com- 
:mon  principle  which  is  pedagogical  in  its  nature,  my  first  business  is 
to  settle  the  scope  and  content  of  it;  to  see  what  is  in  it;  to  see 
what  its  application  ought  to  result  in;  to  study  the  conditions  of 
the  people  to  whom  it  is  to  be  applied;  and  then  work  out  the  prob- 
lem: How  can  I  so  apply  it  as  to  produce  the  required  results?  You 
will  say  that  that  has  to  come  as  a  matter  of  years  of  practice,  of 
-experience;  but  what  we  are  trying  to  do  is  to  see  if  we  cannot  hasten 
the  process  a  little;  we  are  trying  to  see  if  by  careful  thinking  we  may 
not  save  time  and  effort  for  ourselves  and  for  our  pupils;  to  see  if  we 
cannot  make  this  an  art  rather  than  an  accident,  tnis  teaching  work 
of  ours. 

Take  the  maxim  relating  to  the  subject  of  "Attention," — what  can  I 
do  to  secure  on  my  own  part  the  power  to  apply  this  in  order  to  get  the 
^attention  of  my  pupils?  And  there  is  no  greater  problem  in  school 
management  than  that.  Sometimes  we  spend  more  time  on  inverting 
the  divisor  and  seeing  that  that  is  understood  than  we  do  on  how  to 
train  this  power  of  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  We  ask  fifty 
questions  about  the  best  way  of  inverting  the  divisor  where  we  ask  one 
about  the  best  way  to  develop  power  in  training  attention.  Perhaps 
the  reason  is  that  nobody  can  tell  the  best  way.  Again,  there  is  not 
any  best  way  that  applies  to  all  individuals  alike.  That  is  what  makes 
it  a  difficult  problem  for  the  teacher.  There  is  a  changing,  varying  set 
of  conditions,  necessitating  a  varying  adaptation  to  meet  them.  But 
the  teacher  who  would  solve  this  problem  for  himself,  who  would  un- 
•dertake  to  develop  this  power  of  applying  these  maxims,  truths,  and 
principles  relating  to  attention,  must  study  the  question:  What  are 
the  kinds  of  attention?  Under  what  conditions  do  we  get  the  one  or 
the  other?  Can  a  teacher  do  anything  to  develop  involuntary  atten- 
tion? That  comes  as  a  result  of  interest.  Then  the  inquiry  works 
along  this  line:  How  can  I  awaken  interest  so  that  this  involuntary 
attention  must  follow?  What  am  I  responsible  for  doing  in  shaping 
the  environment  of  the  pupils?  What  are  the  conditions  of  involun- 
tary attention? 

I  must  settle  the  conditions  under  which  voluntary  attention  comes 
about.  Then  what  can  I  do  to  see  that  those  conditions  obtain  on  the 
part  of  my  pupils?  What  can  1  do  to  control  and  remove  adverse  con- 
ditions? 

I  have  a  fixed  purpose,  and  I  first  go  to  work  to  determine  what  is  the 
knowledge  that  I  must  have  to  enable  me  to  realize  that  purpose,  or 
what  must  be  done  in  order  to  its  realization.  And  then  I  make  a 
further  analysis  to  determine  what  I  now  have  and  then  undertake  to 
master  the  other.  Then  I  have  solved  the  first  phase  of  the  problem, — 
knowing  what  needs  to  be  done.  Not  fully,  not  completely.  The  very 
first  effort  to  do  this  or  that  may  show  me  that  I  need  to  do  something 
more  than  I  have  planned  and  then  I  do  what  more  is  needed. 

This  process  of  work,  this  line  of  preparation,  is  the  one  which  is 
applicable  in  every  phase  of  this  work  of  determining  how  I  can  apply 
these  pedagogical  truths  in  my  teaching.  How  can  I  train  my  pupils 
to  apply  in  their  teaching  these  pedagogical  maxims,  truths  and  prin- 


APPLICATION  OF  MAXIMS,  TRUTHS  AND  PRINCIPLES.      59 

ciples?  We  can  never  feel  sure  that  they  will.  It  is  not  altogether 
•certain  tnat  they  will,  but  we  may  do  this:  We  can  call  the  attention 
of  these  pupils  of  ours  to  our  own  application  of  these  pedagogical 
principles.  We  should  challenge  them  to  tell  us  what  maxim  or  truth 
•or  principle  is  being  applied  today, — not  at  all  times,  but  frequently 
-enough  to  develop  the  habit  of  attending  to  this  professional  work,  to 
develop  an  inquiring  mind.  The  student  is  learning.  The  teacher,  if 
lie  be  a  teacher,  is  ever  learning,  and  so  the  student  should  acquire 
today  as  a  student  in  the  Normal  school  this  habit  of  constantly  trying 
to  develop  a  further  knowledge  of  his  art. 

I  should  have  enough  of  this  work  done  to  bring  into  the  conscious- 
ness of  these  pupils  the  fact  that  I,  the  teacher,  am  putting  into  ap- 
plication in  my  classes  from  day  to  day  the  essential  pedagogical 
truths  which  I  have  taught  them  or  which  have  been  taught  them  by 
others.  I  should  give  them  such  training  as  would  enable  them  to  de- 
termine those  truths,  and  as  a  result,  I  should  hope  that  before  they 
left  me  or  the  Normal  school  they  would  be  able  to  determine  whether 
or  not  I  was  right  in  applying  any  given  pedagogical  principle;  whether 
I  was  applying  what  I  ought  to  apply.  As  a  result,  if  carried  out,  not 
'by  one  teacher,  not  by  the  supervisor  of  practice  alone,  or  by  the  teacher 
of  pedagogy,  but  by  every  teacher  in  the  Normal  school,  I  should  ex- 
pect that  pupil  when  he  went  into  his  practice  work  to  be  conscious  of 
the  fact  that  he  was  applying  pedagogical  principles.  You  will  say 
that  this  is  a  terribly  uncomfortable  state  of  mind  to  be  in.  It  is  not 
half  so  uncomfortable  for  the  other  people  as  it  is  for  him  to  do  un- 
consciously the  thing  that  ought  never  to  be  done.  But  mark  you  this: 
If  he  has  had  this  kind  of  training  on  every  hand  as  he  goes  through 
the  Normal  school,  that  consciousness,  while  it  may  be  an  embarrassing 
thing  in  the  presence  of  his  practice  class,  will  be  infinitely  less  em- 
barrassing than  though  he  had  had  no  such  training.  I  would  carry 
.that  far  enough  to  develop  a  habit  of  thought,  a  habit  of  mind  and  of 
action,  and  out  of  that  action  would  come  a  freedom  from  restraint  and 
freedom  from  this  consciousness  of  work  to  be  done  in  a  particular 
way. 

I  would  first  have  all  of  the  teachers  in  the  Normal  school  determine, 
if  possible,  what  pedagogical  truths  and  maxims  are  important  and 
ought  to  be  applied.  Second,  I  would  have  them  stated  in  detail  and 
understood  by  teacners  and  students. 

I  would  go  still  further  and  study  the  larger  problem:  What  is  de- 
manded when  I  make  an  effort  to  get  these  students  of  mine  to  apply 
these  pedagogical  maxims,  truths  and  principles.  When  I  had  studied 
that  out  I  should  have  it  put  into  practice  in  every  department  of  the 
Normal  school;  a  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  teaching 
was  being  done  in  accordance  with  pedagogic  law;  a  consciousness  that 
should  come  into  the  student's  mind,  re-inforced  by  his  study  of  these 
questions,  by  questioning  the  teacher,  or  criticizing  the  teacher,  until 
there  should  come  to  be  a  mental  habit  on  the  part  of  the  student,  a 
habit  which  would  pass  into  a  habit  of  action.  I  believe  in  that  way 
we  may  secure  very  much  better  results  than  it  is  possible  to  secure 
ivhen  only  two  or  three  people  in  the  institution  are  doing  that  work. 

Mr.  Salisbury — By  what  means  may  the  students  be  made  conscious 
of  the  teacher's  applications  of  the  truths,  etc.?  The  pupil  cannot  be 


60  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

made  conscious  of  the  application  of  a  maxim  until  he  has  been  made 
conscious  of  the  maxim.  The  people  in  the  elementary  course,  in  the 
first  year,  would  not  come  unuer  this  proposition. 

Mr.  Harvey— Yes,  they  would.  I  should  have  the  students  in  the 
first  year  learn  one  maxim  at  any  rate,  and  then  I  would  have  that 
applied  and  have  them  conscious  or  its  application. 

NOTE. — The  committee  which  was  appointed  to  consider  and  report 
upon  the  papers  and  discussion  of  psychology  and  educational  maxims 
subsequently  submitted  the  following  report  which  embraces  the  con- 
clusions of  the  authors  of  the  papers  and  the  participants  in  the  discus- 
sion, and  it  is  judged  that  the  report  fairly  answers  the  purposes  of  the 
institute  in  this  behalf. 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  PSYCHOLOGY  AND 
PEDAGOGY. 

The  Committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  discussion  on  the  essentials 
of  psychology  and  pedagogy  as  related  to  teachers  in  Normal  schools, 
after  due  conference  and  such  deliberation  as  the  time  permitted,  would 
report  as  follows: 

1.  All  teachers  in  Normal   schools,  of  whatsoever   subjects,   should 
possess  and  habitually  exhibit  a  practical,  conscious  acquaintance  with, 
the  fundamental  principles  of  educational  psychology  and  of  pedagogy, 
and  such  an  apprehension  of  current  pedagogical  maxims  as  will  en- 
able them  to  properly  appreciate  their  true  meaning  and  their  limita- 
tions.    They  should  also  have  an  intelligent  familiarity  with  the  latest 
and  most  authoritative  statements  of  the  end  and  meaning  of  educa- 
tion. 

2.  The  following  outline  is  not  offered  as  an  exhaustive  or  scien- 
tifically exact  statement  of  what  belongs  to  educational  psychology,  but 
only  as  a  concise  recapitulation  of  those  principles  which  are  most 
vitally   related   to   the   business   of   education   and   with   which   every 
teacher  should  have  a  practical,  as  well  as  theoretical,  acquaintance. 
These  propositions  are  submitted  as,  in  our  judgment,  suitable  to  form 
the  core  and  basis  of  professional  instruction  in  the  Normal  schools 
so  far  as  this  rests  on  psychology.     We  assume  that  most,  if  not  all, 
pedagogical  principles  are  applications  of  psychological  principles.     We 
have  accordingly  arranged  the  matter  of  our  outline  as  follows:  first, 
psychological  principles;    second,  related  pedagogical  principles,  with 
some  corresponding  practical  maxims  or  apothegms. 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

I.  All  teachers  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  what  education 
really  means.    We  may  state  its  end  as  "complete  living,"  "self-realiza- 
tion," or  "character  building,"  but  .to  little  purpose  unless  the  full  and 
true  content  of  these  phrases  is  clearly  apprehended.     We  commend  to 
attention  the 'definition  of  education  by  Thomas  Davidson  as  the  "evo- 
lution of  a  social  individual  in  intelligence,  sympathy,  and  will." 

II.  All  teachers  should  know  that  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  is  the 


REPORT  ON  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.  61 

most   important   factor   in   his   professional   development   and   power. 
They  should  realize: 

(1)  That  the  most  important  qualification  of  a  teacher  is  admiration 
for   and   cultivation   of   noble   character.     Manhood   is   the   only   safe 
foundation  for  this  profession.    We  in  some  measure  assume  the  quali- 
ties we  admire. 

(2)  lhat  the  teacher  must  have  unfaltering  faith  in  the  efficacy  of 
education, — a  thorough  belief  in  the  Kantian  doctrine  that  man  can 
become  man  only  by  education. 

(2)  That  the  teacher  must  have  unfaltering  faith  in  the  efficacy  of 
a  large  and,  especially,  a  well  organized  supply  of  teachable  material, 
including  enough  of  logical  sense  to  distinguish  between  inductive  and 
deductive  reasoning  and  their  proper  applications.  We  can  teach  only 
what  we  know,  and  we  must  know  how  to  teach  what  we  do  know. 

(4)  That  the  teacher  must  evef  seeK  to  acquire  greater  teaching 
power.  He  who  is  not  a  constant  learner  cannot  be  a  good  teacher. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL    PRINCIPLES,    PEDAGOGICAL    PRINCIPLES,    AND    MAXIMS. 

I.  Mind  and  body  constitute  a  partnership.  Mental  activity  is  con- 
ditioned by  brain  activity,  which  is  modified,  in  turn,  by  general  bodily 
conditions,  among  which  are  nutrition  and  fatigue. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  The  school  must  take  due  cognizance  of  the  child's  physical  con- 
dition as  regards  sense  defects,  important  epochs  of  physical  develop- 
ment, and  temporary  indispositions. 

(2)  The  program  should  be  so  planned  as  to  recitation  and  study 
periods  and  succession  of  various  subjects  that  the  pupil's  powers  may 
be  duly  exercised  without  excessive  fatigue. 

(3)  The  school  must  furnish  suitable  conditions  for  work,  such  as 
good  ventilation,  proper  temperature,  and  light,  desks  adapted  to  the 
pupils,  and  proper  school  materials.     In  addition  to  the  above  may  be 
mentioned  quiet,  industry,  and  independent  work. 

(4)  "A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  a  short  but  full  description  of 
a  happy  state  in  this  world."  Locke. 


II.  Mental  development  is  due  to  the  constant  interaction  of  (1) 
hereditary  characteristics,  and  (2)  the  various  factors  of  environment 
which  the  mind  selects  from  the  complex  whole. 

Pedagogical  'Applications. 

(1)  The  school  must  proceed  on  the  assumption  that,  in  the  main, 
all  human  minds  have  like  fundamental  tendencies  and  yet  that  each 
has  its  own  individual  characteristics. 

(2)  All  subject  matter,  and  the  method  of  teaching,  must  be  such  as 
will  appeal  to  the  Normal  pupil  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  fail  to  find 
points  of  contact  in  each  individual,  whatever  his  peculiarities  may  be. 

(3)  The  school  must,  so  far  as  possible,  surround  the  pupil  with  such 
an  environment,  physical,  social,  and  spiritual  as  will  secure  the  realiza- 
tion of  his  highest  possibilities. 


62  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

III.  All  activity,  physical  or  mental,  gives  rise  to  certain  modifica- 
tions which  tend  to  persist  and  form  the  basis  of  habit.  The  extent 
and  permanence  of  such  modifications  depend  largely  upon  brain  plas- 
ticity and  nutrition  on  the  one  hand,  and  thoughtful  attention  on  the 
other. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  A  chief  function  of  the  schools  is  the  formation  of  right  habits 
in  the  early  years,  the  forestalling  or  elimination  of  bad  habits,  and  the 
strengthening  of  good  habits  already  formed. 

(2)  "The  great  thing  in  all  education  is  to  make  our  nervous  sys- 
tem our  ally  instead  of  our  enemy.     For  this  we  must  make  automatic 
and  habitual,  as  early  as  possible,  as  many  useful  actions  as  we  can, 
and  guard  against  the  growing  into  ways  that  are  likely  to  be  disad- 
vantageous to  us,  as  we  should  guard  against  the  plague." 

James. 

(3)  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  habit  has  a  double  ten- 
dency.    With  one  hand  it  offers  freedom  and  with  the  other  it  brings 
slavery,  not  simply  the  slavery  of  bad  habits  but  the  deadening  and 
narrowing  effect  of  mere  use  and  wont  unillumined  by  quick  apprecia- 
tion of  changing  circumstances.     The  individual  should  always  retain; 
the  power  of  rehabituation. 


IV.  The  mind  develops  only  through  its  self -activity.  Knowledge  and 
discipline  can  not  be  inherited  or  transferred  from  one  mind  to  another, 
but  must  be  acquired  and  developed  by  one's  own  activity.  Any  power 
of  the  mind  grows  strong  by  the  activity  of  that  power  against  appro*- 
priate  resistance. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "The  child  attains  to  knowledge  not  by  receiving  it,  but  by  tak- 
ing it.    He  instructs  himself.     The  teacher  is  the  guide,  co-operator, 
and  remover  of  obstructions  only."  Laurie. 

(2)  The  several  powers  are  developed  by  occasioning  the  natural  ac- 
tivity of  each.     "Exercise  strengthens  faculty." 

(3)  The  pupil's  preparation  should  be  independent  of  assistance  from 
other   pupils;     Thinking  is    individual.     Partnership   study   results  in 
lack  of  concentration,  of  self-reliance,  and  of  mental  assimilation.    The 
pupil  who  is  true  to  his  own  interests  will  not  allow  another  to  help 
him  in  preparing  his  lessons. 

(4)  The  recitation  is  the  pupil's  opportunity  to  prove  to  teacher  and 
classmates  his  loyalty  to  his  calling,  his  trustworthiness  in  the  dis- 
charge of  duty. 

(5)  The  recitation  is  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  the  members  of 
the  class  and  each  member  should  be  allowed  to  reap  the  benefit.     The 
pupil,  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the  reciting. 


V.  The  unfolding  of  the  mental  powers  proceeds  in  a  definite,  natural 
order  from  infancy  to  maturity. 


REPORT  ON  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.  Q% 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  All  educational  means  and  measures  should  harmonize  with  this 
natural  order  of  development.     This  is  a  vital  consideration  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  courses  of  study.     All  teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the 
capability  of  the  taught,  both  in  matter  and  inethod. 

(2)  Every  new  movement  of  mind  presupposes  all  the  prior  move- 
ments and  carries  them  with  it. 

(3)  Appeal  to  the  instincts  as  they  ripen:     "Strike  while  the  iron, 
is  hot." 

VI.  The  original  data  of  the  mind,  the  raw  materials  on  which  all  the 
intellectual  powers  must  exercise  themselves,  come  into  consciousness 
through  sense  activity.     The  advance  to  rich  images  and  concepts  is 
through  clear  and  abundant  precepts. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "In  early  years,  let  there  be  no  interference  with  the  freedom  of 
sensation,  but  rather  encourage  contact  with  all  forms  of  existence,  and- 
promote  the  natural  activity  of  the  child  in  every  direction." 

Laurie. 

(2)  The  primary  ideas  in  all  branches  of  knowledge  must  be  taught 
objectively  in  all  grades  of  school. 

(3)  Give  the  idea  before  the  term  and  make  the  connection  sure.     If 
the  term  is  given  before  the  idea  make  it  the  starting  point  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  idea  and  make  the  connection  sure. 

VII.  Attention,  the  indispensable  condition  of  all  mastery,  follows 
the  lead  of  interest,  and  is  steadied  and  given  purpose  by  it.     Interest 
is  aroused  by  a  proper  relating  of  the  novel  and  the  familiar.    Volun- 
tary attention  sets  the  mind  to  the  performance  of  a  given  piece  of 
work;  involuntary  attention  holds  the  mind  to  the  work. 

NOTE. — Interest  is  feeling,  any  form  of  feeling  which  calls  forth  the 
effort  of  attention. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  Attention,  or  the  concentration  of  mind  activities,  is  a  funda- 
mental condition  of  acquiring  knowledge  and  power  and  skill. 

(2)  The  activity  of  the  mind  at  any  moment  is  exercised  in  the  di- 
rection of  its  dominating  interest;  therefore  teaching  can  not  be  suc- 
cessful in  the  highest  degree  unless  the  interest  of  the  learner  centers 
in  the  subject  under  consideration. 

(3)  Fickleness  of  attention  is  natural  to  the  young  and  immature, 
but  in  older  and  more  mature  persons  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  weakness 
and  should  receive  careful  treatment. 

(4)  "Interest  is  the  mother  of  attention,  attention  is  the  mother  of 
knowledge,  if  you  would  win  the  daughter,  make  sure  of  the  mother 
and  the  grandmother." 

But  attention  may  also  become  the  mother  of  interest. 

(5)  The  mind  acquires  more  readily  and  permanently  under  the  stim- 
ulus of  pleasurable  feelings. 


<64  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

VIII.  Development,  intellectual,  emotional,  and  volitional,  proceeds 
through  the  interpretation  of  new  experiences  in  the  light  of  those  past 
•experiences  which  have  been  assimilated. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  All  teaching  involves  the  proper  relating  of  new  material  of 
knowledge  to  what  the  mind  has  already  appropriated.     To  the  new  by 
means  of  the  old  is  the  law  of  learning;    and  the  same  is  true  of 
emotional  and  volitional  development. 

(2)  Understanding  comes  by  relating  the  new  and  unfamiliar  to  the 
-old  and  familiar.     The  mind  moves  step  by  step  from  old  to  new.    Each 
new  relation  established  enhances  the  value  of  both  old  and  new.     This 
jnakes  science  or  related  knowledge.     An  isolated  fact  or  an  isolated 
lesson  plays  no  part  in  the  development  of  the  mind. 

(3)  A  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  the  learner's  mind  relative  to 
the  subject  to  be  presented  and  of  the  knowledge  necessary  to  its  mas- 
tery is  essential  to  successful  teaching. 

(4)  The  teacher  should  see  that  whatever  capital  the  child  has  on 
liand  is  put  to  use.     The  net  balance  of  to-day  becomes  the  live  cap- 
ital  of   tomorrow.     This   principle   holds   true   throughout   experience 
and  underlies  that  set  of  principles  to  which  belong, — from  the  familiar 
to  the  unfamiliar;  from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite,  etc.,  all  of  which 
indicate  a  movement  thai  mind  can  not  evade. 


IX.  The  mind's  power  to  recall  past  experiences  when  needed,  the 
contents  of  consciousness  from  moment  to  moment,  and  the  creative 
power  of  the  imagination  are  all  dependent,  in  great  measure,  upon  the 
suggestive  power  of  ideas,  or,  in  other  words,  the  principle  of  associa- 
tion. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  That  mental  efficiency  which  follows  the  power  of  ready  recall, 
is  Dependent  upon  breadth  of  association,  the  number  and  variety  of 
relations  established  between  the  items  of  our  knowledge. 

(2)  "Bind  new  facts  to  other  facts  by  relations  of  similarity,  cause 
and  effect,  whole  and  part,  or  by  any  logical  relation,  and  we  shall  find 
that  when  an  idea  occurs  to  us,  a  host  of  related  ideas  will  immediately 
'flow  into  the  mind." 

HallecJc. 

(3)  "Enrich  your  teaching  with  as  many  relevant  associations  as 
•possible." 

Laurie. 

(4)  "In  teaching,  repeat  and  re-repeat,  revise  and  re-revise;  and  be 
always  falling  back  on  elementary  facts  and  principles  relative  to  the 
subject  of  instruction,  so  as  to  maintain  the  series  of  associations." 

Laurie. 

X.  Sense    experience,    though    fundamental,    is    necessarily    narrow 
and  has  relatively  little  value  until  taken  up  and  recast  by  the  cognitive 
imagination,  wMch  gives  our  knowledge  its  widest  extension. 


REPORT  ON  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  PEDAGOGY.  (55 


Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "Imagination   is  the  spiritual   power  to  which  all  instruction 
turns,  and  upon  whose  co-operation  the  success  of  all  instruction  de- 
pends.    The  pupil  apprehends  the  words  of  instruction  only  when  his 
imagination  succeeds  in  illustrating  them  by  corresponding  images." 

Lindner. 

(2)  "Philosophers  may  be  right  in  affirming  that  we  can  not  tran- 
scend experience;  but  we  can  at  all  events  carry  it  a  long  way  from  its 
origin.     *****     Newton's  passage  from  a  falling  apple  to  a  fall- 
ing moon  was,  at  the  outset,  a  leap  of  the  imagination." 

Tyndall. 

(3)  Imagination  is  the  great  instrument  by  which  we  "proceed  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown;"  it  must  therefore  be  brought  into  play  in 
all  fruitful  acquisition.  ». 


XI.  Abstraction  and  generalization  are  the  fundamental  elements  in 
all  thinking;  without  them  there  can  be  no  general  knowledge,  no 
science.  They  are  the  basis  of  all  definition  and  all  classification;  but, 
like  imagination,  they  depend  on  experience  for  their  data.  The  ad- 
vance to  rich  conception  is  through  clear  and  abundant  perception. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "It  is  a  chief  business  of  education  to  pass  from  distinctly  per- 
ceived individual  notions  to  clear  general  notions." 

Pestalozzi. 

(2)  The  most  difficult  step  upward  is  from  perception  to  conception, 
from   particulars   to   generals.     This   step   can   never   be   made   short. 
Therefore,  at  this  point  the  teacher  needs  great  skill  and  the  pupil 
great  patience.     Here  scientific  method  first  manifests  itself. 

(3)  The  complete  method  of  instruction  is  inductive-deductive,  it  in- 
volves not  only  the  ascent  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  but  also 
a  return  from  the  general  to  particulars. 


XII.  Language  is  not  merely  the  necessary  instrument  for  the  com- 
munication of  thought;  but  it  is  also  an  indispensable  auxiliary  to 
thought  itself.  Created  by  thought,  it  in  turn  develops  it,  aids  it  and 
defines  it,  and  lightens  the  burden  of  intelligence. 

Compayre. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "Language  is  an  appeal  to  the  ideational  consciousness  of  an- 
other."    Nothing  absolutely  new  can  be  put  into  the  mind  of  another  by 
language;  it  can  only  excite  the  mind  to  construct  ideas  of  its  own. 

(2)  "He  who  is  intelligently  analyzing  language   is  analyzing  the 
processes  of  thought,  and  is  a  logician  without  knowing  it. 

Laurie. 

(3)  Language  is  abstract  and  has  its  limitations.     One  of  the  most 
serious  of  these  is  the  danger  that  words  may  become  substitutes  for 
ideas.    Another  danger  lies  in  the  liability  of  the  teacher  to  deceive  him- 
self as  to  how  well  ne  is  understood. 


GG  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

XIII.  A  sensory  stimulus  or  an  idea  is  incomplete  until  its  motor 
tendencies  have  found  expression  of  some  sort.  This  expression  clari- 
fies, intensifies,  enriches,  and  makes  concrete  the  original  experience, 
giving  it  significance  and  permanence. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "There  seems  to  be  a  general  law  in  the  universe  that  impression 
completes  itself  in  expression,  and  that  the  former  is  incomplete  with- 
out the  actuality  of  the  latter." 

Laurie. 

(2)  The  school  must  provide  for  adequate  expression  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  both  in  respect  to  time  and  variety.     Expression  through 
language,  oral  and  written,  is  of  the  utmost  importance  but  is  not  suffi- 
cient of  itself.     Drawing,  modeling,  sewing,  and  other  forms  of  manual 
training  are  necessary  to  give  full  scope  to  the  child's  love  and  need  of 
expression. 

(3)  "When  impressions  are  passive,  that  is,  do  not  issue  in  action, 
they  gradually  issue  in  insensibility." 

Bishop  Butler. 

(4)  "Seize  the  very  first  possible  opportunity  to  act  on  every  resolu- 
tion you  make,  and  on  every  emotional  prompting  you  may  experience 
in  the  direction  of  the  habits  you  aspire  to  gain." 

James. 

XIV.  Every  state  of  the  mind  is  a  compound  of  knowing,  feeling,  and 
willing,  and  we  name  the  state  from  its  predominating  element.  When 
these  are  in  proper  balance,  they  re-inforce  each  other;  when  either  one 
is  in  excess  the  others  suffer  eclipse;  but  the  development  of  a  good 
will  is  the  consummate  result  of  true  education. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  All  the  training  and  instruction  of  home,  school,  state,  society, 
and  church  is  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  impulses  and  inhibitions 
for  the  will  or  to  give  direct  will  training. 

(2)  Self-control  is  a  sign  of  will  power. 


XV.  Since  feelings  supply  the  strongest  motives  to  the  will  and 
largely  determine  thought  as  well  as  action,  the  formation  of  worthy 
character  involves  careful  cultivation  of  the  emotions,  both  in  the 
way  of  stimulation  and  repression. 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "The  training  of  the  moral  facultly  in  a  self-reliant  mode  of  feel- 
ing and  judging  includes  the  habitual  exercise  of  the  sympathetic  feel- 
ings together  with  the  powers  of  judgment." 

Bully. 

(2)  It  is  an  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work  to  supply  motives. 
He  therefore  needs  to  be  clearly  acquainted  with  the  whole  gamut  of 
motives,  their  relative  value  and  elevation. 

(3)  The  child's  interest  determine  his  conduct,  and  through  these 
the  child  can  be  most  easily  influenced  whether  they  are  within  or 


POSSIBLE  ELIMINATION  OF  PROFESSIONAL  WORK.         £7 

without  his  school  life.     The  teacher  who  can  enter  into  some  right 
interest  of  the  child  can  influence  that  child  to  better  conduct. 

XVI.  The  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  not  the  only,  nor  even  the 
principal  end  of  education;  but  there  can  be  no  education  without  it 
"What  blood  and  breath  are  to  the  body  that,  in  a  larger  sense,  knowl- 
edge is  to  the  mind;  it  is  the  means  of  mind-nutrition." 

Pedagogical  Applications. 

(1)  "Appropriate  matter  for  investigation  and  study,  properly  pre- 
sented to  the  mind,  excites  the  necessary  exercise,  self-activity." 

Putnam. 

(2)  Teachable  materials  are  far  from  being  of  equal  value  as  mental 
nutriment  to  all  pupils,  or  at  all  times  to  the  same  pupil.    Eacn  stage 
of  advancement  and  each  peculiar  condition  must  be  considered  in  esti- 
mating  educational   values.     Unassimilated   materials    can    not   make 
knowledge.     Cramming  comes  largely  through  the  unsuitableness  of 
materials. 

(3)  The  determination  of  what  knowledge  shall  be  presented  to  the 
mind  for  assimilation  at  a  given  time,  or  recitation,  must  not  be  left 
in  any  degree  to  chance  or  accident  but  should  be  regulated  by  fixed 
principles  of  procedure,  viz.: 

Prop.  1.  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind  a  definite  purpose,  or  pur- 
poses, to  be  realized  in  the  recitation. 

Prop.  2.  He  must  have  in  mind  the  things  which  must  be  known,  or 
the  steps  which  must  be  taken,  in  order  that  the  purpose  may  be  real- 
ized. 

Prop.  3.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of  these  thing  the  pupil 
now  knows  or  can  do. 

Prop.  4.  He  must  thus  determine  what  of  the  things  indicated  under 
Prop.  2  the  pupil  still  has  to  learn  or  do,  and  the  order  in  which  they 
should  be  known  or  done. 

ALBERT  SALISBURY, 
J.  E.  LOUGH, 
DUNCAN  MCGREGOR, 
J.  I.  JEGI, 
J.  Q.  EMERY. 

Committee. 


GENERAL  SESSION. 

THURSDAY,  Dec.  20,  1900. 

Forenoon. 

Mr.  Harvey — The  first  thing  on  the  program  is  a  paper  by  Prof.  Sage 
of  Oshkosh. 

POSSIBLE  ELIMINATION  OF  SOME  SO  CALLED  STRICTLY  PRO- 
FESSIONAL WORK  NOW  DONE  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 
A.  H.  SAGE,  Oshkosh. 

Professional  knowledge  and  professional  spirit  can  not  be  superim- 
posed upon  an  untrained  mind.     To  force  theories  of  teaching  a  sub- 


68  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ject  upon  an  individual  who  is  still  struggling  with  the  fundamentals 
or  to  whom  the  fundamentals  are  so  new  or  nascent  as  to  lack  con- 
gruity  and  repose  in  his  mind  is  not  simply  absurd,  it  is  impossible  of 
successful  accomplishment.  It  is  an  accepted  doctrine  that  professional 
training  in  any  field  should  follow  such  academic  and  experimental 
training  as  will  fit  the  mind  first  to  comprehend  and  appreciate  the 
principles  and  practice  of  the  profession  and  then  to  make  an  intelli- 
gent application.  But  as  regards  the  particular  profession  of  teaching, 
it  seems  to  be  assumed  that  the  order  may  be  reversed  or  at  least  that 
both  processes  may  be  carried  on  at  the  same  time.  Let  us  put  the 
question  directly  in  the  following  form:  Can  a  student  successfully  or 
advantageously  undertake  the  consideration  of  a  subject  from  the  point 
of  view  of  a  professional  before  he  is  thoroughly  master  of  the  subject 
and  betore  he  has  had  such  training  as  will  give  him  a  capacity  for  and 
appreciation  of  the  philosophy  of  the  work  presented?  I  shall  not  as- 
sume that  any  teacher  of  experience  could  possibly  answer  these  ques- 
tions otherwise  than  in  the  negative.  Yet  it  seems  that  in  our  course 
as  at  present  arranged  we  are  doing  this  very  thing  and  that  the  man- 
ner in  which  we  are  attempting  it  is  supported  by  neither  reason  nor 
pedagogy. 

We  are  striving  too  much  to  make  professionals  and  too  little  to  make 
teachers.  The  principal  or  superintendent  of  schools  should  be  a  pro- 
fessional; those  who  do  the  teaching  in  his  schools  should  be  teach- 
ers. One  is  a  science,  the  other  is  an  art.  It  is  quite  possible  to  have 
a  good  superintendent,  one  possessed  of  the  finest  professional  knowl- 
edge, who  might  be  a  complete  failure  as  a  primary  teacher;  and  it 
is  equally  easy  to  find  tine  primary  teachers  who  have  almost  no  pro- 
fessional knowledge.  To  more  than  90  per  cent,  of  our  students,  pro- 
fessional knowledge  counts  for  little  in  practice  and  almost  nothing  in 
their  anticipations  of  future  usefulness.  Their  whole  concern  and  in- 
terest lie  in  the  direction  of  the  art  of  teaching,  not  in  the  profession. 
We  should  know  then  whether  it  is  the  function  of  the  Normal  to  pre- 
pare professionals  or  practical  teachers.  If  we  are  preparing  profes- 
sionals, then  the  more  professional  review  and  training  classes  we 
have  the  better,  in  order  that  the  student  may  have  a  clear  general  idea 
of  the  general  method  and  theory  of  all  that  belongs  to  the  school  cur- 
riculum; but  if  we  are  preparing  practical  teachers,  then  it  becomes 
our  duty  to  give  the  student  not  all  the  theories  and  methods  that  have 
been  devised  for  teaching  every  subject  known  to  the  art,  but  rather  to 
give  him  a  knowledge  of  how  to  teach  something,  or  some  few  subjects 
so  that  his  training  will  be  such  that  he  may  have  ideals  within  himself 
and  actually  be  within  himself  a  model  below  which  he  will  be  ashamed 
to  fall.  It  is  the  same  old  question:  Will  you  try  to  tell  the  student 
every  thing  he  should  know  or  will  you  make  him  such  a  master  of  a  few 
things  that  he  may  become  master  of  many?  Will  you  teach  to  give  him 
quantity  of  knowledge,  tr  will  you  teach  to  give  him  power  over  all 
knowledge? 

The  teacher  should  have  such  a  conception  of  teaching  as  will  make 
poor  teaching  impossible.  This  will  not  come  from  having  heard  a 
great  deal  about  every  subject  in  the  curriculum  but  from  having 
taught  at  least  one  thing  supremely  well.  But  in  practice,  we  haul  the 
student  over  the  entire  professional  field  first  in  his  general  theory 
work  under  the  heads  of  psychology,  observation,  theory  of  teaching, 


POSSIBLE  ELIMINATION  OF  PROFESSIONAL  WORK. 


69 


and  history  of  education;  and  then  proceed  to  carry  him  over  the  whole 
field  again  in  painful  detail  in  an  endless  chain  of  professional  reviews, 
and  all  of  these  under  as  many  different  teachers,  few  of  whom  either 
know  anything  about  or  have  anything  effectual  to  say  about  the  actual 
application  of  the  theories  presented  when  the  student  comes  to  his 
practice  in  teaching,  and  most  of  whom  have  never  had  any  experience 
in  applying  their  own  theories  under  such  circumstances  as  the  student 
must  face  in  his  future  work. 

This  attempt  to  teach  all  that  the  wise-acres  know  about  teaching  is 
professionalism.  But  that  kind  of  work  in  itself  has  little  to  do  with 
unfolding,  educating  or  evolving  a  teacher.  It  rather  tends  on  the 
whole  to  prevent  such  a  consummation.  "Jack  of  all  trades  and  good 
for  nothing"  would  be  an  appropriate  label  to  place  on  every  Normal 
graduate  were  it  not  for  the  supremely  beneficent  law  of  nature  which 
makes  it  difficult  to  stop  a  man  from  thinking  for  himself  even  when 
gagged  and  blindfolded  by  his  superiors.  A  single  question  will  re- 
veal the  whole  fallacy  of  our  present  practice  of  making  the  student  go 
through  the  grind  of  six  to  ten  professional  subjects  in  two  years.  It 
is  this,  What  one  of  you,  taking  simply  the  theories  and  principles  set 
forth  in  any  professional  review  subject  with  which  you  are  acquainted, 
could  go  out  into  the  public  schools  and  make  a  success  in  teaching 
that  or  any  other  subject  on  that  basis?  You  may  attempt  to  escape 
the  question  by  saying  that  you  would  expect  to  think  for  yourself  and 
to  make  such  adaptations  of  pedagogical  principles  to  the  work  in  hand 
as  circumstances  might  require.  Certainly.  That  means  that  you  have 
brains  and  sense  and  do  not  need  to  be  told  in  detail  everything  that 
the  professionals  think  should  be  done.  It  means  that  your  success  will 
depend  not  on  whether  you  have  been  told  beforehand  why  corn  grows 
in  one  place  and  cotton  in  another  instead  of  where  these  products 
grow,  but  that  success  depends  far  more  surely  on  whether  you  are 
alive  to  the  problem  of  teaching,  on  whether  your  ideals  are  high,  on 
whether  you  are  determined  to  teach  in  all  respects  as  well  or  better 
than  you  did  in  some  excellent  work  you  did  at  the  Normal,  on  whether 
you  aim  to  teach  as  well  or  better  than  those  who  taught  you  because 
that  teaching  convinced  you  by  its  success  and  efficiency,  and  on 
whether  you  have  by  diligence  and  continued  study  and  application  se- 
cured such  a  hold  on  the  art  or  actual  practice  in  some  line  that  you 
have  the  art  within  your  self  to  apply  rather  than  a  dozen  note  books 
full  of  theories  from  as  many  different  sources. 

The  future  teacher's  success  will  depend  not  on  whether  he  has  had 
all  the  methods,  devices,  and  theories  of  education,  nor  on  the  vast  ar- 
ray of  professional  reviews  he  has  covered  in  as  many  five  or  ten  week 
periods;  but  on  whether  he  knows  how  to  conduct  a  recitation;  whether 
he  has  acquired  skill  in  the  presentation  of  knowledge  and  in  the  art 
of  questioning;  on  whether  he  has  ideals  back  of  which  he  is  ashamed 
to  go;  on  whether  he  has  acquired  such  appreciation  for  the  practi- 
cability of  pedagogical  principles  as  will  ensure  his  following  them  and 
practicing  them. 

The  situation  may  be  somewhat  imperfectly  described  as  follows: 
The  student  enters  his  first  professional  review  class  with  preconceived 
notions  brought  from  his  experience  as  a  pupil  in  other  schools  and 
perhaps  from  some  experience  as  a  teacher.  Onto  these  experiences 
has  been  grafted  his  theory  of  teaching  studied  as  a  science.  For  the 


YO  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

first  time  in  his  life  his  experiences,  the  science  of  education,  and  the 
theory  as  exemplified  in  the  special  subject  under  professional  review 
are  brought  together  to  be  harmonized  and  reduced  to  an  intelligent 
working  basis.  He  doubtless  makes  an  earnest  effort  to  do  so.  By  the 
time  his  eyes  are  opened  and  he  begins  to  wonder  whether  there  is  any 
thing  in  it  or  not,  the  term  closes  and  he  is  passed  on  from  say,  pro- 
fessional arithmetic  to  professional  music  perhaps.  Here  quite  a  dif- 
ferent set  of  principles  and  ideas  are  held  up  for  him  to  contemplate. 
He  may  have  absolutely  no  aptitude  for  the  work,  may  be  fully  de- 
termined never  to  attempt  any  thing  in  that  line,  may  not  even  be  able 
to  tell  one  tune  from  another.  No  matter,  he  must  go  through  the  grind. 
From  music  he  is  piloted  through  a  ten  weeks'  course  in  professional 
English.  What  can  he  ao  in  ten  weeks  with  such  a  subject?  Just  be- 
gin to  realize  that  the  subject  is  worth  considering;  but  lest  he  should 
possibly  get  some  real  lasting,  workable  impression  made  on  him,  he  is 
hustled  out  of  this  important  and  fruitful  field  to  hear  still  another 
teacher  propound  the  philosophy  of  gymnastics,  wherein  about  all  that 
counts,  rests  on  the  same  principles  he  had  in  physiology,  except  such  as 
should  have  been  definitely  and  specifically  pointed  out  to  him  at  the 
very  time  he  was  getting  his  own  gymnastic  exercises.  And  how 
about  his  professional  arithmetic  and  music  in  the  mean  time?  Well, 
he  has  them  all  in  a  note  book.  But  so  far  as  having  gained  a  working 
basis  is  concerned,  he  koows  little  and,  by  this  time,  cares  less.  This 
process  is  continued  through  eight  or  ten  professional  reviews,  in  none 
of  which  is  there  a  slightest  chance  for  him  to  get  down  to  such  a 
consideration  of  the  question  of  teaching  that  or  any  other  subject  as 
will  give  a  certain  faith  in  the  principles  of  pedagogy  because  he  has 
made  them  work  or  seen  someone  else  do  it  or  because  he  has  gained 
an  appreciation  of  the  relation  between  the  philosophy  of  teaching  and 
the  practice  of  it. 

Finally,  it  may  be  observed  that  as  the  student  goes  from  class  to 
class,  he  generally  finds  the  academic  teachers  nearly  or  quite  ignoring 
the  fact  that  they  have  anything  to  do  but  teach  the  subject,  and  the 
atmospLere  of  the  ciass  such  as  to  detract  from  his  application  of  the 
professional  aspects  of  the  work. 

In  a  nut  shell,  then,  let  me  sum  up.  (1)  Satisfactory  professional 
work  can  not  be  superimposed  upon  an  untrained  mind,  nor  advan- 
tageously pursued  by  a  student  who  is  still  struggling  with  the  subject 
matter  in  the  academic  sense.  (2)  As  90  per  cent  or  more  of  our  stu- 
dents will  become  simply  practitioners  in  the  art  of  teaching  and  not 
real  professionals,  it  is  neither  wise  nor  expedient  to  attempt  in  so 
short  a  time  to  give  them  an  assured  professional  knowledge  of  all  the 
branches  to  be  taught.  (3)  The  student  and  prospective  teacher  instead 
of  getting  an  inspiring  and  highly  satisfactory  appreciation  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  theories  pertaining  to  his  chosen  work,  rather  gets  the  idea 
that  the  whole  business  is  a  matter  of  speculation  and  difference  of 
opinion  among  those  supposed  to  be  best  qualified  to  make  use  of  these 
principles  if  anybody  could.  He  proceeds  from  a  state  of  earnest 
expectation  at  the  outset  to  one  of  dissatisfaction  and  sometimes  disgust 
in  the  end.  (4)  With  certain  subjects  specially  labeled  "professional 
review  subjects"  the  student  absolves  himself  from  all  allegiance  to 
pedagogical  principles  in  all  classes  not  so  labeled  and  his  teachers  too 
often  do  likewise.  (5)  The  professional  review  subjects  are  so  num- 


POSSIBLE  ELIMINATION  OF  PROFESSIONAL  WORK.         fl 

erous  in  his  brief  course  and  therefore  so  superficial  that  excellent 
work  in  some  important  senses  can  not  be  done.  (6)  Every  student 
with  some  unimportant  exceptions  is*required  to  go  through  the  same 
professional  course  no  matter  what  kind  of  work  he  intends  to  do  in  the 
future  ana  no  matter  what  his  aptitude  for  a  given  work  may  be.  The 
future  high  school  principal,  the  primary  teacher,  and  the  prospective 
teacher  of  gymnastics  all  go  through  the  same  tread  mill  and  come 
out  with  a  diploma  cut  to  exactly  the  same  length.  (7)  There  is  no 
place  or  point  in  his  course  where  the  student  gets  any  more  forcible 
idea  of  the  application  of  the  principles  of  teaching  than  those  em- 
bodied in  the  expression,  "Hustle  and  get  into  the  next  professional  re- 
view class,  for  you  have  got  to  do  ten  of  these  grinds  before  you  get 
that  diploma."  (8)  Nowhere  in  his  course  is  there  a  dignified,  sus- 
tained consideration  of  any  subject,  following  the  student  right  into  his 
actual  teaching  and  giving  him  such  an  opportunity  to  test  his  theories 
then  and  there  as  will  convince  him  of  the  value  of  a  study  of  peda- 
gogical principles.  (9)  And  finally,  there  is  little  or  no  harmony  or 
unity  of  action  between  the  professional  review  teachers  and  the  work 
in  the  practice  department  so  that  the  philosophy  in  one  reinforces  the 
practice  in  the  other. 

In  view  of  these  defects  in  our  Normal  school  arrangement  of  profes- 
sional work  some  of  which  will  be  conceded  by  all  those  interested  and 
all  of  which  may  possibly  be  admitted  by  some,  I  submit  the  following 
suggestions  looking  toward  correction  01  the  difficulties: 

(1)  Every  exercise  and  every  class  in  every  academic  subject  in  the 
normal  school  should  be  a  lesson  in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  so 
far  as  this  is  consistent  with  the  fact  that  the  student's  first  business  in 
an  academic  recitation  is  to  get  the  subject  under  consideration. 

(2)  The  number  of  strictly  professional  review  subjects  required  of 
the  student  in  so  brief  a  course  should  not  exceed  three  and  these 
should  be  pursued  for  at  least  20  weeks  each  with  practice  teaching  in 
the  same  subject  during  the  second  ten  weeks.     These  subjects  should 
be  strictly  professional,  i.  e.,  should  be  devoted  from  first  to  last  to  the 
study  of  the  principles  and  philosophy  of  teaching  as  applied  to  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration,  and  should  be  based  on  a  good  academic  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject. 

(3)  The  teacher  of  the  professional  subject  should  have  a  due  re- 
sponsibility in  the  success  or  failure  of  the  student  who  during  the 
second  ten  weeks  mentioned  undertakes  to  put  in  practice  what  he  has 
learned  and  discussed  in  the  professional  class,  and  should  follow  him 
closely  into  his  practice  teaching  and  determine  the  merits  of  his  work 
in  conjunction  with  the  director  of  practice. 

(4)  The  president  of  each  Normal  school  should  have  the  power  and 
privilege  of  determining  within  reasonable  limits,  after  consulting  the 
aptitude  and  reasonable  prospects  of  the  student,  what  particular  pro- 
fessional classes  he  shall  enter. 

(5)  And  lastly,  professional  work  in  English,  geography  and  arith- 
metic should  hold  first  place  in  order  of  importance  with  the  great  mass 
of  prospective  grade  teachers. 

NOTE. — It  seemed  to  be  the  general  opinion,  revealed  by  the  discussion, 
that  the  strictures  of  Prof.  Sage  were  the  outgrowth  of  familiarity  with 
one  school,  rather  than  a  complete  knowledge  of  all  the  schools. 


72  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


EXPOSITION    OF    THE    LESSON    PLAN,    AS    APPLIED    TO    THE 
TREATMENT  OF  A  TOPIC. 

(Copyrighted.) 

C.  E.  PATZEB,  Milwaukee. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  GRAMMAR. 

UNIT    I. 

Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  a  sentence  and  its  parts,  sub- 
ject and  predicate. 

&.  To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs. 

UNIT   II. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  the  meaning  of  a  noun  may  be  modified 
by  an  adjective. 

6.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  adjectives  may  be  either  simple  or  many- 
worded. 

UNIT  III. 

Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  adverbs. 

b.  To   have   pupils   learn   that   adverbs    may   be    simple    or    many- 
worded. 

UNIT  IV. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  transitive,  intransitive 
and  copulative  verbs. 

UNIT  V. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  prepositions. 

UNIT  VI. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  conjunctions. 
6.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  classify  sentences  according  to  form. 

c.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  distinguish  between  phrases  and  clauses. 

UNIT  VII. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  that  nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs  change  their 
forms  to  express  difference  in  number. 

UNIT  VIII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  that  pronouns  and  nouns  change  in  form  to  show 
their  relation  to  other  words. 


EXPOSITION  OF  THE  LESSON  PLAN. 


UNIT  IX. 
Aims  — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  pronouns  and  verbs  are  inflected  to  ex- 
press difference  in  person.  .  .   .... 

b.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  declension  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

UNIT  X. 

Aims  — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  verbs  are  inflected  to  show  difference  in 
time. 

&.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  meaning  and  formation  of  the  tenses  of 
the  indicative  mode. 

c.  To  have  pupils  discuss  the  meaning  of  other  verb  phrases  of  differ- 
ent modes  and  tenses. 

UNIT  XI. 
Aims  — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  verbs  are  inflected  to  express  difference 
in  the  manner  in  which  the  action  may  be  regarded. 

&.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  classify  sentences  according  to  meaning. 

c.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  the  form  of  the  verb  may  show  whether 
the  subject  performs  the  action  or  whether  the  subject  receives  the  ac- 
tion which  the  predicate  expresses. 

UNIT  XII. 

Aim—  ^,-^1 

To  have  pupils  learn  that  adjectives  and  a  few  adverbs  are  inflected 
to  show  a  difference  of  degree. 

UNIT  XIII. 

Aim  — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  in  regard  to  the- 
inflection  of  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives  and  adverbs.  * 

UNIT  XIV. 

Aim  — 

To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  interrogative  pronouns  and  in- 
terrogative adjectives. 

UNIT  XV. 

Aim- 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  demonstrative  pronouns 
and  demonstrative  adjectives. 

UNIT  XVI. 

Aim- 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  indefinite  pronouns  and 
indefinite  adjectives. 

UNIT  XVII. 

Aim  — 

To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  relative  pronouns  and  relative 
adjectives. 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


UNIT   XVIII. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  some  of  the  essential  qualities  of  participles. 

UNIT  XIX. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  some  of  the  essential  qualities  of  infinitives. 

Z>.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  distinguish  clearly  between  infinitives  and 
participles. 

UNIT  XX. 

Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  name  the  parts  of  speech  that  may  be  used  as  con- 
nectives. 

Z>.  To  have  pupils  classify  phrases  and  clauses. 

c.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  kinds  of  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

d.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

e.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  kinds  of  complements  of  the 
predicate. 

UNIT  XXI. 

Aim- 
To  have  pupils  classify  and  define  sentences. 

UNIT  XXII. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  nouns. 

UNIT  XXIII. 

Aim— 

To  nave  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  pronouns. 

UNIT  XXIV. 

Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  adjectives. 

UNIT  XXV. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  adverbs. 

UNIT   XXVI. 

Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  preposi- 
tions. 

UNIT  XXVII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  conjunctions. 

UNIT  XXVIII. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  verbs. 


EXPOSITION  OF  THE  LESSON  PLAN. 


UNIT  XXIX. 

Aim- 

To  lead  the  student  to  summarize  laws  of  syntax  governing  number 
forms  of  pronouns,  verbs  and  nouns. 

UNIT  XXX. 

Aim— 

To  lead  the  student  to  summarize  laws  of  syntax  governing  case- 
jforms  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

UNIT   XXXI. 

Aim- 

To  lead  the  student  to  summarize  lajvs  of  syntax  relative  to  the  choice 
of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

UNIT  XXXII. 

Aim- 

To  lead  the  student  to  summarize  laws  and  suggestions  relative  to 
the  inflection  of  adjectives. 

UNIT    XXXIII. 
Aim—' 

To  lead  the  student  to  summarize  laws  of  syntax  relative  to  tense 
forms  of  verbs. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DAY  PLANS  TO  TEACH  THE  UNIT 
"CONJUNCTIONS." 


C.  E.  PATZER,  Milwaukee. 

SUMMARY  OF  WHAT  PUPILS  KNOW  OR,  HAVE  DONE  BY  THE  TIME  THE  UNIT 

"CONJUNCTIONS"  is  REACHED. 
I.  Definitions. 

1.  A  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  thought  in  words. 

2.  Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

3.  The  subject  names  that  about  which  something  is  said. 

4.  The  predicate  asserts  or  declares  something  of  the  subject. 

5.  A  noun  is  a  word  that  names  something. 

6.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  stands  for  a  noun. 

7.  A  verb  asserts  or  declares  something  about  a  person  or  a  thing. 

8.  A  word  which  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  called 
an  adjective. 

9.  A  group  of  words  used  as  a  simple  adjective  is  called  a  many- 
worded  adjective. 

10.  The  adjectives  "the,"  "a"  and  "an"  are  called  articles. 

11.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb. 

12.  A  many-worded  adverb  is  a  group  of  words  used  as  a  simple  ad- 
Terb. 

13.  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes,  complete  and  incomplete. 

14.  Verbs  are  complete  if  with  the  subject  they  give  a  complete  mean- 
ing. 


76  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

15.  Verbs  are  incomplete  if  they  need  a  noun,  pronoun  or  adjective- 
to  complete  their  meaning. 
16.  Incomplete  verbs  are  either  transitive  or  copulative. 

17.  A  transitive  verb  is  one  in  which  the  action  is  said  to  "pass  over" 
from  the  subject  to  the  object. 

18.  A  copulative  verb  is  one  that  simply  joins  together  a  subject  and. 
a  noun,  pronoun  or  adjective. 

19.  The  complement  of  a  transitive  verb  is  called  its  object. 

20.  The  complement  of  a  copulative  verb  may  be  a  predicate  noun, 
predicate  pronoun  or  predicate  adjective. 

21.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  so  as  to 
form  a  many-worded  adverb  or  adjective. 

22.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  a  preposition  is  called  the  object  of 
the  preposition. 

23.  A  preposition  with  its  object  is  called  a  prepositional  phrase. 

24.  Prepositional  phrases  may  be  divided  into  adverbial  and  adjec- 
tive prepositional  phrases. 

II.  They  have  analyzed  every  sentence  accompanying  units  1,  2,  3,  4 
and  5. 

MONDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  conjunctions,  and  to 
classify  sentences  according  to  form. 
&.  To  assign  the  lesson  for  Tuesday. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  They  must  read  the  following  sentences  and  observe  that  each  sen- 
tence is  made  up  of  two  sentences: 

1.  I  went  to  school  and  Mary  stayed  at  home.  2.  Charles  was  right 
and  James  was  wrong.  3.  John  may  go  or  James  may  go.  4.  The  boy 
takes  exercise,  therefore  he  is  strong.  5.  I  must  seem  angry  or  they 
will  not  obey  me.  6.  Everything  went  against  them,  still  they  fought 
on.  7.  My  friend  went  home  today,  otherwise  you  could  have  met  him. 
8.  The  crops  failed  because  the  weather  was  unfavorable.  9.  I  shall 
come  when  I  am  leady.  10.  Little  Mary  cried  because  her  doll  was 
broken.  11.  The  night  was  bright,  for  the  moon  was  shining.  12.  Ere 
he  could  speak,  his  soul  had  departed.  13.  Egypt  is  fertile  because  the 
Nile  overflows  its  banks  so  regularly. 

Z>.  They  must  pick  out  in  each  sentence  the  word  that  joins  the  sen- 
tences together. 

c.  They  must  know  that  these  words  are  conjunctions. 

d.  They  must  observe  that  in  sentences  1  to  7  the  conjunctions  join 
the  sentences  together  very  loosely. 

e.  They  must  know  that  sentences  1  to  7  are  compound,  and  the  con- 
junctions are  coordinating. 

f.  They  must  know  that  a  sentence  containing  but  one  subject  and 
one  predicate  is  a  simple  sentence. 

g.  They  must  analyze  sentences  8  to  13  and  observe  that  the  conjunc- 
tions join  the  sentences  in  such  a  way  that  the  one  introduced  by  the 
conjunction  modifies  some  word  in  the  other  sentence. 

h.  They  must  know  that  the  conjunctions  in  these  sentences  are  sub- 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DAY  PLANS.  77 

ordinating  conjunctions,  and  the  sentences  introduced  by  them  are 
•called  subordinate  clauses. 

t.  They  must  know  that  sentences  8  to  13  are  complex  sentences. 

;'.  They  must  read  sentences  1  to  13  and  in  eacn  case: 

(1)  Name  the  sentences  of  which  each  sentence  is  composed. 

(2)  State  whether  the  sentences  are  compound  or  complex. 

(3)  Name  the  conjunctions  and  state  whether  they  are  coordinat- 

ing or  subordinating. 
.(4)   State  the  use  of  each  subordinate  clause  and  analyze  each 

clause. 
(5)  Analyze  each  member  of  each  compound  sentence. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a,  b,  d,  g  under  II  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 

a.  All  of  c,  e,  f,  h,  i. 

b.  j  as  preparation  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 


TUESDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  pupils  on  the  lesson  assigned  Monday. 

b.  To  have  pupils  learn  other  uses  of  subordinate  clauses. 

-C.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  parts  of  sentences  are  often  omitted. 
d.  To  assign  the  new  lesson. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  The  subject  matter  under  ;  of  Monday's  plan. 

b.  They  must  analyze  the  following  sentences  and  observe  that  sub- 
ordinate clauses  may  be  used  as  adjectives,  adverbs  and  nouns: 

14.  The  house  was  robbed  while  the  owner  was  absent.  15.  I  know 
when  you  must  go.  16.  I  saw  the  place  where  the  picnic  was  held. 
17.  The  teacher  knows  why  you  are  tardy.  18.  The  scar  on  the  bean 
shows  where  it  was  attached  to  the  pod.  19.  How  he  does  it  is  a  mys- 
tery to  me.  20.  I  did  not  say  that  he  did  it.  21.  I  discovered  where 
the  people  are  going. 

c.  They  must  know  that  subordinate  clauses  are  divided  into  adver- 
bial, adjective  and  noun  clauses,  and  that  noun  clauses  are  often  called 
substantive  clauses. 

d.  They  must  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  supply  the  omissions 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  then  separate  each  sentence  into  its 
component  sentences,  and  point  out  the  conjunctions  and  classify  them: 

22.  I  will  do  the  work  or  die  in  the  attempt.  23.  John  as  well  as  I 
-will  go.  24.  He  is  poor  but  honest.  25.  Not  only  the  teacher,  but  the 
whole  school  is  looking  at  you.  26.  The  girl  neither  played  nor  sang. 
27.  Both  city  and  country  feel  the  need  of  rain.  28.  He  does  his  duty 
-whether  pleasant  or  not.  29.  My  hair  is  gray,  but  not  with  years. 

e.  They  must  observe  that  conjunctions  may  consist  of  one  or  more 
words. 


78  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

f.  They  must  know  that  contracted  sentences  are  often  called  simple 
sentences  having — 

(1)  A  compound  subject;  or 

(2)  A  compound  predicate;  or 

(3)  A  compound  object;  or 

(4)  A  compound  complement;  or 

(5)  A  compound  adjective  or  adverb  modifier. 

g.  They  must  state  the  exact  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

(1)  John  and  I  will  go. 

(2)  John  as  well  as  I  will  go. 

(3)  Either  John  or  Henry  will  go. 

(4)  Neither  John  nor  Henry  will  go. 

(5)  The  girl  did  not  play  and  she  did  not  sing. 

(6)  The  girl  neither  played  nor  sang. 

(7)  The  city  and  country  feel  the  need  of  rain. 

(8)  Both  city  and  country  feel  the  need  of  rain. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a,  6,  d  and  e  under  II  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 
a.  c  and  f  in  class. 

6.  g  for  the  next  day. 


WEDNESDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  pupils  on  the  assigned  lesson. 

6.  To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  conjunc- 
tions. 

c.  To  assign  the  next  day's  lesson. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  g  under  II  of  previous  day's  plan. 

I).  Under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  they  must  make  the  following 
summary  of  definitions: 

(1)  Conjunctions  join  sentences  together. 

(2)  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  coordinating  and  subordinating. 

(3)  A  clause  is  a  sentence  used  as  an  adjective,  adverb  or  noun. 

(4)  Subordinating  conjunctions  introduce  clauses  used  as  adverbs, 

adjectives  or  nouns. 

(5)  Clauses  are  classified  into  adverbial,  adjective  and  noun  or  sub- 

stantive clauses. 

(6)  In  contracted  sentences  conjunctions  often  join  parts  of  sen- 

tences and  even  single  words. 

(7)  Sentences  are  divided  into  simple,  complex  and  compound. 

(8)  A  sentence  having  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate  is  a  sim- 

ple sentence. 

(9)  A  complex  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  contains  a  subordinate 

clause. 

(10)  A  compound  sentence  is  a  Sentence  made  up  of  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  sentences  joined  together  by  coordinating 
conjunctions. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DAY  PLANS.  79. 

c.  Pupils  should  read  carefully  the  definitions  contained  in  the  text- 
book under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  and  determine  their  exact 
meaning. 

d.  Pupils  should  commit  the  text-book  definitions  to  memory  for  the 
next  day. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a.  a  under  II   (to  be  determined  in  class). 

&.  &  and  c  under  II  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 
d  as  a  preparation  for  next  day. 


THURSDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  and  drill  pupils  on  text-book  definitions. 
&.  To  assign  the  next  day's  work. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  The  definitions  contained  in  the  text-book. 

&.  They  must  analyze  as  many  of  the  following  sentences  as  possible 
in  class,  according  to  the  following  outline: 

(1)  Classify  each  sentence. 

(2)  Name  the  conjunctions,  state  what  they  connect,  and  classify 

them. 

(3)  State  use  of  each  subordinate  clause. 

(4)  Analyze  each  member  of  a  compound  sentence  and  each  sub- 

ordinate clause. 

(5)  State  the  exact  meaning  of  each  sentence. 

30.  He  worked  during  his  vacation  in  order  that  he  might  earn 
money.  31.  He  will  receive  recognition,  for  he  does  his  duty  well. 
32.  He  is  a  painter,  also  a  sculptor.  33.  The  general  saw  that  the  bat- 
tle was  lost  and  avoided  further  bloodshed  by  surrendering.  34.  After 
the  Americans  had  won  the  battle  of  Monmouth  they  gained  new  cour- 
age. 35.  It  is  against  the  law,  else  I  should  do  it.  36.  Washington's- 
men  won  the  battle  of  Trenton  before  the  Hessians  were  fairly  awake. 
37.  Unless  all  signs  fail,  we  shall  have  rain  before  night.  38.  He  died 
where  he  fought.  39.  Besides  being  an  orator,  he  is  a  fine  conversa- 
tionalist. 40.  They  loved  him,  likewise  respected  him.  41.  The  house 
where  Washington  rested  can  still  be  seen.  42.  The  country  whence 
the  messenger  came  was  full  of  strile  and  discord.  43.  The  boy  dis- 
obeyed and  was  punished.  44.  His  watch  was  either  lost  or  stolen. 
45.  As  long  as  the  world  exists,  Shakespeare's  writings  will  be  read 
with  interest.  46.  A  man  deserves  respect  as  long  as  he  is  honest  and 
industrious.  47.  Though  he  worked  hard,  he  remained  poor.  48.  These 
apples  are  for  you  and  me.  49.  She  danced  and  skipped  and  ran. 
50.  He  and  Joe  and  Henry  will  go.  51.  Robert  Lee  was  not  only  a  brave 
soldier,  but  also  a  fine  scholar.  52.  Though  often  disappointed,  he  still 
persevered.  53.  Since  you  will  not  try  you  cannot  win.  54.  Mary  and 
I  are  sisters.  55.  Mary  read  well,  for  she  enjoyed  it.  56.  He  will 
neither  read  nor  write.  57.  She  was  at  once  a  great  actress  and 


80  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

tiful  singer.  58.  The  autumn  leaves  are  falling,  but  the  days  are  warm 
and  pleasant.  59.  Since  you  desire  it,  I  shall  look  into  the  matter. 
60.  Either  Frank  must  go  with  me  or  I  shall  stay  at  home.  61.  You 
must  take  care  lest  you  fall.  62.  They  visited  Chicago,  New  York  and 
Boston.  63.  She  told  you  and  me.  64.  He  told  the  truth,  but  they  did 
not  believe  him.  65.  He  was  a  poor  man,  yet  he  gave  alms  to  the  beg- 
gar. 66.  No  man  was  tolerated  unless  he  was  honest.  67.  When  they 
learned  of  its  rich  mines,  the  English  went  into  the  Transvaal.  69.  A 
republic  can  be  formed  provided  the  people  are  intelligent.  69.  The 
battle  was  fought  before  the  general  arrived. 

c.  For  the  next  day  they  should  continue  the  analysis  of  sentences 
according  to  the  outline — say,  to  number  56. 

d.  They  must  review  definitions. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 
a  and  Z>  under  II  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

TV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 
c  and  d  for  the  next  day. 


FRIDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  pupils  on  the  analysis  of  sentences  assigned. 
Z>.  To  test  pupils  on  definitions  assigned, 
c.  To  assign  the  new  lesson. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  They  must  know  the  definitions. 

&.  They  must  be  ready  to  do  what  was  assigned  in  regard  to  sentences 
41  to  56. 

c.  They  must  analyze  for  Monday  sentences  57  to  69. 

d.  They  must  run  through  all  the  sentences  and  pick  out  the  conjunc- 
tions, and  state  the  class  to  which  each  belongs,  and  state  the  use  of 
each  subordinate  clause. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a  and  Z>  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done, 
c  and  d  for  the  next  day. 


MONDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  pupils  on  work  assigned  Friday. 
&.  To  assign  the  new  lesson. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  They  must  analyze  sentences  57  to  69,  as  per  assignment. 

&.  They  must  run  through  all  the  sentences  from  1  to  69  and  select 
the  conjunctions  and  state  class  to  which  each  belongs,  and  state  use 
of  subordinate  clauses,  as  per  assignment. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  DAY  PLANS.  gl 

c.  They  must  for  Tuesday  select  from  their  readers  five  simple  sen- 
tences, five  complex  sentences  and  five  compound  sentences,  and  be 
ready  to  analyze  each. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a  and  &  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 
c  for  the  next  day. 


TUESDAY. 

I.  Aim. 

a.  To  test  pupils  on  work  assigned  Monday. 
&.  To  assign  the  new  lesson. 

II.  What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  They  must  be  ready  to  do  what  was  called  for  under  c  of  II  of 
previous  day's  plan. 

&.  They  must  answer  the  following  questions  orally  in  class  Tuesday, 
and  in  writing  Wednesday: 

(1)  Classify  sentences,  define  each  class,  and  illustrate. 

(2)  Classify  and  define  conjunctions. 

(3)  Define  subordinate  clause,  adverbial  clause,  adjective  clause, 

and  substantive  clause,  and  illustrate  each  in  a  sentence, 
c.  They  must  analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  be  ready  to  state 
the  exact  meaning  of  each: 

(1)  "Across  its  antique  portico 

Tall  poplar  trees  their  shadows  throw; 
And  from  its  station  in  the  hall 
An  ancient  timepiece  says  to  all, — 

Forever — never ! 

Never — forever! " 

(2)  Half-way  up  the  stairs  it  stands, 

And  points  ana  beckons  with  its  hands 

From  its  case  of  massive  oak. 
{3)     By  day  its  voice  is  low  and  light; 

But  in  the  silent  dead  of  night, 

It  echoes  along  the  vacant  hall, 

Along  the  ceiling,  along  the  floor. 

(,4)     The  princess  of  his  tales  was  a  person  of  wonderful  beauty, 
for  she  came  from  the  old  illustrated  edition  of  Grimm. 

(5)  Then  one  joking  wave  caught  up  the  ship  at  the  bow,  and  an- 

other at  the  stern,  while  the  rest  of  the  water  slunk  away 
from  under  her. 

(6)  If  our  young  men  miscarry  in  their  first  enterprise,  they  lose 

all  heart. 

(7)  Man  has  not  one  chance,  out  a  hundred  chances. 

(8)  No  man  can  come  near  me  but  through  my  act. 

(9)  I  like  the  silent  church  before  the  service  begins. 

(10)     Man  is  his  own  star;  and  the  soul  of  an  honest  and  perfect 
man  commands  all  light,  all  influence,  ail  fate. 

6 


82  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

III.  What  pupils  know  or  can  do. 

a  and  &  under  II  (to  be  determined  in  class). 

IV.  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done. 
c  as  a  preparation  for  the  next  day. 


WEDNESDAY. 

Aim. 

a.  Written  test  as  per  assignment. 
&.  Oral  analysis  of  sentences,  and  exact  interpretation  of  thought. 


SOME  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  LESSON  PLAN. 

1.  It  compels  close  attention  to  the  aim  in  each  day's  lesson. 

2.  It  compels  close  analysis  of  the  aim  which  results  in  a  close  analy- 
sis of  the  subject  matter. 

3.  It  discloses  possible  shortcomings  in  regard  to  the  subject  matter 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

4.  It  compels  teachers  to  recognize  the  most  important  principle  of 
teaching.     From  the  known  to  the  related  unknown. 

5.  Attention  to  proposition  III  discloses  whether  the  pupil  really  has 
the  necessary  old  knowledge  or  apperceptive  material  to  properly  study 
the  new. 

6.  It  necessitates  organizing  the  subject  matter  for  teaching.     The 
arrangement  may  be  logical  or  pedagogical  or  a  combination  of  the 
two. 

7.  It  compels  the  teacher  to  determine  before  the  recitation  just  what 
he  intends  to  do,  what  the  pupils  are  to  do,  and  what  the  assignment  is 
to  be. 

8.  The  teacher  may  not  be" able,  the  chances  are  he  will  not  be  able, 
to  carry  out  each  day's  work  as  he  planned  it.     But  his  preparation  will 
put  him  in  a  position  to  meet  any  emergency  that  may  arise. 

9.  It  illustrates  in  a  specific  way  how  the  inductive-deductive  method 
may  apply  in  teaching  grammar.     It  illustrates  also  that  the  inductive- 
deductive  method  cannot  be  used  exclusively. 

10.  It  illustrates  how  the  text-book  is  to  be  used  in  grammar. 

11.  It  illustrates  how  pupils  can  be  led  to  make  a  summary  of  several 
days'  work. 

12.  It  illustrates  what  is  meant  by  exercising  the  pupils'  self-activity 
in  learning. 

13.  It  illustrates  how  teaching  can  be  made  thorough  and  practical, 
inasmuch  as  it  shows  how  knowledge  may  be  transformed  into  power 
and  skill. 

14.  It  illustrates  what  is  meant  by  making  learning  easy  and  attrac- 
tive. 

15.  It  illustrates   how  each    day   the    pupils    accomplish    something 
definite,  and  how  at  the  end  of  a  unit  or  subject  they  may  carry  away 
the  essentials  in  a  permanent  form. 

16.  It  illustrates  how  close  analysis  of  subject  matter  and  attention 
to  propositions  III  and  IV  suggest  method  of  procedure. 


DISCUSSION  OF  DAY  PLANS.  33 


DISCUSSION  OF  FOREGOING  LESSON  PLANS. 

C.  E.  PATZER,  Milwaukee. 

As  an  outgrowth  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions  a  fifth,  namely, 
method,  may  he  considered.  Method  is  implied  in  or  suggested  hy  the 
four  propositions.  It  can  never  be  dissociated  from  the  teacher.  Every 
teacher  insists  as  his  right  on  the  exercise  of  individual  freedom, 
even  caprice  in  teaching.  Any  general  method  or  scheme  of  teaching 
which  tends  to  blot  out  individuality  must  be  condemned.  Teachers 
should  not  be  reduced  to  automatons.  Is  there  anything  in  the  four 
propositions  that  is  opposed  to  the  exercise  of  individuality?  Just  the 
reverse  is  true.  They  conduce  to  greater  freedom.  When  a  teacher 
knows  his  subject,  has  analyzed  it  and  looked  at  it  from  all  points  of 
view,  and  has  thought  through  his  method  of  approaching  the  new,  he 
is  in  a  position  to  permit  his  personality  to  come  into  play.  Such  a 
teacher  then  becomes  unconscious  of  method.  He  may  or  may  not  fol- 
low exactly  the  plan  as  conceived  in  his  preparation.  When  he  stanc's 
before  his  class  and  permits  the  play  of  mind  upon  mind  a  higher 
method  born  of  his  mastery  of  the  subject  and  his  personality,  and 
styled  by  some  the  technique  of  instruction,  will  take  the  place  of  the 
paper  method.  The  higher  living  method  cannot  well  be  described. 
Nor  can  it  easily  be  imitated. 

The  teacher  who  attempts  to  describe  his  individual  method  is  con- 
stantly hampered  by  the  thought  that  he  is  not  doing  justice  to  him- 
self. And  yet  the  teacher  who  is  asked  to  state  just  how  he  will  pro- 
ceed in  a  given  recitation,  though  he  is  met  by  what  he  considers  in- 
superable difficulties,  nevertheless  will  strengthen  himself  by  writing 
down  what  he  proposes  to  do.  To  specify  what  the  purpose  of  each 
day's  work  is,  what  pupils  must  know  or  do  to  reach  this  purpose,  what, 
in  his  estimation,  of  this  they  already  know  or  can  do,  what  remains 
to  be  known  or  done,  and  finally,  his  method  of  procedure,  all  lead  to 
definiteness  in  teaching.  The  very  statement  of  the  aim  serves  as  a 
guideboard  which  points  in  the  direction  he  is  going.  He  may  not  be 
headed  always  towards  the  right  place,  but  there  is  some  satisfaction 
in  knowing  that  lie  is  going  somewhere. 

It  is  possible  that  in  consequence  of  his  attempt  to  adhere  to  hi» 
carefully  prepared  plan  mechanical  teaching  may  result  in  some  in- 
stances. Well,  we  have  had  a  great  deal  of  haphazard,  catch-as-catch- 
can  teaching.  A  little  conscious  systematic  teaching,  even  though  it 
smack  somewhat  of  the  mechanical,  may  serve  as  an  antidote.  But  if 
this  results  at  all,  it  will  be  of  a  temporary  nature. 

It  was  my  fortune  to  be  in  Germany  when  Dr.  Rein's  Herbartian  five 
formal  steps  were  first  introduced.  I  found  that  they  were  applied  in 
a  very  mechanical  and  conscious  way.  Teachers  labored  under  the 
impression  that  in  a  given  recitation,  say,  five  minutes  were  to  be  de- 
voted to  preparation,  then  five  minutes  to  presentation,  then  five  min- 
utes to  abstraction  and  comparison,  then  five  minutes  to  generalization, 
and  finally  five  minutes  to  application.  In  fact  the  whole  scheme  was 
in  danger  of  collapse  until  it  was  found  that  teachers  got  away  from 
the  formality  of  the  formal  steps  and  made  natural  and  logical  appli- 
cation of  them.  Too  much  philosophy  is  sometimes  a  dangerous  thing. 


84  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Every  method  of  instruction  has  elements  of  the  mechanical  in  it — 
when  put  on  paper.  But  as  between  the  Herbartian  five  formal  steps 
and  Supt.  Harvey's  four  (and  let  us  hope  eventually  five)  propositions, 
the  former  are  the  more  artificial  in  the  hands  of  the  average  teacher. 
Mr.  Harvey's  propositions  are  natural  and  hence  simple.  They  are  not 
new.  We  applied  them  after  a  fashion  long  before  Mr.  Harvey 
formulated  them.  They  recognize  and  put  into  tangible  form  a  princi- 
ple of  teaching  as  old  as  the  hills.  "In  teaching  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  related  unknown,"  was  recognized  ages  ago  as  the  great 
fundamental  principle.  Pestalozzi  applied  it  in  Germany  over  one  hun- 
dred years  ago.  Earlier  than  that  in  the  17th  century  Comenius,  the 
father  of  modern  educational  thought,  recognized  and  applied  it.  I 
have  traced  it  to  Rome,  the  great  appropriator  of  ancient  times.  The 
Romans  got  it  from  the  Greeks,  who  borrowed  it  from  the  Phoenicians, 
who  carried  it  overland  from  Babylonia.  I  have  found  this  world  prin- 
ciple in  the  musty  pedagogical  archives  of  that  colossal  but  effete  and 
crumbling  empire  of  the  east, — China.  We  have  applied  it  here  in  the 
United  States,  and  so  we  may  say  it  encircles  the  globe. 

Why  is  this  principle  so  universally  recognized  as  the  great  funda- 
mental in  teaching?  It  is  because  we  recognize  that  the  mind  must 
always  operate  on  the  new  by  means  of  the  old,  that  before  the  new 
can  be  understood  it  must  be  translated  into  elements  of  the  old. 

When  the  new  is  reached  its  formulation  as  a  summary  or  generaliza- 
tion enables  its  easy  retention.  In  securing  the  generalization  the 
steps  may  have  been  clearly  marked  or  not.  It  depends  on  how  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  work  to  get  the  general  truths.  It  is  a  difficult 
thing  to  distinguish  clearly  between  different  operations  of  the  mind. 
"We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  mechanism  of  teaching  must  always  be 
considered  subordinate  to  the  child. 

This  important  truth  was  brought  home  to  me  some  years  ago  in  a 
teachers'  meeting  in  Manitowoc  county.  I  was  at  that  time  impressed 
with  the  idea  that  the  rule  for  division  of  a  fraction  by  a  fraction 
should  be  taught  by  the  inductive-deductive  method.  I  was  on  the  pro- 
gram to  exemplify  the  method  of  reaching  that  rule.  In  anticipation  of 
that  event  I  made  careful  and  exhaustive  preparation.  At  the  meet- 
ing I  found  a  class  in  Middle  form  work  upon  whom  I  was  to  practice. 
The  little  people  knew  me  and  hence  we  soon  established  that  peda- 
gogical bond  of  sympathy  and  affection  so  essential  to  proper  teaching. 
I  proceeded  from  step  to  step  in  so  logical  and  natural  an  order  that  I 
believed  the  pupils  would  be  made  to  feel  that  they  were  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  new  truth  without  divining  the  intermediate  steps  by  means 
of  which  it  was  impressed  so  unconsciously  upon  their  inner-  or  sub- 
consciousness.  I  got  along  beautifully,  and  when  I  had  traversed  about 
half  the  road  I  began  to  flatter  myself  upon  creating  a  sensation  by 
making  a  decided  "hit."  It  came  sooner  than  I  expected.  Suddenly  a 
little  chap  called  out,  with  a  twinkle  in  his  eye,  "Oh,  I  know  how  to 
get  the  answer.  Turn  the  divisor  upside  down  and  multiply." 

That  settled  my  pretty  scheme.  The  class  had  the  rule,  and  I  had  the 
remainder  of  my  method, — and  a  new  pedagogical  truth,  namely,  that 
teachers  must  be  prepared  for  pupils  getting  at  things  in  a  manner  dif- 
ferent from  their  prearranged  psychological  and  logical  method  of 
reaching  them. 

My  experience  on  this  occasion  cannot  be  construed  as  militating 


RELATION  OF  TEACHERS  TO  MODEL  SCHOOL. 


85 


against  the  fundamental  principle,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  It 
illustrates  that  occasionally  we  may  insist  on  pupils  taking  minute 
steps  when  possibly  their  minds  may  be  capable  of  reaching  the  new 
by  "leaps  and  bounds." 

The  lesson  plan  in  the  hands  of  some  teachers  may  tend  also  to 
minimize  the  importance  of  the  text-book  and  lead  to  too  much  oral 
teaching.  In  reality,  however,  if  it  is  properly  used  it  will  enhance  the 
value  of  the  text-book  by  calling  attention  to  its  proper  use.  I  am  not 
an  advocate  of  oral  teaching  as  it  obtains  in  Germany,  neither  am  I  in 
favor  of  having  the  text-book  do  all  the  teaching  as  is  the  case  in  many 
of  our  American  schools.  Text-books  must  always  be  the  center  of  in- 
struction.  But  all  cannot  be  used  the  same  way.  Most  of  them  are 
bundles  of  generalizations,  and  the  process  of  instruction  concerns  it- 
self with  the  question,  How  best  are  the  generalizations  to  be  reached? 
Surely  this  presents  a  field  wherein  teachers  and  pupils  should  work 
together  as  preliminary  to  the  text-book  study. 

The  intelligent  application  of  the  four  propositions  offers  the  golden 
mean  between  the  purely  oral  and  purely  text-book  method  of  teaching. 
Mr.  Harvey's  scheme  makes  teaching  definite  and  thus  saves  time.  It 
is  based  on  well  established  psychological  principles  and  above  all  on 
common  sense.  Its  mechanism  is  simple.  It  appeals  at  once  to  the 
experienced  and  inexperienced  teacher.  It  breathes  the  "breath  of  life" 
into  the  principle,  from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown,  and  makes 
the  pupil  a  learner,  and  the  teacher  an  instructor,  an  educator. 


GENERAL  SESSION. 

Friday,  Dec.  21,  1900. 
Forenoon. 

Mr.  Harvey — The  first  thing  on  the  program  and  the  last  formal 
paper  is  by  Prof.  Adrian,  of  River  Falls. 

RELATION  OF  DEPARTMENT  TEACHERS  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
PROPER,  TO  WORK  IN  THE  MODEL  SCHOOL. 

H.  A.  ADRIAN,  River  Falls. 

The  general  trend  of  sentiment,  both  in  the  section  meetings  and 
the  general  sessions,  would  seem  to  mark  this  as  a  very  opportune  time 
to  suggest  the  formulation  of  some  definite  plan  to  secure  closer  co- 
operation between  the  various  departments  of  each  Normal  school  and 
a  more  uniform  administration  of  the  courses  of  study  in  the  several 
schools. 

That  there  is  a  pressing  need  of  a  closer  and  more  vital  relation  be- 
tween the  Normal  school  proper  and  the  model  school  needs  no  more 
urging  than  it  has  already  had.  The  lack  of  it  in  any  organized  way 
in  every  one  of  our  Normal  schools  was  clearly  shown  either  by  the 
positive  statement  or  the  contradictory  evidence  of  the  replies  received 
from  the  various  members  of  every  faculty,  in  answer  to  a  circular  let- 
ter of  inquiry.  Most  of  them  directly  asserted  that  the  heads  of  de- 
partments were  seldom  consulted  by  the  model  teachers  and  exercised 
no  real  directive  influence  over  the  work  of  the  model  school. 


86  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Of  course  in  every  Normal  school  certain  model  teachers  talk  over 
the  work  with  some  special  friend  in  the  other  departments,  but  this 
does  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  general  statements  with  which  I  shall 
open  this  phase  of  the  discussion. 

These  are:  1st.  That  the  heads  of  departments  have  practically  no 
voice  in  determining  the  work  of  the  grades,  whether  academic  or 
professional,  and  no  directive  influence  in  carrying  it  out. 

2nd.  That  "consultations"  as  now  held  are  very  nearly  barren  of  re- 
sults and  that  the  relation  between  the  Normal  proper  and  the  model 
grades  is  really  but  little  closer  and  more  vital  than  that  between  the 
public  schools  and  the  Normal. 

Of  course  the  feeling  does  not  exist  among  Normal  faculties  as  it  often 
does  among  children,  that  "everything  is  all  right  in  our  back  yard  and 
all  wrong  in  yours;"  so  it  will  not  be  deemed  out  of  order  to  point  out 
some  of  the  weak  places  in  our  present  practice  which  I  have  discovered 
by  correspondence. 

Supervisors  of  practice  are  constantly  impelled  to  complain  that  the 
theories  of  the  Normal  departments  do  not  conform,  even  in  essentials, 
to  the  practices  of  the  model  grades,  and  the  heads  of  departments  are 
continually  regretting  that  the  methods  and  subject  matter  of  the  model 
grades  differ  so  widely  from  their  own.  For  instance:  The  professor 
of  mathematics  rules  out  certain  subjects  in  arithmetic  as  unnecessary, 
while  the  model  teacher  insists  upon  their  being  presented  by  the 
practice  teacher;  he  condemns  a  certain  method  as  obsolete  or  waste- 
ful only  to  have  it  proclaimed  to  the  same  students  by  the  supervisor 
as  gospel.  This  must  of  necessity  result  in  confusion  and  a  consequent 
weakening  of  impressions. 

Many  public  school  principals,  who  are  making  the  manual  of  the 
course  of  study  for  common  schools  the  basis  of  the  work  in  their 
lower  departments,  are  surprised  to  find  that  the  graduates  of  Normal 
schools  employed  by  them  know  so  little  about  this  guide  upon  which 
so  much  time  and  talent  has  been  expended. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  practice  teachers  to  be  selected  to 
take  charge  of  a  class  with  little  or  no  reference  to  their  knowledge  or 
aptitude  in  that  particular  branch,  because  everybody  must  have  prac- 
tice and  in  as  many  branches  as  possible, — seemingly  forgetful  that  the 
children  have  any  rights  in  the  matter. 

So  many  students  must  have  classes  to  practice  upon  that  the  children 
often  recite  continuously  all  day  long,  with  a  consequent  weakening  of 
overstrained  recitation  powers  and  a  lack  of  opportunity  to  form  the 
habit  of  hard  study,  which  is  one  of  the  most  vital  things  in  school 
life.  This  same  necessity  for  many  classes  for  practice  teaching  re- 
lieves the  model  teacher  almost  entirely  from  the  conduct  of  classes 
and  prevents  the  supervisor  having  much  opportunity  to  do  actual 
teaching;  and  no  person,  however  skilled,  can  do  the  most  effective 
work  without  constant  practice,  not  in  seeing  but  in  doing  himself,  nor 
can  he  enter  into  the  best  relation  and  the  most  effective  sympathy 
with  the  practice  work  of  the  students. 

The  energy  of  teachers  and  pupils  is  wasted  in  aimless  wandering 
and  useless  repetition,  and  the  minds  of  student  teachers  confused  by 
the  conflict  of  theories  and  the  irreconcilableness  of  practices. 

Unrelated  groups  of  subject  matter,  warring  theories  and   diverse 


HELATKXN  OF  DEPARTMENT  TEACHERS  TO  MODEL  SCHOOL.  37 

methods  cannot  possibly  combine  to  produce  unified  results  which  must 
necessarily  be  the  aim  of  the  Normal  school. 

There  is  often  but  a  vague  understanding  among  the  model  teachers 
of  precisely  what  body  of  knowledge  is  to  be  presented  in  each  grade 
and  a  lack  of  unity  in  relating  these  various  elements. 

These,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  weak  points  which  present  themselves 
to  my  mind.  Others  will  be  brought  out  by  the  discussion.  What  the 
remedy  is  to  be  wih  no  doubt  also  be  indicated  by  the  discussion,  but  I 
desire  to  suggest  a  few  characteristics  which  it  ought  to  possess. 

In  the  first  place  it  should  give  much  greater  unity  of  purpose  and  of 
work  throughout  the  whole  Normal  school  system.  This  may,  I  think, 
be  brought  about  by  the  making  out  and  enforcing  of  a  complete  course 
of  study,  uniform  for  all  the  Normal  schools,  based  upon  the  manual 
•outlining  the  work  from  the  primary  grade  to  the  senior  year  of  the 
diploma  course.  Yes,  I  know  each  Normal  has  one  already,  and  a 
synopsis  of  it  is  given  in  each  catalog,  but  they  bear  about  the  same  re- 
lation to  each  other  and  to  a  complete  system  that  the  patches  on 
Rip  Van  Winkle's  clothes  bore  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole  suit. 
Each  particular  patch  was  all  right,  of  good  quality  and  the  shape  any 
color  were  satisfactory,  but  when  they  came  to  be  tacked  together  by 
Hip,  tnere  were  some  glaring  missfits,  to  say  the  least. 

And  then  the  good  work  should  be  carried  further  than  a  mere  uni- 
formity and  unity  in  course  of  study,  and  a  complete  and  comprehensive 
syllabus  of  the  minimum  work  for  each  grade  should  be  made  out 
which  shall  get  at  the  essentials.  There  is  certainly  a  definite  body  of 
knowledge  to  be  presented  in  each  grade  and  the  outlining  of  this  in  the 
form  of  a  syllabus  would  not  be  an  impossible  task.  In  a  general  way 
the  method  of  presentation  could  also  be  indicated,  at  least  so  far  as 
the  "four  fundamentals"  of  teaching  are  concerned. 

If  the  plea  is  made  that  this  uniformity  will  crush  out  individuality 
•and  cripple  originality,  we  have  but  to  point  to  the  splendid  results 
"which  this  same  rigid  uniformity  has  brought  about  in  elements  so 
Taried  and  diverse  as  are  presented  in  the  institute  problems  of  our 
state.  A  good  many  gloomy  prophecies  were  made  of  the  dire  results 
that  would  follow  the  enforcement  of  such  a  plan  in  the  institutes,  but 
the  difficulty  of  locating  any  of  these  prophets  at  the  present  time 
makes  it  impossible  to  give  a  revised  version  of  their  predictions. 

The  making  of  the  course  of  study  must  of  course  be  done  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  and  the  administration  be  vested  in  the  Presidents, 
but  the  making  out  of  the  syllabus,  except  as  to  general  directions, 
should  be  the  worK  of  the  head  of  the  proper  department,  the  model 
teacher  and  the  supervisor  of  practice,  working  with  the  President. 
The  head  of  the  department  is,  or  ought  to  be,  a  specialist  in  his  sub- 
ject as  well  as  a  man  of  broad  training  and  wide  experience  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  and  capable  of  teaching  children.  All  of  his  knowledge  and 
skill  and  the  fruits  of  his  experience  can  be  brought  to  bear  in  outlining 
the  work,  and  in  a  broad  way  in  determining  the  method  to  be  used. 

The  model  teacher  is  expected  to  have  special  aptitude  for  grade 
Tvork  and  much  fruitful  experience  which  fit  her  to  render  indespensible 
aid  in  adapting  the  work  to  existing  conditions.  The  supervisor  with 
all  the  diverse  elements  of  the  problem  well  in  hand  will  be  able  to  re- 
late and  unify  the  various  parts. 

The  one  who  conducts  a  professional  review  certainly  should  be  in  a 


88  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

position  to  occasionally  see  some  of  his  pupils  as  student  teachers  put- 
ting his  theories  into  actual  practice  in  the  model  grades,  and  under  his 
general  direction  they  should  apply  the  principles  he  has  laid  down  to 
the  actual  problems  of  that  particular  subject.  An  assisting  super- 
visor of  practice  has  out  just  told  me  of  a  professional  review  in  gram- 
mar which  she  conducted  in  the  Normal  proper,  on  the  plan  of  making 
the  work  a  review  of  the  subject  matter,  and  a  complete  exposition  of 
the  methods  to  be  used  in  the  model  grades;  so  that  those  who  were  pre- 
senting it  in  their  model  classes  could  put  it  directly  to  the  test  of  ac- 
tual practice.  The  results  she  reports  as  being  surprisingly  excellent, 
both  in  the  professional  review  and  in  the  practice  work — far  superior 
to  any  she  had  before  conducted,  and  the  results  in  the  practice  classes 
far  more  effective.  The  Normal  teacher,  who,  because  of  his  close  re- 
lation with  the  work  in  the  grades,  has  constantly  in  mind  that  his 
students  are  to  teach  in  the  model  school,  will  shape  his  teaching  more 
and  more  to  that  end,  which  is  the  true  end.  Such  a  course  of  study  as 
has  been  indicated,  interpreted  by  the  proper  syllabi,  would  correlate 
the  various  subjects  and  articulate  the  different  grades  with  each  other, 
thus  very  materially  reducing  the  temptation  to  wandering  and  repeti- 
tion and  eliminating  the  vital  differences  of  method  in  the  various  parts 
of  the  school. 

It  would  make  the  work  not  more  machine  like,  but  less  so.  It  would 
unhorse  the  hobby  rider  in  some  of  his  wildest  charges  at  least,  and  it 
would  help  to  level  down  ridges  and  fill  up  ruts  by  widening  the  tires  of 
each  fellow's  method  wagon.  It  would  compel  every  teacher  to  a  wider 
range  of  contact  in  his  work  and  broaden  his  view  of  every  problem. 
All  this  would  react  upon  the  practice  teacher  in  producing  similar  re- 
sults, and  thus  give  to  the  model  grades,  and  later  to  the  public  schools, 
a  stronger  and  better  class  of  teachers. 

Lack  of  time  for  the  heads  of  departments  is,  of  course,  the  most 
serious  obstacle.  Even  as  it  is  at  present,  one  hardly  has  time  to  get 
acquainted  with  his  family,  to  say  nothing  of  keeping  up  with  the 
movement  of  thought  in  the  world  at  large  and  in  his  own  department  in 
particular.  There  ought  to  be  such  an  increase  in  the  teaching  force 
as  to  permit  the  carrying  out  of  the  plans  suggested. 

It  should  not  oe  a  question  of  how  big  an  attendance  can  be  secured, 
and  how  large  a  class  can  be  graduated,  nor  should  it  be  a  question  of 
how  small  a  faculty  each  school  can  be  run  with,  but  how  shall  tho 
most  effective  work  be  done,  to  the  end  that  the  best  possible  teachers 
may  be  supplied  to  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin. 

All  of  the  Normal  schools  should  stand  solidly  together  in  the  demand 
for  an  increase  in  the  instructional  force  of  each  school  sufficient  to 
carry  out  the  work,  and  not  pull  for  each  particular  one.  Such  a  course 
must  necessarily  impress  the  Board  with  the  notion  that  each  school  is 
pushing  only  for  something  individual,  when  the  pushing  should  be  in 
the  common  cause. 

By  way  of  summary  we  may  reduce  this  topic  to  the  "four  funda- 
mentals." 

I.    Aim.     To  secure  closer  relation  among  all  the  departments  of  each 

school  and  among  the  several  schools. 
II.    "What  must  be  known  or  done. 

a.  We  must  know  thoroughly  the  conditions  that  now  exist. 


RELATION  OP  TEACHERS  TO  MODEL  SCHOOL.  59. 

Z>.  We  must  work  out  a  more  complete  course  of  study  for  all  de- 
partments and  all  schools. 

c.  We  must  formulate  syllabi  of  the  work  in  each  subject  for  each 

grade  of  all  departments. 

d.  We  must  give  each  head  of  a  department  a  direct  influence  in 

the  corresponding  work  of  the  model  schools. 

e.  We  must  find  out  how  to  secure  an  inrcease  of  the  instruc- 

tional force  of  all  the  schools  to  make  the  above  possible. 

III.    What  we  already  know  or  can  do. 

We  know  all  of  a,  have  done  something  of  &,  and  c,  experi- 
mented a  little  with  d  and  have  done  almost  nothing  with  e. 

IV.  What  remains. 

To  get  what  we  want  and  get  it  as  soon  as  possible. 


PART  II. 


SECTION  SESSIONS 


SECTION  SESSIONS. 

DRAWING. 

Leader,  E.  W.  Walker,  West  Superior. 


AMOUNT  AND  KINDS  OP  CONSTRUCTIVE  WORK  WHICH  SHOULD 
BE  DONE  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  DRAWING — PURPOSES 
AND  METHOD. 

HARRIET  CECIL  MAGEE,  Oshkosh. 

Self-activity  is  the  law  of  life.  In  the  human  race  childhood  is  the 
period  of  greatest  activity.  To  direct  and  train  this  activity  is  the 
privilege  and  duty  of  everyone  engaged  in  the  profession  of  teaching. 

That  teachers  of  drawing  have  great  opportunities  for  doing  this  is 
self-evident.  The  abounding  energy  of  every  healthy  child,  the  latent 
creative  force  existing  in  every  human  soul  manifests  itself  in  one  of 
two  ways, — it  builds  up  or  it  pulls  down, — it  constructs  or  it  destroys. 
It  always  appears  in  one  of  the  two  forms,  construction  or  destruction. 
The  impulse  in  each  case  is  the  same.  It  is  mental  activity  finding 
adequate  expression. 

A  child  never  really  knows  a  thing  until  he  has  turned  it  over  into 
terms  of  his  own  activity.  He  does  not  know  it  until  he  has  done  it. 
Expression  reacts  upon  impression  and  reinforces  the  mental  image. 
This  brings  us  at  once  to  the  second  part  of  the  subject, — "Purpose  and 
Method  of  constructive  work  which  should  be  done  in  connection  with. 
drawing."  It  is  necessary  to  consider  this  first,  and  second  the  "amount 
and  Kinds"  of  such  work. 

The  purpose  of  all  constructive  work  in  connection  with  whatever 
branch  it  may  appear  is — 

(a)   To  vitalize  thought. 

It  is  the  first  form  a  child  tries  to  give  to  mental  content.  No  matter 
how  vague  the  content  may  be  it  is  vivified  and  made  real  to  the  child 
only  when  he  gives  it  form.  This  he  does  with  his  hands  before 
speech  is  possible.  He  builds  his  blocks  one  upon  another  for  a  house 
to  dwell  in;  or  converts  his  mother  into  a  horse  as  he  totters  across 
the  room,  holding  her  apron  strings.  In  a  multitude  of  forms  he  works- 
out  his  ideas  long  before  he  reaches  the  school  age.  Is  it  right  to 
change  his  methods  when  he  enters  the  school?  Is  there  any  reason 
whatever  for  changing  them?  It  would  certainly  be  doing  our  Wis- 
consin educators  injustice  to  suppose  that  they  do  make  this  change  and' 
attempt  to  eliminate  constructive  work  from  the  state  schools.  Yet  a 
superficial  observer,  and  even  one  who  looks  a  trifle  below  the  surface, 
may  almost  reach  this  conclusion.  But  I  think  that  the  lack  of  con- 
structive work  in  our  schools  is  due  rather  to  lack  of  time  and  compe* 


CONSTRUCTIVE  WORK  IN  DRAWING.  93 

tent  supervision  than  to  disbelief  in  its  educational  value.  It  is  one 
phase  of  the  new  education  that  has  not  been  seriously  considered  and 
emphasized  throughout  the  state.  In  fact,  no  phase  of  art  education 
(and  art  is  a  dominant  factor  in  the  so-called  new  education)  has  re- 
ceived adequate  recognition  or  support  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin.  The 
work  even  in  our  Normal  schools  is  seriously  handicapped  by  the  brief 
time  given  to  the  whole  subject  and  to  the  lack  of  necessary  appliances. 
The  great  majority  of  our  graduates  go  into  graded  schools  where  they 
are  expected  to  give  instruction  in  drawing  of  some  kind.  And  these 
graduates  have  had  far  less  training  in  the  subject  than  in  certain 
phases  of  science,  literature,  German  and  Latin,  subjects  in  which  they 
are  never  expected  to  give  any  instruction  whatever  in  the  grades.  I 
think  we  are  losing  sight  of  the  three  R's.  There  is  a  much  greater  de- 
mand for  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  our  schools  now  than  ten  years 
ago;  yet  in  our  Normal  course  less  time  is  devoted  to  the  subject  than 
was  given  ten  years  ago.  The  advance  in  our  work  is,  however,  going 
on.  We  are  striving  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times,  but  it  is  only  by  mak- 
ing almost  superhuman  efforts. 

The  ideas  of  the  old  education  are  still  dominant  in  the  minds  of 
many  Wisconsin  educators.  They  seek  for  impression  through  the  eye 
and  ear  only;  and  for  expression  through  spoken  and  written  language 
only.  The  difference  between  this  and  the  demands  of  the  new  educa- 
tion may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  diagram  which  I  use  with  my 
own  students  in  professional  drawing  (see  blackboard). 

(b)  Psychologically  the  signs  of  power  are  accuracy,  strength,  speed 
and  ease.     Constructive  drawing  promotes  each  of  these.     It  trains  in 
accuracy  and  at  the  same  time  in  attention  to  a  remarkable  degree.     It 
is  well  to  give  constructive  exercises  to  any  class  of  children  especially 
lacking  in  these  two  qualities,  for  there  are  phases  of  art  education  in- 
clined to  so  much  freedom  of  expression  that  without  due  care  and 
watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  habits  of  inaccuracy  may  re- 
sult.    If  a  supervisor  finds  such  a  condition  induced  by  long  practice  in 
free  sight  work,  it  is  well  to  change  the  work  of  the  class  and  give  a 
few   weeks'    discipline   in   construction.      Constructive    drawing   deals 
largely  with  the  will  side  of  the  child,  while  free-band  drawing  deals 
more  with  the  feelings.     For  rapidity  and  ease  in  drawing  the  will  must 
govern  the  muscles  and  they  must  respond  promptly  to  its  dictates. 

(c)  The  connection  of  work  in  constructive  drawing  with  the  com- 
mon industries  is  also  an  important  factor  to  be  considered  under  the 
liead  "Purpose."     It  is  one  to  which  the  attention  of  the  most  thought- 
ful and  progressive  art  educators  is  turning  at  the  present.     Creative 
power  is  sought  for  in  every  art  industry  of  the  day  and  that  which 
helps  to  foster  and  increase  this  power  is  necessarily  important  to  the 
proper  education  of  the  American  youth.     But  it  is  not  in  the  province 
of  my  paper  to  discuss  this  question,  and  we  must  consider  that  which 
was  placed  first  in  the  topic:     "Amount  and  kinds   of  Constructive 
Work  which  should  be  done  in  connection  with  drawing." 

If  this  refers  to  the  character  of  the  work  undertaken  in  our  Normal 
schools,  I  must  say  that  a  sufficient  amount  and  variety  of  kinds  of  con- 
structive work  must  be  done  by  our  students  to  enable  them  to  teach 
that  which  should  be  taught  to  children  in  all  grades.  If  drawing  has 
not  been  taught  below  the  high  school,  then  the  work  planned  for  the 
7th  and  8th  grades  may  be  given  in  the  high  school.  If  drawing  has 


/ 

9£  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

been  taught  below  the  high  school,  then  it  goes  without  saying  that  a«. 
supervisor  is  employed  who  will  teach  in  the  high  school  and  super- 
vise the  grades  below,  so  that  the  graduates  of  our  Normal  schools,  who  • 
may  be  called  to  fill  hign  school  positions,  will  not  be  required  to  teach 
advanced  work  in  constructive  drawing.    If  they  are,  however,  they  can 
supplement  their  knowledge  of  construction  with  their  knowledge  of 
geometry  and  do  fairly  successful  work. 

The  constructive  work  in  connection  with  drawing  in  the  grades  falls 
under  the  following  heads: 

(a)  Building — With  common  objects,  with  models. 

(b)  Clay  Modeling — Animal   forms,   fruits   and   vegetables,  models,. 

decorative  forms. 

(c)  Paper  and  cardboard  work — Development  of  surfaces,  patterns, 

objects,  geometric  forms,  familiar  forms. 

(d)  Drawing — Surfaces,    patterns,    working   drawings,    constructive 

designs,  plans,  problems  necessary  to  above. 

The  work  given  under  problems  should  be  such  as  to  prepare  the 
pupils  for  elementary  geometry,  and  when  properly  taught  does  do  this 
surprisingly  well. 

The  amount  of  time  spent  on  constructive  work  in  the  grades  is  from 
one  fifth  to  one  fourth  of  the  school  year.  Clay  modeling  is  done  in  the 
spring  and  fall  terms  and  instrumental  drawing  in  midwinter  when 
there  can  be  little  nature  study. 

In  the  Normal  course  it  is  not  necessary  to  spend  so  large  a  propor- 
tion of  the  time  upon  this  work  as  some  of  the  results  desired  have  been 
already  attained  by  adults  and  the  reometric  side  has  also  been  mas- 
tered in  the  study  or  geometry.  However,  enough  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  subject  to  sufficiently  impress  the  student  teacher  with  its 
importance  and  to  enable  him  to  teach  the  amount  required  by  the  chil- 
dren in  our  model  departments.  But  the  trouble  is  that  when  our  stu- 
dents leave  the  Normal  schools  as  graduates  they  have  been  already  a 
year  out  of  practice  and  are  not  so  well,  fitted  to  teach  the  subject  as  at 
the  close  of  the  third  quarter  of  their  junior  year.  There  should  be 
some  provision  made  whereby  our  students  might  have  in  the  last 
quarter  of  their  senior  year,  a  review  of  the  work  in  drawing  with 
some  additional  practice  in  lines  of  work  in  which  tney  were  most  de- 
fective. 

Under  present  conditions  the  amount  and  kinds  of  constructive  work 
done  in  connection  with  drawing  must  be  meagre  in  the  extreme. 
Th^re  is  not  time  to  give  even  a  few  exercises  in  the  different  kinds  of 
work  mentioned.  In  some  cases  the  students  are  simply  told  about  the 
"Wurk,  shown  the  work  of  the  children  done  under  the  teaching  of  a 
practice  teacher,  with  no  more  training  than  they  are  receiving.  There 
should  be  a  department  of  manual  training  in  each  Normal  school  and 
the  work  in  that  department  and  in  the  department  of  drawing  should 
be  so  related  as  to  produce  the  best  results  in  each.  Until  this  is 
brought  about,  or  more  time  is  given  to  the  whole  subject,  I  cannot 
see  how  the  work  in  construction  can  be  scarcely  worthy  of  the  name. 


VALUE  OF  BLACKBOARD  SKETCHING.          95, 


A.  VALUE  OF  BLACKBOARD  SKETCHING  BY  TEACHERS  AND 

PUPILS. 

B.  HOW  AND  TO  WHAT  EXTENT  SHOULD  IT  BE  TAUGHT  IN 

THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS? 

LUCY  DORRIT  HALE,  Milwaukee. 

These  questions  will  be  considered  in  a  little  different  order  from 
that  in  which  they  occur  here,  for  this  reason: 

The  value  to  the  pupil  will  be  discussed  before  its  value  to  the 
teacher,  so  that  the  consideration  of  the  points  under  (b)  will  come 
directly  after  the  latter.  For  the  points  under  (b)  will  mostly  relate 
to  the  professional  training  of  the  Norjnal  school  student, — "the  teacher 
to  be," — and  these  points  will  closely  relate  to  the  uses  to  which  the 
teacher  will  put  his  blackboard  sketching. 

To  my  knowledge,  the  blackboard  is  not  much  used  for  drawing  by 
pupils  in  lower  grades  of  the  average  school  systems.  However,  for 
five  years  I  have  encouraged  its  use  in  the  low  grades  of  the  schools  of 
the  city  with  which  I  have  been  connected  as  supervisor  of  drawing. 
Either  the  blackboard  work  is  or  is  not  suitable  for  the  child  during 
bis  earliest  days  at  school. 

As  you  all  know,  the  muscles  controlling  the  larger  movements  are 
developed  first.  The  child  moves  his  leg  before  he  wiggles  his  toes. 
That  is  foundation  enough  to  justify  the  use  of  a  large  surface;  and  a 
free  medium,  like  the  crayon,  needs  no  justification  among  drawing 
teachers.  There  is  no  position  for  drawing  equal  in  its  allowance  of 
freedom  to  that  of  the  child  at  the  board,  his  body  free,  and  his  arm 
free  to  move  from  the  shoulder.  This  freedom  not  only  insures  the 
forming  of  habits  of  free  movement  for  mediums  used  later,  but  as- 
sists in  producing  truthful  representations  of  the  mental  images  of  the 
child.  His  attention  is  not  distracted  by  the  management  of  his 
medium,  and  there  is  not  an  obstacle  in  the  way  between  the  mental 
content  and  the  graphic  representation.  Beyond  a  doubt  the  same 
pleasure  in  consciousness  of  power  and  confidence  to  trust  it,  come  to 
the  child  under  these  conditions  that  come  to  a  mature  mind  that  has 
discovered  its  own  power  to  express  in  construction  or  representation, 
and  these  experiences  that  give  pleasure  are  the  door-openers  of  the 
child's  education.  And  again,  there  are  such  things  as  muscular  or 
"touch  images"  of  form,  and  motor  images  of  contour,  which  are  more 
easily  expressed  by  free  muscular  movement,  with  no  distractions  con- 
nected with  the  use  of  the  medium,  than  by  the  use  of  the  pencil,  clay, 
or  brush,  which  mediums  involve  a  drawing  on  a  much  smaller  scale, 
farther  removed  from  the  size  of  the  muscular  and  motor  images. 

If  you  have  had  any  experience  with  grade  pupils  you  will  realize  that 
habits  formed  during  the  first  two  years  of  school  are  very  hard  to 
overcome  later. 

A  child  sees  mass,  not  outline.  Don't  you  know  how  in  the  days 
gone  by  he  drew  his  little  two-inch  models  and  then  blackened  them? 
Now  the  work  at  the  blackboard,  if  done  with  the  flat  crayon,  gives 
the  child  full  scope  to  represent  by  mass  or  outline,  as  he  chooses. 

In  an  ideal  community  of  any  kind,  the  individuals  forming  it  are- 


-96  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

.given  equal  rights.  Suppose  a  teacher  asks  a  class  to  draw  on  paper  a 
picture  to  tell  the  story  of  Red  Riding  Hood's  journey  to  her  grand- 
mother's. The  teacher  has  not  time  to  comment  on  or  even  appreciate 
all  the  little  pencil  drawings  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils;  but  if  illus- 
trated work  of  that  nature  is  done  on  the  blackboard,  each  child  tells 
his  story  in  picture  language,  not  only  to  the  teacher,  but  to  all  the 
members  of  the  community,  or  school.  The  child,  too,  likes  an  audience, 
and  recognition  of  his  effort,  and  if  it  is  true  "What  we  amount  to 
may  be  measured  by  the  use  which  we  are  to  others,"  is  this  desire  not 
commendable  and  does  it  not  give  rise  to  a  feeling  for  democracy  that 
is  desirable  as  an  attitude  of  mind,  each  standing  on  the  merits  of  his 
ability,  conditions  apparently  the  same  for  all?  And  for  purposes  of 
criticism  or  suggestions,  the  blackooard  furnishes  a  surface  that  is 
seen  by  all  during  the  criticism. 

May  we  not  conclude  from  these  points  in  favor  of  blackboard  sketch- 
ing, that  it  is  of  great  and  specific  use  to  children?  and  also  that  it 
should  be  the  child's  first  drawing,  continuing  to  some  extent  through- 
out of  his  school  life? 

One  more  thought  and  we  will  discuss  the  use  to  teachers,  and  that  is 
concerning  the  lack  of  use  of  objects  in  blackboard  sketching,  which 
necessitates  imaginative  work,  and  great  training  in  the  power  to 
visualize.  We  have  worked  100  much  with  models,  analyzing  and  com- 
paring, and  not  enough  from  the  child's  experiences  and  environment. 

Of  what  use  may  blackboard  sketching  be  to  teachers?  It  is  true, 
is  it  not,  that  the  blackboard,  as  a  surface  for  drawing  by  the  teacher, 
has  been  somewhat  in  the  background  in  the  past?  And  why  is  this? 
It  may  not  be  true  of  Wisconsin,  but  it  is  of  Mass.,  Minn.,  and  Indiana, 
where  I  have  had  knowledge  of  schools.  I  truly  think  it  is  largely  be- 
•cause  of  the  inability  of  the  teacher  to  use  the  crayon  quickly  and  with 
sufficient  accuracy.  That  inability  arises  from  lack  of  mental  images 
with  which  to  work,  and  lack  of  skill  with  the  medium,  the  crayon. 

Blackboard  drawing  has  been  somewhat  in  disrepute,  too,  in  some 
quarters,  because  of  its  abuse.  The  stencil  fiend,  and  the  colored-crayon 
vender  are  to  blame  for  that,  largely.  Work  from  those  sources  is  too 
crude  and  inartistic,  when  something  more  vital  and  harmonious  can 
be  put  in  its  place.  Of  course  crayon  mass  work  isn't  likely  to  repre- 
sent masterpieces,  but  it  is  not  ugly,  shocking,  or  necessarily  inartistic. 

The  statement  of  our  purpose  yesterday  placed  us  all  on  the  side 
favoring  the  use  of  drawing  in  connection  with  other  studies,  drawings 
to  supplement  the  images  in  the  mind  as  the  result  of  sense  perception 
of  real  things.  The  blackboard  is  the  chief  place  for  such  illustrating, 
because  of  its  size,  position  and  the  ease  with  which  it  lends  itself  to 
rapid  suggestive  work,  especially  where  the  mass  method  is  employed. 

You  do  not  need  further  proof  of  the  use  of  blackboard  sketching  to 
teachers.  Doubtless  you  didn't  need  this.  But  you  would  like  to  know 
where  the  time  is  coming  from,  and  what  the  scope  of  the  work  should 
be.  In  order  to  have  it  of  use  it  must  have  back  of  it  a  mind  full  of 
cecal  images,  a  mastery  of  the  medium,  and  practice,  which  alone  can 
give  skill.  Right  here  let  me  say  a  little  in  reference  to  what  was 
hinted  at  yesterday,  to  thef  effect  that  the  usual  training  in  drawing 
fitted  students  to  do  blackboard  illustrating  in  connection  with  other 
studies:  Perhaps  any  student  can  copy  an  illustration  after  outline  or 
mass  method,  but  he  might  want  fifteen  minutes  to  do  a  poplar  tree. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER  OF  DRAWING  SECTION.  97 

He  might  be  abie  to  represent  homes  of  primitive  people,  but  he  might 
require  half  a  dozen  books,  and  as  many  hours  in  which  to  produce 
the  desired  effect.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  we  want  ability  to  do  this 
illustrating  quickly  and  in  the  presence  of  the  class.  As  I  said  before, 
that  necessitates  a  supply  of  images,  a  mastery  of  the  medium,  and 
practice. 

As  to  how  it  should  be  taught  in  the  Normal  school,  no  one  can  say 
conclusively,  but  under  existing  conditions  I  have  been  teaching  it  in 
connection  with  the  pencil  and  brush  work  done  each  week.  When 
we  have  had  nature  work,  as  trees  and  compositions  of  trees,  we  have 
•done  the  same  kind  of  work  at  the  blackboard,  and  so  on  through  light 
and  shade  of  models  and  objects,  making  use  at  the  board  of  the  mental 
images  gained  through  the  direct  study  in  pencil  of  these  things.  The 
work  on  the  blackboard  in  this  way  gives  drill  on  the  forms  studied,  the 
principles  governing  the  appearance  of  which  underlie  the  representa- 
tion of  all  which  one  would  wish  to  draw  in  connection  with  other 
studies.  I  have  done  this  in  the  twenty  weeks  courses,  giving  two 
days  of  each  week  to  blackboard  drawing,  but  in  forty  week  courses, 
two  of  whicn  we  have,  an  entire  quarter  is  to  be  given  to  it.  This 
quarter's  work  gives  not  only  the  practice  in  the  use  of  the  medium, 
but  a  review  of  all  that  has  previously  been  taken  in  appearance  of  ob- 
jects, nature  work  and  composition.  On  this  foundation  should  be 
added  a  store  of  images  or  suggestions  for  and  practice  in  drawing,  such 
things  as  will  help  in  the  presentation  of  other  subjects.  These  must 
come  from  representations  of  things  in  many  cases,  but  their  represen- 
tation by  the  teacher  must  come  with  so  much  ease  and  freedom  that 
the  teacher  will  feel  confident.  This  condition  can  grow  only  out  of 
practice. 

In  conclusion:  The  need  of  blackboard  sketching  is  evident,  the 
conditions  necessary  to  teach  it  are  not  beyond  us,  and  a  little  time 
given  to  it  produces  large  results.  Its  place  as  a  part  of  our  Normal 
school  course  can  hardly  be  disputed  on  reasonable  grounds. 

REPORT    OF    LEADER. 

The  section  met  as  provided  in  the  program,  and  proceeded  at  once  to 
a  discussion  of  the  papers  previously  written  by  members  on  the  topic 
"What  should  be  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  work  in  drawing  in 
the  Normal  schools."  It  was  agreed,  at  the  outset,  that  if  some  formu- 
lation of  purpose  and  scope  could  be  devised  on  which  all  could  be 
united,  the  plan  might  well  be  left  to  the  individuality  of  the  teacher 
making  it  out.  Hence  the  discussion  centered  wholly  upon  purpose  and 
scope.  The  afternoon  was  devoted  to  working  out  the  first  of  these,  and 
after  considerable  discussion  it  was  agreed  that  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant purpose  in  teaching  drawing  in  Normal  schools  is  to  enable  the 
Normal  graduate  to  teach  more  effectively  all  other  branches,  as  well 
as  to  be  a  teacher  of  drawing.  As  a  secondary  purpose  it  was  agreed 
that  the  cultural  phase  of  the  drawing  work  should  not  wholly  be  lost 
sight  of.  No  formulation  of  these  purposes  was  made,  and  a  commit- 
tee was  appointed  to  formulate  them  properly  as  stated,  and  also  to 
formulate  the  scope  of  the  drawing  work.  The  chairman  appointed 
Miss  Hale  of  Milwaukee,  Miss  Hughes  of  Whitewater,  and  Miss  Morse 
of  Superior,  as  the  committee.  At  a  subsequent  special  meeting,  the 
committee's  report  was  unanimously  adopted  as  follows: 


98  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Purpose.  The  purpose  of  the  work  in  drawing  in  the  Normal  school 
should  be,  first,  to  strengthen  the  teacher  in  his  power  to  present  all 
subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  him  an  efficient  teacher  of  draw- 
ing in  the  grades;  also  to  lead  him  to  an  appreciation  of  the  educational 
value  of  drawing  in  the  public  school. 

Second.  To  so  train  the  student  that  he  may  realize  through  personal 
benefit  received  from  this  subject,  the  culture  value  of  drawing. 

Scope.  To  realize  the  above  first  stated  purpose,  the  scope  of  the  work 
in  drawing  in  the  Normal  schools  should  be  sufficiently  broad  to  cover 
all  kinds  of  manual  expression  coming  under  the  general  term  "drawing 
in  the  public  scnools,"  including  especial  attention  to  graphic  illustra- 
tion in  the  teaching  of  other  subjects. 

The  student  should  possess  the  necessary  knowledge  of  the  principles 
upon  which  elementary  art  is  founded,  to  teach  the  same  to  children 
in  all  grades  below  the  high  school.  In  addition  drawing  in  a  Normal 
school  should  be  studied  pedagogically.  The  Normal  graduate  should 
know  the  psychology  of  the  science  and  art  of  manual  expression.  He 
should  understand  the  relation  of  sense  impression  to  manual  expres- 
sion. A  realization  of  the  second  phase  of  the  purpose  is  best  attained 
by  means  01  a  well  founded,  broad,  and  suggestive  plan  for  the  work 
which  is  indicated  in  that  part  of  the  scope  which  corresponds  to  the 
first  phase  of  the  purpose. 

Plan.  It  was  not  thought  wise  by  the  committee,  in  fact  it  seemed 
impossible  to  formulate  any  definite  plan  of  work  in  drawing  for  all  of 
the  Normal  schools,  since  the  conditions  in  the  different  schools  vary  so 
greatly.  However,  the  committee  is  united  in  urging  that  all  plans  of 
work  in  this  subject  be  based  on  the  four  fundamental  propositions 
formulated  by  State  Superintendent  Harvey. 

The  following  preamble  and  resolution  we're  unanimously  adopted: 

Whereas,  Many  students  enter  the  Normal  school  with  no  knowledge 
of  drawing,  and,  whereas,  it  is  impossible  to  fully  realize  the  purpose  of 
this  study  because  of  the  lack  in  preparation  of  a  large  number  in 
every  class,  therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  That  it  is  the  sense  of  this  section  that  a  limited  amount  of 
drawing  be  required  for  entrance  into  the  Normal  schools,  and  that  a 
short  preparatory  course  be  offered  for  those  who  do  not  have  this 
preparation. 

The  following  preamble  and  resolution  were  unanimously  adopted: 

Whereas,  it  is  the  desire  of  the  drawing  teachers  in  the  Wisconsin 
Normal  schools  to  make  their  work  of  practical  value  in  the  common 
schools,  therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  That  wherever  it  may  seem  practicable  to  the  state  and 
county  superintendents,  some  time  be  given  to  the  teaching  of  drawing 
ing  the  county  institutes,  and  summer  schools  of  the  state. 

MARY  E.  TANNER, 

Secretary. 


WORK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  99 

ENGLISH. 

Leader,  ALBERT  HARDY,  Platteville. 

PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 
ANNA  BARNARD,  Whitewater. 

In  discussing  this  topic,  I  shall  omit  professional  work  in  Grammar 
as  that  is  to  be  considered  by  others  on  the  program. 

The  purpose  of  grammar  is  "to  make  clear  the  customs,  usages  and 
laws  pertaining  to  a  given  language."  We  teach  it  first,  it  seems  to 
me,  for  its  disciplinary  value.  The  Committee  of  Fifteen  declare  it  to 
be  the  disciplinary  study  par  excellence.  They  add:  "A  survey  of 
its  educational  value  suojectively  and  objectively  usually  produces  the 
conviction  that  it  is  to  retain  first  place  in  the  future.  Its  chief  ob- 
jective advantage  is  that  it  shows  the  structure  of  the  language,  and 
the  logical  forms  of  subject,  predicate  and  modifier,  thus  revealing  the 
essential  nature  of  thought  itself,  the  most  important  of  all  objects  be- 
cause it  is  the  self-object.  On  the  subjective  or  psychological  side,  gram- 
mar demonstrates  its  title  to  the  first  place  by  its  use  as  a  discipline  in 
subtle  analysis,  in  logical  division  and  classification,  in  the  art  of  ques- 
tioning and  in  the  mental  accomplishment  of  making  exact  definitions. 
Nor  is  this  an  empty,  formal  discipline,  for  its  subject  matter,  language, 
is  the  product  of  the  reason  of  a  people,  not  as  individuals,  but  as  a 
social  whole,  and  the  vocabulary  holds  in  its  store  of  words  the  general- 
ized experience  of  that  people,  including  sensuous  observation  and  re- 
flection, feeling  and  emotion,  instinct  and  volition."  The  student  in 
grammar,  then,  must  exercise  his  power  of  observation,  he  must  analyze, 
compare,  state  inferences,  draw  conclusions,  formulate  definitions. 
Pres.  John  M.  Davis  says,  "To  learn  the  divisions  of  the  parts  of  speech 
and  tne  sub-divisions  of  these  divisions  and  so  on  to  the  lowest  classes 
that  can  be  formed  is  an  important  mental  work.  The  complete  classi- 
fication of  adjectives  is  perhaps  the  best  illustration  of  this  subject  af- 
forded by  the  science  of  grammar."  Prof.  Laurie  says  that  power  of 
abstract  thought  is  promoted  most  directly  and  effectively  "by  formal 
or  abstract  studies,  and  this  because  the  occupation  of  the  mind  with 
the  abstract  is  the  nearest  approach  to  the  occupation  of  the  mind  with 
itself  as  an  organism  of  thinking." 

This  leads  directly  to  my  next  statement,  that  the  pupil  should  stud.t 
grammar  to  acquire  the  science.  It  is  as  Bain  says  "elementary  logic." 
John  Stuart  Mill's  words  are  similar:  "Consider  for  a  moment  what 
grammar  is.  It  is  the  most  elementary  part  of  logic.  It  is  the  begin- 
ning of  the  analysis  of  the  thinking  process.  Principles  and  rules  of 
grammar  are  the  means  by  which  the  forms  of  language  are  made  to 
correspond  with  the  universal  forms  of  thought.  *  *  *  The  struc- 
ture of  every  sentence  is  a  lesson  in  logic."  Hinsdale  adds  an  im- 
portant fact,  "Grammar  is  indeed  the  only  metaphysical  study  that  a 
large  majority  of  people  ever  pursue."  It  requires  the  first  abstract 
thinking  the  pupil  is  called  upon  to  do. 

Grammar  is  the  first  of  what  were  called  the  seven  sciences.  Indeed, 
we  have  the  definition — "Grammar  is  the  inductive  science  of  language," 
The  student  should  acquire  this  science  that  he  may  have  knowledge  of 


100  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

the  laws  of  language  just  as  much  as  he  should  acquire  other  sciences 
that  he  may  know  about  the  earth's  formation,  about  plant  life  or  an- 
mal  life. 

Thirdly, — Grammar  should  te  taught  that  the  student  may  have  a 
more  exact  grasp  of  the  language;  that  the  science  which  he  acquires 
may  aid  him  to  use  correct  speech,  and  that  it  may  aid  him  in  interpre- 
ting literature. 

Whitney,  in  the  preface  to  his  "Essentials  of  English  Grammar,"  says, 
"That  the  leading  object  of  the  study  of  English  grammar  is  to  teach 
the  correct  use  of  English  is,  in  my  view,  an  error;" — he  considers  this 
a  secondary  or  subordinate  aim,  but  by  no  means  unimportant.  He 
also  says, — "Attention  to  the  rules  of  good  usage  as  laid  down  in  gram- 
mars, with  illustrations  and  practical  exercises,  often  helps  and  hastens 
the  acquirement  of  correctness  in  speech;  especially  in  the  case  of 
those  who  have  been  unfortunate  enough  to  learn  at  first  a  bad  kind 
of  English."  Note  the  last  thought.  We  have  in  our  Normal  school 
(and  I  suppose  the  same  is  true  of  others)  a  large  number  of  pupils 
who  come  from  faimlies  which  are  foreign,  or  illiterate,  or  both. 
Hence  the  matter  of  cultivating  in  them  correct  habits  of  speech  be- 
comes of  vital  importance.  This  aim  should,  it  seems  to  me,  be  ever 
present  in  the  teacher's  mind.  To  quote  Prof.  Whitney  again, — "It  is 
constant  use  and  practice,  under  never-failing  watch  and  correction, 
that  makes  good  writers  and  speakers."  It  has  been  my  experience  that 
mature  pupils  do  learn  to  apply  to  themselves  the  principles  they  are 
studying  and  in  some  degree  acquire  the  habit  of  self-criticism. 

The  student  should  be  given  a  more  exact  grasp  of  his  language  that 
he  may  be  able  better  to  interpret  literature.  Prof.  Laurie  declares 
this  to  be  the  first  practical  use  of  English  grammar.  I  should  hardly 
place  it  first,  but  it  certainly  deserves  consideration.  It  is  often  abso- 
lutely essential  to  understand  the  grammatical  analysis  of  a  sentence  in 
order  that  one  may  grasp  the  thought  intended  to  be  conveyed.  This 
naturally  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  grammatical  analysis  is  based 
upon  logical  analysis.  Melanchthon  said, — "Scripture  cannot  be  under- 
stood theologically  unless  it  is  understood  grammatically."  Often  a 
question  as  to  the  construction  of  one  word  will  reveal  the  thought  to 
the  bewildered  reader. 

In  considering  the  scope  of  the  work  in  grammar,  we  need  first  to 
speak  of  the  requirements  for  entrance.  Pupils  should,  on  entering 
upon  their  work  in  the  Normal  department,  be  able  to  analyze  easy 
sentences  of  all  the  different  kinds;  they  should  know  what  phrases 
and  clauses  are,  and  their  main  divisions.  They  should  know  the  parts 
of  speech  and  their  main  divisions.  They  should  know  the  most  funda- 
mental facts  concerning  inflection;  as,  the  formation  of  the  possessive 
case.  They  should  be  guiltless  of  the  most  glaring  errors,  such  as  the 
use  of  the  past  tense  for  the  past  participle,  or  the  past  participle  for  the 
past  tense;  the  use  of  "them"  as  an  adjective;  the  use  of  "aint." 

At  the  end  of  the  course  the  pupil  should  understand  the  nature  of 
the  judgment,  the  relation  of  ideas  to  the  judgment,  and  he  should  be 
able  to  analyze  the  judgment.  He  should  know  that  the  sentence  is  the 
expression  of  a  judgment  in  words.  He  should  grasp  the  thought  re- 
lation back  of  the  grammatical  relation  of  the  parts  of  the  sentence. 
He  should  be  able  to  analyze  any  sentence  given  him.  He  should  know 
the  complete  classification,  the  inflections  and  the  various  constructions 


WORK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


101 


of  the  parts  of  speech.  He  should  understand  phrases  and  clauses, 
their  classifications  and  varying  relations.  He  should  know  many  of 
our  idiomatic  expressions.  He  should  realize,  to  a  large  extent,  the 
errors  to  which  he  is  liable  and  should  have  already  commenced  to 
guard  against  them;  that  is,  he  should  have  acquired  the  habit  of  self- 
criticism. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  plan  of  the  work.  As  we  are  teaching  a  sci- 
ence to  those  who  are  to  be  teachers,  and  as  we  believe  in  the  disciplin- 
ary value  of  the  subject,  and  expect  the  study  to  be  of  practical  value 
also,  it  seems  to  me  that  our  watch-word  should  be  "Thoroughness." 

The  class  should  have  in  their  hands  a  good  text-book,  as  that  of 
Whitney,  or  Mead.  Greenwood  says, — "For  advanced  classes,  a  thor- 
ough drill  in  some  good  text-book  on  grammar  is  absolutely  essential 
to  sound  scholarship  and  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  usages 
of  our  language." 

We  must  proceed  in  this,  as  in  other  sciences.  "Phenomena  must  be 
observed,  compared,  classified."  The  pupil  must  examine  language,  but 
he  must  be  able  to  look  back  of  it  to  the  thought.  This  means  that  the 
student's  attention  must  be  directed  first  to  the  judgment,  as  that  is  the 
form  01  thought  with  which  grammar  concerns  itself.  He  must  learn 
how  the  judgment  is  formed  and  understand  its  component  parts.  From 
the  discussion  of  the  judgment  he  passes  naturally  to  the  sentence, 
which  Prof.  Lang  calls  the  "unit"  of  grammar.  Prof.  Barbour  says  that 
the  sentence  is  the  point  of  departure.  Let  me  quote  Samuel  S.  Green 
also: — "As  a  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  thought  and  as  the  elements 
of  a  sentence  are  expressions  for  the  elements  of  thought,  the  pupil 
who  is  taught  to  separate  a  sentence  into  its  elements,  is  learning  to 
analyze  thought  and  consequently  to  think." 

Having  learned  that  the  sentence  is  "the  full  expression  of  a  judg- 
ment in  words,"  and  that  "a  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea,"  the  pupil  can 
be  brought  to  realize  the  correspondence  between  grammatical  elements 
and  logical  elements.  He  sees  the  real  significance  of  substantive 
words,  attributive  words,  relation  words.  He  is  able  to  grapple  with 
the  difficulties  involved  in  the  varying  methods  of  predication.  He- 
knows  the  differing  nature  of  modifiers, — the  word,  the  phrase,  the 
clause.  He  can  next  be  led  to  the  classification  of  sentences.  As  Prof. 
Lang  says,  "We  shall  find  four  kinds,  differing  from  each  other  in  re- 
gard to  the  mental  attitude  of  the  speaker.  The  emotional  attitude 
gives  us  the  exclamatory,  doubt  gives  us  the  interrogative,  belief,  the 
declarative,  and  will,  the  imperative."  The  pupil  should  see  the  force 
of  the  structural  classification,  note  the  relation  existing  between  the 
parts  of  the  compound  sentence,  and  grasp  the  fact  that  the  clause  is 
an  integral  part  of  the  complex  sentence, — "a  thought  reduced  to  the 
power  of  an  idea."  A  definite  model  for  analysis  should  be  given  to- 
the  pupil  at  first.  Later,  perhaps,  he  may  be  questioned  on  only  the 
difficult  points.  One  third,  or  one  fourth  of  the  time  devoted  to  the- 
course  should  be  given  to  the  above  work  with  sentences. 

The  pupil  will  now  be  ready  to  pass  on  to  a  more  complete  knowledge 
of  the  parts  of  speech,  their  inflections,  classifications,  constructions. 
There  should  be  an  abundance  of  exercises  to  illustrate  all  points.  The 
pupils  should  be  induced  to  formulate  definitions.  They  should  be  led 
to  see  the  force  each  word  has  as  the  sign  of  an  idea.  They  should  il- 


302  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

lustrate  constantly  with  sentences  of  their  own,  given  orally  or  in 
writing. 

I  have  said  the  pupil  should  think,  should  formulate  his  own  defini- 
tions. He  often  finas  in  this  process,  that,  if  he  is  accurate,  his  own 
definition  is  almost  exactly  equivalent  to  the  one  his  author  gives  him. 
This  will  lead  him  to  appreciate  the  exact  definitions  he  finds  in  his 
text-book,  and  to  rely  upon  them.  The  teacher  should  require  him  to 
memorize  some  accepted  definition  in  every  case  where  definition  is 
necessary.  There  must  be,  it  seems  to  me,  memorizing  of  definitions 
and  principles.  I  agree  with  Prof.  Barbour  that  rules  are  never  to  be 
committed  to  memory  before  their  meaning  has  been  clearly  understood 
by  the  objective  study  of  sentences.  But  I  also  agree  with  Goold-Brown 
who  says,  "The  only  successful  method  of  teaching  grammar  is  to 
cause  the  principal  definitions  and  rules  to  be  committed  thoroughly 
to  memory,  that  they  may  ever  afterwards  be  readily  applied."  The 
pupil  will  more  fully  realize  their  meaning  as  he  is  called  upon  con- 
stantly to  apply  them.  They  will  gradually  become  his  very  own. 

Parsing,  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  parts  of  speech,  "has 
an  educational  value."  Hinsdale  says, — "Pupils  should  be  taught  the 
facts  and  relations  that  are  expressed  by  inflections  and  position,  and 
the  oest  way  to  do  it  is  to  require  them  to  describe  the  words,  telling 
what  they  are  and  naming  their  properties,  for  that  is  what  parsing  is. 
Observation  and  reiiection  are  also  cultivated."  The  idioms  of  the 
language  cannot  be  studied  exhaustively,  but  some  of  the  common  ones 
should  be  brought  up  and  explained. 

As  the  pupil  studies  each  part  of  speech  he  should  note  any  cautions 
which  are  given  him  as  to  its  use.  Such  examples  of  false  syntax  as 
are  found  in  the  text-book  can  well  be  passed  over  lightly,  giving  place 
to  errors  which  come  under  the  pupil's  own  observation.  When  the 
parts  of  speech  are  first  taken  up,  the  teacher  can  request  the  pupil 
to  be  on  the  lookout  through  the  remainder  of  the  course  for  errors  in 
grammar,  both  in  his  own  and  others'  speech,  and  to  make  note  of  them. 
'Towards  the  close  of  the  course  the  teacher  can  call  for  these  lists 
and  have  the  class  correct  them.  The  pupil  can  thus  be  led  to  be  on 
the  alert  in  this  matter,  the  teacher  seeing  to  it  that  in  his  criticism 
of  others  he  has  a  kindly,  helpful  spirit.  Is  it  not  absolutely  essen- 
tial that  those  whom  we  are  training  to  be  teachers  shall  be  taught  to 
-cultivate  an  ear  sensitive  to  false  notes  in  grammar?  Surely  the  im- 
portance of  a  high  ideal  in  this  matter  cannot  be  over  estimated. 

.While  careful  training  on  all  points  is  essential,  there  are  some  dif- 
ficulties of  the  language  which  will  need  special  attention.  In  study- 
ing pronouns  the  double  function  of  the  conjunctive  pronoun  needs 
special  emphasis,  as  does  the  double  function  of  conjunctive  adverbs. 
In  studying  verbs  the  pupil  should  have  a  thorough  drill  on  the  nature 
and  uses  of  verbal  words. 

The  ideal  method  in  all  of  this  work  would  be  to  supplement  the 
oral  recitation  by  requiring  the  pupil  to  do  some  written  worK  each  day 
which  should  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  for  criticism  in  subject  mat- 
ter, punctuation,  spelling,  grammar,  neatness,  etc.  This  ideal  can  only 
be  approximated  by  busy  teachers,  but  blackboard  work  by  pupils,  and 
constant  upholding  of  high  standards  of  excellence  in  both  written  and 
oral  expression  will  do  much  toward  accomplishing  the  purposes  re- 
ferred to  in  this  discussion. 


WORK  IN  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

At  the  close  of  the  course  it  would  be  of  great  profit  to  study  whole 
selections  for  analysis  ana  parsing  instead  of  isolated  sentences  Thus 
the  pupil  might  be  led  to  a  realization  of  the  value  of  the  study  as  an 
aid  in  interpreting  literature,  at  the  same  time  feeling  with  Prof 
Tyndall  that  such  drill  is  "an  intellectual  discipline  of  the  highest 
kind." 

The  work  I  have  outlined  would  certainly  require  at  least  fifteen 
weeks  for  its  satisfactory  completion.  But  our  aid  to  the  pupil  should 
not  stop  here.  Having  mastered  the  principles  underlying  correct 
speech  and  being  touched  with  a  feeling  of  his  own  infirmities  and  a 
•desire  to  acquire  greater  accuracy  of  speech,  the  pupil  should,  all 
through  his  school  life,  have  the  benefit  of  the  good  example  of  his 
teachers  and  should  by  them  be  held  to  a  high  standard  of  oral  and 
written  expression  in  all  his  studies.  It  is  constant  practice  alone 
which  will  enable  our  pupils  to  attain  that  correctness  of  speech  which 
should  characterize  those  who  are  to  serve  as  teachers. 


THE  PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OP  WORK  IN  COMPOSITION. 

LILLIAN  G.  KIMBALL,  Oshkosh. 

The  final  purpose  of  the  study  of  composition  in  a  Normal  school 
is  to  make  good  teachers  of  English  for  the  common  schools.  This 
purpose  should  never  be  lost  sight  of.  It  should  dominate  the  method 
of  teaching  and  be  the  determining  factor  in  limiting  or  extending  the 
scope  of  the  work.  It  is  not  enougn  for  us  that  we  train  students  to 
express  themselves  well.  We  must  also  fit  them  to  teach  others  to  do 
the  same.  The  habit  of  thinking  clearly  and  then  revealing  one's 
thougnt  in  language  unmistakable  and  pure,  is  excellent,  a  great  end  to 
attain.  But  the  Normal  student  must  attain  something  beyond  this, — 
he  must  realize  what  the  process  is  by  which  this  excellent  habit  is  ac- 
quired, he  must  know  the  difficulties  in  the  way  and  be  able  to  give 
practical  assistance  in  overcoming  them;  otherwise  he  may  be  a  good 
and  inspiring  example,  which  is  much,  very  much,  but  he  will  fail  to 
"be  an  efficient  guide,  because  he  knows  only  the  end,  not  the  way. 

In  this  important  respect  of  training  students  so  that  they  can  teach 
Composition,  the  Normal  school  differs  widely  from  the  high  school,  and 
«o  no  matter  how  proficient  the  high  school  graduate  is  in  the  use  of 
English,  it  does  not  follow  that  he  needs  no  further  training  in  Com- 
position. He  knows  nothing  of  the  pedagogical  aspect  of  the  subject, 
and  yet  he  must  grasp  it,  for  English  Composition  is  taught  in  every 
grade  beginning  with  the  first;  and  to  teach  Composition  he  must  not 
only  practice  the  principles  of  the  art  of  communication,  but  have  such 
a  mastery  of  them  that  he  can  effectively  impart  them  to  children.  In 
other  words,  the  Normal  student  must  become  a  good  speaker  and 
writer,  a  discerning  critic,  and  a  competent  guide.  This  cannot  be  too 
often  repeated,  too  deeply  impressed. 

Let  us  see  what  is  involved  in  this  threefold  training  required  by 
Normal  students,  and  first  of  all  in  the  matter  of  mere  language,  the 
mastery  of  words.  To  speak  or  write  well  one  must  have  a  wide  vocab- 
ulary, and  this  not  for  the  sake  of  variety,  but  for  the  sake  of  precision 


IQ4:  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

and  the  truth.  To  acquire  this  vocabulary  there  must  be  such  an  exten- 
sive study  of  language  throughout  the  Normal  course  as  will  enable 
students  to  detect  and  avoid  common  errors  of  speech,  and  there  must 
be  an  intensive  study  of  words  in  word-analysis  and  the  study  of  syno- 
nyms, not  primarily  to  give  great  store  of  information  about  many 
words,  but  to  develop  the  right  attitude  toward  language,  to  inculcate 
the  habit  of  investigation  and  of  caring  to  use  the  right  word  in  the 
right  place.  If  our  students  employ  words  carelessly,  if  they  do  not 
appreciate  precision  in  speech,  they  cannot  teach  English  well.  As 
teachers  they  must  be  critical  of  spelling  and  pronunciation,  quick  to 
note  a  word  that  does  not  convey  the  meaning  intended,  and  able  to 
furnish  language  to  the  child  who  says,  and  sometimes  truly,  that  he 
knows  but  cannot  tell. 

Besides  this  our  students  must  understand  thoroughly  from  their 
study  of  Grammar  the  structure  of  sentences,  and  know  how  to  com- 
bine wojds  according  to  the  principles,  of  good  usage  into  well  built 
sentences.  If  they  cannot  do  this,  then  the  words  that  form  their  build- 
ing material  will  be  as  good  as  wasted.  To  make  good  sentences  un- 
consciously because  one  has  had  long  and  intimate  association  with 
good  writers  through  reading  is  enough  for  the  average  person,  but 
not  enough  for  the  teacher.  For  he  must  be  able  to  detect  faulty  sen- 
tence structure  in  the  work  of  his  pupils,  and  to  account  for  these 
faults,  so  that  he  may  lead  children  to  substitute  correct  forms  for 
them.  This  power  can  be  developed  in  our  students  only  by  patient, 
persistent  effort  on  our  part,  and  by  much  practice  in  composition  on 
their  part  under  constant  direction  and  criticism. 

In  addition  to  a  command  of  language  and  an  understanding  of  Eng- 
lish sentence-structure,  we  must  see  that  our  students  get  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  qualities  of  style,  clearness,  coherence,  unity,  energy,  pro- 
portion, transition.  It  is  true  that  it  is  not  possible  to  say  much  about 
these  qualities  that  a  child  in  the  grades  could  understand,  but  by  the 
aid  of  simple  models  it  is  possible  to  give  a  child  such  a  feeling  for 
these  qualities  that  he  can  grow  in  his  application  of  thent,  and  ever 
with  more  intelligent  understanding.  Our  students  will  not  gain  the 
explicit  knowledge  of  these  qualities  that  they  must  have  as  teachers 
in  order  to  cultivate  them  in  the  work  of  children,  unless  they  are  thor- 
oughly presented  in  Composition,  and  the  practice  of  them  insisted 
upon  in  every  line  of  work  throughout  the  course.  Language  will  not 
be  well  taught  in  the  grades  if  taught  only  in  the  language  classes.  We 
wish  our  students  to  become  convinced  of  this,  that  they  may  teach  lan- 
guage well  everywhere  and  all  the  time.  To  this  end  every  teacher  in 
the  Normal  school  should  be  the  assistant  of  the  language  teacher.  In 
fact,  the  teaching  of  language  is  something  no  teacher  can  escape. 
He  may  or  he  may  not  teach  the  arithmetic  or  the  geography  that  he 
sets  out  to  teach,  but  he  will  teach  English  by  his  example  and  by  the 
ideals  that  he  reveals  to  students,  whether  he  will  or  no. 

In  addition  to  all  that  has  been  mentioned  we  must  teach  our  stu- 
dents in  Composition  the  details  of  formal  execution  of  written  work, 
such  as  paragraphing  and  punctuation.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  we  must 
teach  so  that  our  students  will  be  fitted  to  teach  in  turn.  I  do  not 
know  that  it  is  possible  to  teach  even  punctuation  with  completeness 
in  a  Normal  school,  but  we  can  at  least  set  pupils  on  the  right  track  so 
that  they  may  continue  to  advance  after  leaving  us.  They  come  to  us 


WORK  IN  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

with  a  variety  of  mistaken  ideas,  for  instance,  that  punctuation  indi- 
cates pauses  in  reading,  and  that  the  comma  takes  the  place  of  a  con- 
junction. We  have  to  disabuse  their  minds  of  these  false  notions,  for 
though  they  may  enable  one  to  punctuate  more  or  less  correctly  by  a 
sort  of  blind  instinct,  they  do  not  serve  as  a  rational  or  adequate  basis 
for  teaching  punctuation  to  children.  As  to  paragraphing,  it  can  best 
be  taught  not  by  theory  but  by  examples.  Students  must  see  how  and 
upon  what  principles  good  authors  paragraph,  not  in  selections  from. 
their  works  as  seen  in  School  Readers,  where  the  artificial  paragraphs 
are  even  in  length,  but  as  the  authors  themselves  paragraphed,  with- 
here  a  paragrapn  of  three  lines,  and  succeeding  it  one  of  thirty.  Only 
in  this  way  do  students  get  the  courage  necessary  to  paragraph  accord- 
ing to  judgment  rather  than  form. 

All  that  I  have  said  should  be  known  or  acquired  by  the  Normal  stu- 
dent, as  his  equipment  for  teaching  English  can  only  be  mastered  by 
him  tnrough  continuous  and  conscious  application  in  writing,  and  so  he 
must  have  a  great  amount  of  practice  in  the  four  kinds  of  discourse, — • 
exposition,  narration,  description,  argumentation.  These  forms  must 
be  so  presented  by  theory,  by  example,  and  by  practice,  that  he  learns 
what  characteristics  each  form  must  have,  what  difficulties  lie  in  the 
way  of  writing  each,  and  how  these  difficulties  may  be  overcome;  and 
he  must  know  what  characteristics  are  most  essential,  how  they  can 
be  presented  to  children,  and  in  what  order.  If  he  does  not  learn  this 
in  a  direct  way  as  a  part  of  his  professional  training,  he  must  get  it 
indirectly  through  the  progressive  order  in  which  his  teacher  takes  up 
points  and  the  method  by  which  she  presents  them.  He  must  leanr 
from  the  practice  provided  for  him  how  extensive  and  how  varied  is 
the  practice  that  he  can  provide  for  children,  how  every  line  of  their 
school  work  furnishes  opportunity  for  exercises  in  written  composition 
as  well  as  oral  expression.  As  it  is,  he  is  too  often  unresourceful:  he 
does  not  seem  to  know  that  he  is  not  limited  to  stories  and  descrip- 
tions, but  that  he  can  teach  clearness  and  continuity  of  thought  in  no 
better  way  than  through  exposition,  force  in  no  better  way  than 
through  argumentation.  It  is  desirable  that  we  make  manifest  to  stu- 
dents that  both  they  and  the  children  who  are  to  be  under  their  charge 
can  write  out  of  their  own  living — their  own  experiences,  thoughts, 
feelings,  knowledge,  beliefs,  opinions.  We  do  not  need  to  cram  either 
students  or  children  with  "Silas  Marner,"  or  "The  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow"  in  order  to  extract  from  them  afterward  a  weak  description 
that  is  neither  an  imitation  nor  an  original,  a  production  of  almost  no 
language  value  whatever,  but  nevertheless  powerful  to  bring  on  a  dis- 
taste for  composition. 

Furthermore,  as  teachers  of  composition  our  aim  should  be  to  make 
our  students  realize  always  when  they  write  that  they  are  not  merely 
expressing  thought  for  the  purpose  of  getting  something  said,  but  com- 
municating thought,  putting  it  into  words  to  get  it  into  the  mind  of 
someone  else.  The  feeling  that  one  has  a  reader  or  listener  whom  he 
is  to  delight,  or  instruct,  or  persuade,  will  influence  his  style  to  good 
results  more  than  any  other  influence  we  can  bring  to  bear.  It  will 
quicken  his  wit,  spur  his  energy,  and  give  him  zest  for  his  work.  This 
is  true  of  children  as  of  students;  and  because  it  is  true,  letter-writing 
is  perhaps  the  best  form  of  composition  to  be  employed  in  the  grades. 
Communication  is  present  there  inevitably.  Besides  in  a  letter  all 


106  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

forms  of  discourse  are  .possible,  and  that,  too,  in  the  style  in  which 
people  are  called  upon  to  write  in  life  outside  the  schoolroom. 

Thus  far  nothing  has  been  said  of  good  thinking,  but  it  is  of  prime 
importance  because  it  is  the  foundation  of  all  good  writing.  The 
teacher  of  Composition  and  of  every  other  subject  in  our  course  must 
insist  always  upon  clear,  logical,  definite  thinking  by  his  students,  and 
partly  so  that  they  in  turn  will  not  slight  this  fundamental  of  all  ef- 
fective communication,  when  they  go  out  to  teach.  And  we  must  con- 
tinually raise  their  ideals,  make  them  care  greatly  about  clear  think- 
ing and  about  telling  their  thought  with  simplicity  and  directness  in 
the  best  English  at  their  command.  If  we  do  not  do  this,  how  can  we 
expect  them  to  care  how  their  pupils  think,  or  talk,  or  write? 

In  conclusion  I  would  say  that  the  three  most  essential  factors  in 
teaching  Composition  in  a  Normal  school  so  that  students  may  be  fitted 
to  teach  it  in  the  common  schools,  are  these, — a  realization  that  com- 
munication, not  expression,  is  the  end  of  discourse,  a  good  example 
set  by  every  teacher,  re-enforced  by  selected  models  from  good  authors, 
and  abundant  practice  under  "never-ceasing  watch  and  correction," 
iboth  in  composition  classes  and  in  every  other  line  of  school  work. 


THE  AIM,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  COMPOSITION  WORK  IN  THE 
NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

HERBERT  E.  BOLTON,  Milwaukee. 

What  follows  is  meant  to  apply  to  the  composition  work  done  in  the 
: advanced  courses  in  Normal  schools;  that  is,  to  the  work  done  by  high 
school  graduates,  or  by  juniors  and  seniors  who  have  passed  through 
an  elementary  Normal  school  course. 

I.    Aim. 

The  aim  of  Normal  school  work  in  composition  should  be  both  gen- 
•eral,  or  academic,  and  special,  or  professional. 

A.     General. 

The  first  and  general  aim  should  be  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
high,  or  other  preparatory  school  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  in  every 
•student  the  ability  to  express  himself  in  writing  with  accuracy  and 
facility. 

This  aim  is  called  general  in  contradistinction  from  the  professional 
aim,  because  it  demands  training  that  students  must  have  for  intelli- 
gent citizenship,  and  not  as  a  special  preparation  for  their  duties  as 
teachers.  The  kinds  of  knowledge  and  ability  included  in  this  aim  rep- 
resent, also,  simply  a  minimum  amount  of  knowledge  and  power  indis- 
pensable to  a  profitable  study  of  the  professional  side  of  language,  that 
is,  training.  Negatively,  it  is  believed  that  under  present  circum- 
stances there  is  small  place  in  the  Normal  school  course  for  scientific 
rhetoric  and  higher  criticism,  such  as  might  be  given  as  preparation  for 
authorship.  To  give  training  in  these  directions  is  the  function  of  the 
College.  So  far,  then,  as  academic  training  in  composition  is  concerned, 
the  Normal  school's  aim  is  lowly,  as  its  execution  is  uninspiring;  but 


WORK  IN  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION. 

its  thorough  accomplishment  is,  nevertheless,  indispensable  as  a  prep- 
aration for  professional  work. 

B<    Special,  or  Professional. 

The  Normal  school  function  proper,  in  the  department  of  composi- 
tion, is  to  prepare  the  teacher,  presumed  or  known  to  possess  the  requi- 
site academic  knowledge,  to  perform  those  professional  duties  that  fall 
to  him  as  a  teacher.  What  the  teacher  has  to  do  with  composition,  as 
part  of  his  profession,  falls  under  two  heads.  On  the  one  hand  he  has 
to  use  written  or  oral  language  to  convey  ideas  to  a  particular  grade  of 
pupils.  Language  here  is  an  incidental  means  of  instruction.  Second — 
he  has  to  teach  composition  or  "language"  as  a  study,  to  young  pupils. 
The  aim  of  the  Normal  school  instruction,  then,  if  it  is  to  meet  these 
two  kinds  of  professional  needs,  should  be:  — 

1.  To  train  the  prospective  teacher  in  the  particular  kind  of  language 
and  composition  work  which  he  will  most  need  as  an  instrument  in 
teaching  other  subjects. 

2.  To  train  him  in  the  best  methods  of  teaching  language  as  a  special 
subject  to  the  pupils  under  his  instruction. 

If  these  statements  be  accepted,  then  it  follows  that  under  this  head 
not  all  Normal  school  students  should  be  given  the  same  kind  of  work 
in  composition,  for  different  teachers  deal  with  differently  developed 
minds.  Indeed,  the  range  is  even  so  wide  as  from  the  kindergarten  to 
the  eighth  grade.  The  time  has  come  when  we  differentiate  the  work 
in  many  other  subjects, — in  history  and  science,  for  example, — to  suit 
the  various  special  needs  of  persons  intending  to  teach  in  different 
grades.  It  would  seem  that  within  a  somewhat  more  restricted  range 
the  same  differentiation  is  desirable  in  our  professional  instruction  in 
composition. 

II.    Scope. 
C. 

To  attain  the  aim  stated  under  "A,"  each  student  should  have  the  fol- 
lowing kinds  of  knowledge  and  power: 

1.  Ability  to  write  a  good  hand. 

2.  A  usable  knowledge  of  correct  grammatical  construction. 

3.  A  mastery  of  punctuation. 

4.  Ability  to  arrange  work  neatly  on  the  page,  including  a  knowledge 
of  headings,  paragraphing,  outlining,  and  the  notation  of  outlining. 

5.  A  usable  knowledge  of  common  business  forms,  particularly  letter 
writing,  which,  in  actual  life,  is  the  form  of  composition  that  the  aver- 
age person  is  most  frequently  called  upon  to  practice. 

6.  A  mastery  of  the  elementary  rhetorical  principles  of  the  sentence 
and  the  paragraph,  including:  — 

a.  Unity  and  coherence  in  the  sentence. 

b.  Unity  and  coherence  in  the  paragraph. 

c.  Different  methods  of  developing  the  expository  paragraph. 

7.  A  knowledge  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the  structure  of  the 
•composition  as  a  whole,  including:  — 

a.  The  relation  of  the  paragraph  to  the  whole  composition. 

b.  The  order  of  the  paragraphs  in  the  whole  composition. 

c.  The  outline,  or  plan. 

d.  The  use  of  connectives  to  secure  coherence. 


1Q3  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

e.  Unity  in  the  composition. 

f.  The  opening  and  the  close. 

In  Milwaukee  we  are  able  to  do  this  work  fairly  well  in  ten  weeks,, 
for  with  some  exceptions,  the  students  we  get  can  satisfactorily  do- 
much  of  the  work  here  outlined  when  they  come  to  us.  For  such  as 
cannot  a  longer  time  than  ten  weeks  is  required.  It  is  also  found  that 
a  few  can,  at  the  outset,  satisfy  all  the  requirements  enumerated.  Such 
are  excused  from  doing  this  part  of  the  work  as  soon  as  this  fact  is 
ascertained. 

D. 

In  order  to  attain  the  aim  under  B  7,  the  prospective  teacher  should 
be  given  practice  in  the  particular  kind  of  language  and  composition 
work  that  he  will  most  need  as  a  means  of  instructing  his  particular 
grade  of  pupils.  It  is  assumed  that,  under  C,  the  student  will  practice 
expressing  his  thoughts  as  an  adult  person,  in  language  adapted  to  the 
adult  reader  or  hearer.  But  the  Normal  school  graduate  deals,  as  a 
rule,  with  juvenile  minds.  He  should,  therefore,  have  practice  in  a 
form  of  expression  adapted  to  such  minds.  He  should  have  special 
practice  in  simple  expression.  If  the  students  are  not  differentiated 
into  kindergartens,  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  school 
teachers,  the  work  should  include:  — 

1.  Practice  in  juvenile  description. 

2.  Practice  in  juvenile  narration. 

3.  A  combination  of  the  two  in  juvenile  story  or  biography  writing* 

4.  Practice  in  juvenile  exposition  writing. 

5.  Practice  in  oral  description,  narration,  story  telling,  and  exposi- 
tion. 

In  proportion  as  the  students  are  differentiated  into  groups  prepar- 
ing to  teach  in  different  grades  the  work  under  this  head  should  be- 
adapted,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  the  particular  grade  which  each  is 
preparing  to  teach.  As  preparation  for  work  in  the  lower  grades,  th& 
special  work  should  be  largely  oral.  Perhaps  five  weeks  should  be 
given  to  this  special  work  suggested  under  D. 

E. 

At  least  five  weeks  should  be  given  to  methods  of  teaching  language 
and  composition  in  addition  to  whatever  work  is  given  in  professional 
grammar.  This  would  seem  a  minimum  amount  of  time  for  so  difficult 
and  so  important  a  subject  as  this  is.  To  the  extent  that  it  is  practica- 
ble, the  work  here  should  be  differentiated  as  under  D. 

It  should  include:  — 

1.  A  consideration  of  the  aims  of  language  work  in  general. 

2.  The  aim  of  language  work  in  each  particular  grade. 

3.  The  materials  which  give  the  best  basis  for  language  work  in  each 
grade  or  to  accomplish  each  aim. 

4.  How  to  find  this  material. 

5.  How  to  use  this  material,  e.  g.,  how  to  proceed  and  what  to  aim 
at  when  a  story  is  to  be  "reproduced." 

6.  The  relation  of  language  to  grammar. 

7.  The  relation  of  other  studies  to  language  instruction. 


WORK  IN  RHETORIC. 


777.    Suggestions  on  Plan  of  Work. 


109 


No  attempt  is  made  here  to  outline  methods  of  doing  the  above  work. 
A  few  suggestions  only  are  made. 

1.  Within   certain   limits,   all  teachers   of  Normal   school   students 
.should  be  teachers  of  composition  and  thus  supplement  the  formal  in- 
struction in  the  subject.     This  can  be  done  by  giving  students  time 
for  careful  preparation  of  incidental  written  work,  in  class  or  out. 
Written  work  given  by  the  teachers  might  be  organized  so  that  each 
student  would  have  regular  incidental  written  work  to  do  in  class 
throughout  the  Normal   school  course  on  certain  days  in  the  week. 
'Such  a  plan  would,  it  is  believed,  be  one  of  the  best  possible  means  of 
giving,  practice  in  composition  .writing,  for  it  would  be  practice  under 
most  natural  conditions. 

2.  What  is  said  above  applies  particularly  to  the  work  done  in  the 
literature  class  which  should  not  only  give  practice  in  writing,  but 
also  should  furnish  models  for  the  same. 

3.  Above  all,  it  is  desired  to  place  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  in- 
dividual work  with  his  pupils  by  the  composition  teacher.     In  no  other 
school  activity  is  the  student  more  an  individual  than  in  his  efforts  to 
-express  his  ideas.     He  tries,  if  he  writes  under  proper  conditions,  to 
express  himself;  and  he  must  be  allowed  to  do  it  in  his  own  way;  tak- 
ing care,  in  the  process  of  pruning  out  his  inaccuracies  and  veneering 
his  crudeness,  to  leave  the  individual  there,  after  all. 

This  cannot  be  done  by  dealing  only  with  the  class  en  masse.  The 
teacher  must  have  time  to  work  with  the  pupil  as  an  individual.  These 
considerations  point  to  the  necessity  for  a  conference  hour  or  confer- 
ence hours  during  the  school  day  when  much  of  the  instruction  must 
be  given.  Indeed,  it  is  believed  that  the  greater  share  of  composition 
instruction  can  be  best  given  in  this  way.  Another  deduction  from  this 
supported  by  common  experience,  is  that  to  properly  instruct  a  given 
number  of  students  in  composition  requires  more  time  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  than  to  do  this  in  most  other  subjects,  hence  the  teacher 
should  have  smaller  classes  or  fewer  recitations  than  teachers  of  most 
other  branches. 


RHETORIC. 

PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  PLAN. 
JOSEPHINE  HENDERSON,  Oshkosh. 

Purpose. 

The  keynote  of  the  book  is  the  foreword.  Of  the  scores  of  texts,  old 
and  new,  on  Rhetoric,  the  purposes  as  set  forth  in  their  forewords  can 
t>e  put  into  one  phrase:  to  teach  how  to  communicate  thought.  If  the 
concensus  of  opinion  of  the  authors  of  Rhetoric  is  that  the  aim  of  this 
study  is  to  increase  power  to  convey  thought,  then  the  purpose  of  Rhe- 
toric in  a  Normal  school  must  be  the  same,  but  with  this  increase  in 
self-power  the  Normal  student  should  be  made  aware  how  he  can  de- 
velop the  same  power  in  another. 

Judging  the  English  of  the  Normal  students  in  the  state  of  Wiscon- 


INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

sin  by  the  Oshkosh  students,  I  feel  sure  the  greatest  good  to  the- 
greatest  number  will  be  secured,  not  only  in  our  own  schools  but  in 
the  public  schools,  if  training  in  communicating  one's  own  thought  be- 
made  "the  paramount  issue."  This  will  be  effective  not  only  in  compo- 
sition, but  in  teaching  also.  Furthermore  the  attiude  of  the  Normal 
student  is  such  that  with  little  or  no  digression  from  the  topic  in  hand, 
he  can  be  made  somewhat  familiar  with  methods  of  developing  thought 
and,  in  a  slight  degree,  of  the  philosophy  underlying  the  forms  of  ex- 
pression. This  differentiates  the  work  from  that  in  the  grades,  where- 
as little  theory  as  possible  should  be  given,  and  from  the  course  in  the 
high  school,  by  broadening  what  is  known,  and  presents  it  in  a  new 
aspect.  If,  when  students  come  to  this  branch,  they  used  English  witi* 
a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  and  fluency,  the  main  effort  could  be  put 
upon  the  more  advanced  work  and  the  Normal  point  of  view  be  made 
the  underlying  motive.  That  time  is  the  happy  time  for  which  we  work 
and  hope.  In  this  connection  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  close  obser* 
vation  of  the  English  of  each  entering  class  shows  the  standard  is  being 
raised,  though  slowly. 

Concentrated  effort  to  establish  new  ideals  of  material  suitable  for 
themes  will  accomplish  much.  So  long  and  so  persistently  has  Rhetoric 
been  taught  with  English  literature,  or  with  English  literature  as  the 
basis,  that  every  witten  exercise  is  supposed  to  be  a  "literary  perform- 
ance." If  otherwise,  the  student  thinks  his  theme  trifling  or  flippant, 
and  he  is  chagrined  when  he  must  read  his  own  thoughts  in  his  own 
words.  His  writing  is  essentially  a  reproduction,  perhaps  not  a  con- 
scious one,  but  simply  one  due  to  the  theme  and  method  of.  preparation. 
To  him  there  is  no  real  difference  between  the  reproduction  of  the  text 
in  a  recitation  and  creative  work  in  composition.  Emphasis  on  this- 
phase  will  increase  his  teaching  power.  If  trained  he  can  find  within 
his  own  experiences,  within  his  own  observation,  or  in  objects  at  his 
very  hand,  material  that  will  help  to  make  clear  and  vivify  his  teach- 
ing as  well  as  his  writing.  He  will  correlate  without  thinking  of  cor- 
relation. He  should  see  that  Rhetoric  will  help  him  express  his  simplest 
as  well  as  his  most  lofty  thought,  and  that  the  form  of  expression 
should  be  adapted  to  the  end  sought.  What  has  been  said  of  Rhetoric 
is  true  also  of  the  work  in  composition,  but  as  many  students  have  only 
the  Rhetoric  in  the  Normal  school  we  must  make  it,  too,  the  point  of 
attack. 

The  Normal  student  some  day  will  be  a  critic.  Arlo  Bates  says  that 
it  is  a  moral  duty  for  one  to  know  why  he  likes  or  dislikes  a  thing.  Be- 
sides being  a  moral  duty  there  is  no  teaching  composition  without  some 
power  of  criticism.  To  train  judgment  and  taste  must  then  be  another 
purpose  of  Rhetoric. 

Scope  and  Plan. 

To  say  what  the  scope  should  be  is  somewhat  difficult.  It  will  de- 
pend on  previous  training  and  length  of  course  in  the  Normal  schools. 
Some  schools  give  ten  weeks,  others  twenty,  to  this  study. 

No  matter  what  the  previous  training  has  been,  I  have  found  that  the 
students  themselves  feel  that  the  best  returns  have  come  from  a  course 
of  three,  or  at  least  two  weeks  in  the  daily  writing  of  paragraphs. 
Our  work  is  based  on  Scott  &  Denney's  Paragraph-Writing  and  Buck  &• 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR. 


Ill 


Woodbridge's  Expository  Writing.  For  theory  we  use  A.  S.  Hill's  Prin- 
ciples of  Rhetoric.  To  make  clear  the  writing  is  not  "literary"  we  be- 
gin with  simple  expositions.  For  the  remainder  of  the  term  two  themes 
a  week  is  the  maximum;  one  original,  the  other  on  work  in  class. 
Sometimes  the  student  writes  instead  of  talking.  The  conviction  is- 
growing  that  great  good  would  come  if  more  time  were  given  to  oral  ex- 
pression and  less  to  written.  To  have  a  course  in  talking  precede  the 
one  in  writing  would  give  more  spontaneity  to  the  writing  and  deepen 
the  conviction  that  power  in  any  field  will  depend  in  a  marked  degree 
on  the  skillful  use  of  language. 

The  three  weeks  of  writing  are  followed  by  a  course  in  analysis  and 
criticism.  This  does  not  give  new  principles,  but  a  new  point  of  view. 
The  principles  used  synthetically  in  construction  are  now  used  analyt- 
ically. The  English  teacher  must  see  both  the  obverse  and  reverse 
sides.  Then,  too,  he  will  be  forced  into  the  critic's  chair.  He  must: 
know  what  to  let  alone  and  what  to  better.  To  prepare  himself  for 
judgment  of  his  own  work  and  that  of  others  he  studies  an  effect  and 
finds  out  on  what  the  effect  depends.  The  plan  of  work  for  analysis 
and  criticism  is  based  on  Genung's  Rhetorical  Analysis  and  Tomp- 
kins's  Science  of  Discourse.  There  is  analysis  and  also  criticism  of 
extracts  in  Swinton's  Literature,  short  poems  and  an  oration.  The  analy- 
sis of  the  oration  is  the  preparation  for  the  senior  oration  or  lecture, 
and  for  the  oratorical  contest.  Would  it  not  seem  wise  for  the  teachers 
of  Rhetoric  in  the  Normal  schools  to  use  their  influence  to  do  away 
with  the  old-time  oratory,  a  style  which  is  painfully  apparent  in  our 
inter-normal  oratorical  contests,  a  style  which  the  modern  effective 
speaker  does  not  use?  It  has  been  suggested  in  our  school  that  the 
perfervid  oratory  of  these  contests  be  superceded  by  business-like  dis- 
cussions of  pedagogical  questions.  Possibly  the  golden  mean  lies  be- 
tween these  two  extremes. 

In  this  course  in  Rhetoric  I  have  tried  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  should 
look  back  to  composition  and  forward  to  literature,  the  connecting 
link.  Standing  as  this  branch  does,  as  the  last  of  its  kind  in  the  cur- 
riculum, it  should  not  present  too  much  of  the  new,  but  strengthen 
the  weaker  parts,  unify  the  English  work  of  all  the  courses,  and  develop- 
the  power  to  criticise  at  least  the  technical  side  of  composition  so  that 
the  great  things  in  literature  may  be  more  readily  comprehended  and 
more  fully  appreciated. 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

S.  A.  LYNCH,  West  Superior. 

I. 
Grammar. 

It  is  assumed  that  students  who  take  up  this  course,  already  have  a. 
reasonably  accurate  and  extensive  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter;  and 
if  it  is  found  that  they  are  not  prepared  to  carry  on  this  study  intelli- 
gently and  profitably,  they  are  asked  to  take  up  the  academic  work  and 
to  continue  that  until  they  are  thoroughly  ready  for  the  professional 
discussion  of  the  subject.  It  is  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  the  prin- 


UNIVERSITY 


112  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

>ciple  purpose  of  the  course  is  to  study  how  the  subject  may  best  be 
•taught;  that  is,  how  to  unite  the  logical  and  psychological  phases  of  the 
work  so  as  to  determine  the  best  methods  of  teaching. 

I.  The  Purposes  of  the  course  are: 

1.  To  discuss  the  scientific,  logical,  and  psychological  principles  that 
underlie  the  study  of  grammar. 

2.  To  review  what  the  teacher  must  know  in  order  to  have  complete 
mastery  of  the  subject  (within  our  scope). 

3.  To  consider  the  educational  and  practical  values  of  the  study  of 
;  grammar. 

II.  Scope: 

1.  The  review  of  grammar  is  limited  to  the  parts  of  speech,  syntax, 
and  analysis  of  sentences,  not  for  the  purpose  of  learning  technical 
terms,  definitions  and  facts,  but  with  the  thought  of  teaching  the  sub- 
ject. 

2.  Practice  in  synthesizing  sentences  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
what  is  to  be  taught. 

III.  Plan: 

I.    Scientific  Phase. 

At  the  outset  the  difference  between  scientific  and  unscientific 
knowledge  is  discussed,  and  students  are  required  to  give  illustrations 
•  of  each.  It  is  shown  that  classification  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  scientific  knowledge  and  the  application  of  this  truth  to  the 
? study  of  language  in  general,  or  of  any  particular  language,  is  made  the 
starting  point  for  our  work. 

There  are  five  principles  which  underlie  any  scientific  study,  namely: 

A.  The  material.    1.  The  accurate  and  extensive  observation  of  facts 
and  a  correct  record  of  such  observation. 

B.  Preliminary  method.     2.     The  discovery  of  a  common  element  of 
likeness  in  many  phenomena:  the  principle  of  general  classification. 

3.  The  discovery  of  common  differences    within    the    classes:     the 
principle  of  sub-classification. 

C.  Subsequent  Practice.     4.  Distribution  of  new  phenomena  within 
the  classification  already  established. 

5.  Modification  of  the  established  classification  or  invention  of  new 
classification  in  order  to  gain  a  more  accurate  or  more  convenient  ar- 
rangement of  old  phenomena  and  of  new  phenomena  that  will  not  fit 
into  the  previous  classification. 

In  regard  to  grammar  the  first  step  has  already  been  done,  to  a 
great  extent,  by  the  authors  of  text-books  on  the  subject.  The  ad- 
vantage is  that  the  material  is,  in  most  of  the  work,  readily  at  hand, 
either  in  the  speech  of  the  pupils,  or  of  the  teacher,  or,  best  of  all,  in 
good  literature.  The  disadvantage  is  that  the  material,  language,  is  so 
common  that  the  interest  due  to  novelty  is  almost  entirely  lacking.  The 
regular  use  of  the  vernacular  by  those  authors  who  are  considered 
standards  of  excellence  must  be  the  basis  of  all  work  in  gram- 
mar. The  application  of  the  second  scientific  principle  determines  the 
general  classification  of  language  into  the  kinds  of  sentences  and  the 
parts  of  speech.  This  work  is  necessarily  the  first  step  in  the  study 
and  should  be  taken  up  inductively.  The  third  principle  determines 
the  divisions  within  each  of  the  larger  groups,  the  kinds  of  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, adverbs,  etc.,  both  as  to  use  and  form.  The  teaching  work  at  this 
•stage  of  progress  should  be  largely  inductive,  the  teacher  depending  on 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR. 

the  text-book  only  for  such  facts  as  pupils  would  not  ordinarily  know; 
as,  for  example,  special  plurals  of  nouns.  The  fourth  principle  is  the 
basis  of  all  work  in  parsing,  and  of  the  technical  part  of  analysis 
of  sentences,  and  is  of  great  value  in  drills  and  reviews.  The  fifth 
principle  is  not  used  often  in  a  science  so  firmly  established  as  that  of 
grammar.  The  struggle  for  the  adoption  of  the  Potential  Mode  is  an 
example  in  point. 

Since  induction  is  the  method  of  scientific  study  now  accepted  as 
the  only  true  pedagogic  method  for  all  sciences,  excepting  those  within 
or  bordering  upon,  pure  reason,  grammar  should  be  taught  inductively 
so  far  as  the  material  available  will  permit.  Text-books  are  valuable 
(1)  in  setting  forth  the  thoughts  of  those  authors  who  have  given  the 
subject  much  study;  (2)  in  furnishing  facts  regarding  the  language, 
not  known  by  the  average  reader;  (3)  as  a  sort  of  standard  of  com- 
parison for  pupils  after  they  have  attempted  to  formulate  their  own 
-definitions  and  rules;  (4)  as  a  ready  reference  for  review  work;  (5) 
and  in  providing  exercises  for  drill  in  parsing  and  analysis. 

In  this  part  of  the  work  students  are  required  to  state  in  detail  how 
they  would  present  new  phases  of  the  subject  to  classes;  that  is,  what 
would  be  their  aim,  what  previous  knowledge  (apperceptive  mass) 
must  the  pupils  have  before  the  new  fact  can  be  attempted,  how  the 
teacher  may  apply  scientific  principles  without  requiring  pupils  to  learn 
these  principles.  A  thorough-going  review  of  the  subject  matter  is  thus 
attained,  with  the  advantage  of  clear-cut  conceptions  of  what  must  be 
-done  in  the  actual  work  of  teaching. 

//.     Logical  Phase. 

Since  English  is  an  almost  purely  analytic  language,  parts  of  speech 
and  the  relations  of  words  are  not  determined  by  forms,  but  by  the  uses 
and  functions  of  words  in  sentences;  and,  consequently,  logical  reason- 
ing is  a  fundamental  factor  in  the  study  of  English  Grammar.  In  syn- 
tax and  analysis  of  sentences  the  inherent,  logical  processes  of  thought 
are  antecedent  to  the  arbitrary  and  conventional  classifications  of  the 
science  of  grammar,  which  now  become  auxiliary  instead  of  primary. 
In  studying  the  parts  of  speech  the  question  is,  "To  what  class  cf  words 
does  this  particular  word  belong?"  while  in  syntax  the  problem  is  a 
"broader  one,  "What  is  the  relation  of  this  word  to  some  other  word  or 
words  in  the  sentence?"  The  work  of  syntax  is  to  discover  the  func- 
tions of  words  and  their  logical  connection;  also,  in  a  few  cases,  the 
correct  forms  that  correspond  to  certain  functions. 

The  task  of  determining  which  forms  and  word-orders  are  standard, 
involves  an  extensive  study  of  our  language  and  literature,  such  as 
cannot  possibly  be  conducted  in  school.  For  facts  of  usage,  students 
must  depend  upon  the  investigation  of  others  as  recorded  in  text-books. 
They  should,  however,  compare  the  information  given  in  books  with 
what  they  know  of  the  language,  and  test  the  conclusions  of  the  texts 
T>y  logical  reasoning.  Syllogistic  reasoning  is  implied  in  all  definitions 
(cf.  Dr.  Harris'  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education,  pp.  65-88),  In 
all  classification,  and  in  every  determination  of  the  correct  forms  to  be 
used.  But  in  grammar  the  conclusions  are  not  so  infallible  as  in  mathe- 
matics, because  language  deals  with  qualities,  not  quantities,  with  ideas, 
not  facts,  and  the  premises  may  sometimes  be  variously  interpreted. 
Since  reasoning  is  imperative  in  all  phases  of  grammar,  syntax  is  in- 


INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

timately  associated  with  both  etymology  and  analysis;  the  study  of 
Case,  for  example,  and  of  such  sub-classifications  as  Relative  Pronouns 
and  Participles,  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  functions  of  words  in 
the  sentence,  while  a  correct  conception  of  the  thought  in  a  sentence,  as 
expressed  by  the  given  word-arrangement,  is  requisite  for  analysis. 
After  the  development  of  each  fact  of  syntax,  definition  of  the  corre- 
sponding technical  term  should  follow,  and  the  intelligent  use  of  such 
terms,  as  devices  for  saving  time  and  energy,  should  be  required. 

In  class  review  of  the  subject  matter,  students  are  required  to  state 
how  they  would  illustrate  and  develop  certain  facts  of  syntax;  for 
example,  the  difference  between  complement  (attributive  complement) 
and  supplement  (factitive  complement),  the  difference  between  direct 
and  indirect  object,  the  correct  forms  of  pronouns  to  be  used  after  in- 
complete intransitives,  the  agreement  of  the  predicate  of  a  relative  pro- 
noun, the  correct  positions  of  adjectives  and  adverbs,  etc.  In  this  way 
the  familiarity  of  students  with  the  subject-matter  is  thoroughly  tested, 
without  the  ennui  of  "threshing  old  straw" 

///.     Psychological  Phase. 

The  review  of  analysis  of  sentences  commands  the  use  of  all  that 
students  have  previously  learned.  And  in  addition  the  psychological 
phases  of  the  study  are  considered.  The  purpose  is  to  develop  in  the 
minds  of  pupils  a  consciousness  of  thought  processes,  and  to  train  in 
the  ready  and  correct  use  of  technical  terms  in  explaining  the  ways 
of  expressing  thought.  The  progress  is  from  experience  (knowing  the 
meaning  of  words),  through  reasoning  out  the  problems  presented,  to 
insight  into  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  The  important  fact  that 
words  are  symbols  of  our  ideas  of  things  as  well  as  names  of  actual 
things,  is  emphasized,  and  methods  of  impressing  this  truth  upon  the 
minds  of  tolerably  mature  children  are  given.  The  general  classes  of 
ideas  determine  the  parts  of  speech,  and  these  fall  into  two  groups — 
notional  and  relational.  Under  the  former  we  arrange  (1)  ideas  of 
things  (sense-objects  and  thought-objects) — nouns;  (2)  ideas  of  asser- 
tions of  action,  state  or  being,  etc. — verbs;  (3)  ideas  of  attributes  of 
(1) — adjectives;  (4)  ideas  of  attributes  of  assertions  and  of  attributes — 
adverbs;  complex  idea  of  (1)  and  (2)  determine  gerunds;  of  (3)  and 
(2),  participles.  Under  the  latter  we  have,  (1)  ideas  of  relations  be- 
tween ideas  represented  by  single  words,  prepositions;  (2)  ideas  of  re- 
lations between  thoughts,  conjunctions.  Interjections  represent  emo- 
tions rather  than  ideas,  although  simple  or  complex  ideas  are  asso- 
ciated with  the  emotions:  (1)  when  the  interjection  is  another  part 
of  speech,  as  "Look!";  (2)  when  the  interjection  expresses  the  emo- 
tional result  of  a  train  of  thought,  as  "Pshaw!" 

Similar  psychological  facts  determine  the  classification  of  sentences 
and  the  use  of  equivalents  of  nouns,  etc.  in  sentences.  The  classifica- 
tion of  sentences  depends  upon  the  kind  of  thoughts,  statements, 
questions,  commands  (unemotional  or  emotional)  which  may  be  single 
(simple  sentence)  or  may  contain  other  thoughts  which  are  dependent 
(complex  sentences),  or  independent  (compound  sentence).  When 
clauses  are  used  as  equivalents  of  nouns  they  are  regarded  as  single 
ideas.  This  fact  is  betrayed  in  the  language  by  the  use  of  the  antici- 
patory subject  "it"  and  the  substantive  conjunction  "that."  The  same 
psychological  truth  in  regard  to  the  functions  of  phrases  and  of  ad- 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR. 


115 


jective  and  adverb  clauses  is  readily  shown.  Students  are  required  to  do 
so.  An  exhaustive  discussion  of  the  possible  uses  of  the  co-ordinate  con- 
junction "and,"  with  a  written  outline  after  the  discussion,  affords  an 
excellent  summary  of  the  review  of  subject-matter  from  the  three  points 
•of  view,  scientific,  logical,  psychological. 

IV.    Pedagogical  Principles  to  T)e  Applied. 

In  applying  pedagogy  students  are  required  to  show  how  and  to 
what  extent  the  following  principles  can  be  used  in  teaching  grammar: 

1.  The  healthy  child  finds  pleasure  in  activity  of  body  and  mind. 

2.  The  processes  of  teaching  are  determined  by  the  order  and  laws 
of  mental  growth. 

3.  The  first  presentation  of  subject  matter  should  be  made  with 
objects  or  actions  (wherever  possible). 

4.  Teaching  should  proceed  first  inductively,  then  deductively,  fact, 
definition,  exercises  to  show  the  application  of  the  definition. 

5.  The  work  and  content  of  the  learner's  mind  must  be  brought  to 
adequate  expression. 

6.  All  modes  of  formal  education  should  present  to  the  learner  only 
the  best  models. 

7.  Frequent  repitition  and  review  of  principles,  processes,  and  forms 
of  expression. 

V.    Professional  View  of  the  Value  of  Grammar. 

The  value  of  grammar  is  discussed  in  order  to  determine  reasons  for 
its  place  in  the  course  of  study.  Practically,  its  value  is  very  slight, 
for  it  necessarily  follows  the  learning  to  use  the  language  in  both 
speech  and  writing.  There  is  considerable  satisfaction,  however,  in 
knowing  that  one  uses  the  language  correctly.  A  knowledge  of  English 
grammar  is  a  requisite  for  scholarship  in  any  other  language.  In  the 
study  of  English  literature  grammar  is  valuable  in  arriving  at  a 
thorough  understanding  of  difficult  passages.  But  the  chief  worth  of 
grammar  is  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  almost  the  only  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  pure  reason  in  the  grade  schools.  The  Report  of  the 
Committtee  of  Fifteen  emphasizes  this  fact  (pp.  48-9):  "Grammar  is 
the  science  of  language,  and  as  the  first  of  the  seven  liberal  arts  it 
has  long  held  sway  in  school  as  the  disciplinary  study  par  excellence. 
A  survey  of  its  educational  value,  subjective  and  objective,  usually  pro- 
duces the  conviction  that  it  is  to  retain  the  first  place  in  the  future, 
Its  chief  objective  advantage  is  that  it  shows  the  structure  of  language, 
and  the  logical  forms  of  subject,  predicate,  and  modifier,  thus  reveal- 
ing the  essential  nature  of  thought  itself,  the  most  important  of  all 
objects,  because  it  is  self-object.  On  the  subjective  or  psychological 
side,  grammar  demonstrates  its  title  to  the  first  place  by  its  use  as  a 
discipline  in  subtle  analysis,  in  logical  division  and  classification,  in 
the  art  of  questioning,  and  in  the  mental  accomplishment  of  making 
exact  definitions.  Nor  is  this  an  empty,  formal  discipline,  for  its  sub- 
ject-matter, language,  is  the  product  of  the  reason  of  people,  not  as  in- 
dividuals, but  as  a  whole,  and  the  vocabulary  holds  in  its  store  of  words 
the  generalized  experience  of  that  people,  including  sensuous  observa- 
tion and  reflection,  feeling  and  emotion,  instinct  and  volition." 


Hj3  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

II. 

Language  in  the  Grades. 

About  three  weeks'  time  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  language 
work  in  the  first  six  grades,  with  the  following — 

General  Purpose:  To  study  and  discuss  the  psychological  and  prac- 
tical phases  of  language  work  in  the  grades. 

1.  In  regard  to  learning  the  words  and  word-order  for  the  expression 
of  thought; 

2.  In  regard  to  planning  the  work  so  as  to  prepare  pupils  for  the 
study  of  technical  grammar; 

3.  In  regard  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  composition  work  to  be  done. 
The  Scope  of  the  work  should  be  as  follows: 

1.  Special  exercises   for  instruction  and  drill  in  oral   and  written 
expression  of  thought. 

2.  Practical  correlation  of  language  lessons  with  all  other  oral  and 
written  work  of  pupils. 

In  class  the  Plan  of  discussion  is  in  the  following  order: 

A.  Theoretical:  — 

1.  How  words  are  learned  by  children  before  they  enter  school, — the 
psychologic  basis  of  language; 

2.  The  extent  and  character  of  the  child's  vocabulary  when  he  enters 
school; 

3.  The  child's  knowledge  of  word-order  at  six  years  of  age; 

4.  How  the  school  offers  facilities  for  learning  to  comprehend,  speak 
and  write  the  vernacular  readily  and  correctly; 

5.  The  kinds  of  composition  work  to  be  done — narration,  description, 
dialogue,  letter-writing. 

B.  Practical:  — 

1.  The  work  in  the  lower  grades  should  first  be  oral,  and  skillfully 
adapted  to  the  pupils'  age,  interest,  and  command  of  language. 

2.  Impression   (thought  and  feeling)   must  precede  expression.    The 
stimulation  may  come  from  conversations,  stories  told  oy  the  teacher  or 
printed  in  the  text,  pictures  with  questions,  events  in  school,  incidents 
in  the  life  of  the  pupils,  etc. 

3.  Pupils  must  master  the  elementary  technique  of  composition,  such 
as  the  common  uses  of  capitals,  punctuation,  abbreviations,  contrac- 
tions, letter-forms,  and  how  the  composition  is  to  be  written  on  paper. 
Pupils  must  be  required  to  practice  all  of  these  conventions  in  all  writ- 
ten work. 

4.  In  each  grade  there  should  be  frequent  review  of  what  has  been 
learned  in  lower  grades. 

5.  Important  principles  to  be  observed: 

(a)  Each  thought  should  be  clearly  and  completely  in  mind  be- 

fore attempting  either  oral  or  written  expression. 

(b)  A  definite  sequence  must  be  observed  in  the  telling  of  stories, 

and  in  all  exercises  that  prepare  for  grammar. 

(c)  In  dictation  exercises  no  hint  as  to  how  the  work  is  to  be 

written  should  be  given  by  the  teacher's  manner  of  dictat- 
ing. Pupils  should  be  trained  to  receive  and  hold  in  mind 
two  or  more  complete  thoughts,  and  to  write  them  cor- 
rectly without  aid  from  the  teacher. 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR. 

(d)  There  should  be  the  minimum  of  rules  and  definitions;  max- 

imum of  practice. 

(e)  Spontaneity  and  individuality  of  expression  should  be  en- 

couraged witnout  sacrificing  clearness  and  correctness. 

(f)  Criticism  of  the  work  should  be  sympathetic,  with  consist- 

ent requirement  of  definiteness,  neatness,  and  effort.  The 
teacher's  attitude  toward  the  work  should  be  character- 
ized by  suavity  and  firmness. 

Throughout  this  part  of  the  work  students  are  required  to  give  il- 
lustrations of  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  discussed. 


SCOPE,   PURPOSE,  AND   PLAN   OF  PROFESSIONAL   REVIEW   IN 

GRAMMAR. 

CARRIE  J.  SMITH,  River  Falls. 

An  Outline. 
I.  Composition  of  Classes:  — 

a.  Students   taking   the   full   four  years'    course,   thus   having 

studied  Grammar  in  the  Normal  school. 

b.  Students  (not  High  school  graduates)  who  enter  with  various 

credits.  They  have  probably  studied  Grammar  in  the  Com- 
mon schools,  but  more  probably  have  been  for  the  most 
part  their  own  instructors. 

c.  High  school  graduates. 

II.  Common  Characteristics  of  above:  — 

a.  The  subject-matter  of  Grammar  has  become  more  or  less  ob- 

scure with  all. 

b.  The  word  rather  than  the  sentence  is  the  unit  of  grammatical 

thought,  hence  • 

c.  The  facts  of  Grammar  are  in  a  confused  and  unrelated  state, 

hence 

d.  There  is  little  or  no  interest  in  the  subject-matter,  hence 

e.  There  is  a  common  distaste  for  it. 

f.  There  is  little  conscious  application  of  the  principles  of  the 

correct  use  of  the  English  language  to  their  own  speech. 

III.  Purpose  of  Work:  — 

a.  Academic, — 

To  make  better  the  undesirable  conditions  enumerated  in 
II — to  relate  the  isolated  facts  of  the  subject-matter,  to 
breathe  "the  breath  of  life"  into  the  sentence,  to  make 
the  student  conscious  of  his  own  speech,  and  to  cre- 
ate self-activity  in  the  correction  of  errors. 

b.  Professional, — 

To  train  the  student  in  careful  analysis  of  his  subject-mat- 
ter, and  in  the  presentation  of  the  same, — i.  e.,  the  Method 
of  the  What  and  the  Method  of  the  How. 
IV.  Scope  of  Work:  — 

The  work  must  be  both  academic  and  professional, — the  academic 
to  be  of  sufficient  scope  to  enlarge  and  extend  views  of  sub- 
ject-matter, correct  false  ideas,  strengthen  weak  points,  and, 
in  general,  give  a  solid  basis  for  the  professional  work  which 
accompanies  it. 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

V.  Plan  of  Work:  — 

Academic  and  professional  work  synchronous,  i.  e.,  the  study  of 
any  particular  topic  academically  to  be  followed  by  lesson- 
plans  on  some  feature  of  that  topic,  these  plans  to  be  subject 
to  class  discussion  and  criticism  and  occasionally  one  pre- 
sented to  a  class  from  the  grades  in  the  presence  of  the  Re- 
view class,  this  presentation  being  followed  by  discussion  and 
criticism. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  "FOUR  FUNDAMENTAL   PROPOSITIONS" 

IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  GRAMMAR. 

(Copyrighted./ 

GRACE  DARLING  MADDEN,  Milwaukee. 

Introduction. 

The  following  units  were  selected  to  be  reviewed  by  classes  in  the 
Professional  Review  class  in  Grammar  in  the  Milwaukee  Normal 
school.  These  units  were  developed  one  at  a  time  and  were  organized 
in  lesson  or  class-plans  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions. 
The  teacher  at  times  formulated  a  class-plan  corresponding  to  a  whole 
unit.  Again  the  teacher  organized  individual  daily  class-plans  corre- 
sponding to  each  new  step  in  advance  in  the  teaching  of  a  whole  or 
large  unit.  The  students  in  turn  each  organized  lesson-plans  corre- 
sponding to  each  succeeding  step  in  the  teaching  of  and  developing  of 
a  large  or  unit-whole.  The  pupils  observed  the  teacher's  class-plans 
closely — discussed  the  class-plans  under  following  heads  t 

1.  Preparation  for  the  next  day's  work. 

a.  Of  subject  matter  to  be  taught. 

J>.  Of  the  pupil's  mind  in  order  that  he  may  do  assigned  work  ef- 
fectively and  rapidly. 

2.  Presentation  of  the  day's  lesson  in  the  class-room. 

3.  Review  and  application  of  the  data  learned,  or  generalizations  ar- 

rived at,  to  new  particulars. 

The  students  in  the  review  class  finally  formulated  what  seemed  to 
them  to  be  the  results  of  the  application  of  the  four  fundamental  prop- 
ositions to  the  teaching  of  Grammar. 

UNIT  I. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  a  sentence  and  its  parts. 
ft.  To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs. 

UNIT  II. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  the  meaning  of  a  noun  may  be  modified 
by  an  adjective. 

6.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  adjectives  may  be  simple  or  many- 
worded. 

UNIT  III. 
Aims — 

o.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  adverbs. 

Z>.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  adverbs  may  be  simple  or  many-worded. 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 


UNIT  IV. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  transitive,  intransi- 
tive and  copulative  verbs. 

UNIT  V. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  prepositions. 

UNIT  VI. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  conjunctions. 
6.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  classify  sentences  according  to  form. 

c.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  distinguish  between  clauses  with  respect 
to  their  office. 

d.  To  have  pupils  learn  to  distinguish  between  clauses  and  phrases. 

UNIT  VII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  that  nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs  change  their 
form  to  express  a  difference  in  number. 

UNIT  VIII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  that  pronouns  and  nouns  change  in  form  to 
show  their  relation  to  other  words. 

UNIT  IX. 
Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  pronouns  and  verbs  are  inflected  to 
express  difference  in  person. 

&.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  declension  of  the  personal  pronoun. 

UNIT  X. 

Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  verbs  are  inflected  to  show  difference  in 
time. 

ft.  To  have  pupils  learn  the  meaning  and  formation  of  tenses  of  the 
indicative  mode. 

c.  To  have  pupils  discuss  the  meaning  of  other  verb-phrases  of  dif- 
ferent modes  and  tenses. 

UNIT  XL 

Aims — 

a.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  verbs  are  inflected  to  express  a  difference 
in  the  manner  in  which  the  action  may  be  regarded. 

b.  To  have  pupils  learn  that  the  form  of  a  verb  may  show  whether 
the  subject  performs  the  action  or  whether  the  subject  receives  the  ac- 
tion which  the  predicate  expresses. 

UNIT  XII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  that  adjectives  and  a  few  adverbs  are  inflected 
to  show  a  difference  in  degree. 


120  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


UNIT  XIII. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  in  regard  to  the 
inflection  of  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

UNIT  XIV. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  recognize  and  define  interrogative  pronouns  and  in- 
terrogative adjectives. 

UNIT  XV. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  demonstrative  pronouns 
and  demonstrative  adjectives. 

UNIT  XVI. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  indefinite  pronouns  and 
indefinite  adjectives. 

UNIT  XVII. 

Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  to  recognize  and  define  relative  pronouns  and 
relative  adjectives. 

UNIT  XVIII. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  some  of  the  essential  qualities  of  participles. 

UNIT    XIX. 
Aims — 

a.    To  have  pupils  learn  some  of  the  qualities  of  infinitives. 

ft.     To  have  pupils  learn  to  distinguish  clearly  between  infinitives 
and  participles. 

UNIT    XX. 
Aims — 

a.    To  have  pupils  name  the  parts  of  speech  that  may  be  used  as 
connectives. 

&.     To  have  pupils  classify  clauses  and  phrases. 

c.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  kinds  of  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

d.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

e.  To  have  pupils  name  the  different  kinds  of  complements  of  the 
predicate. 

UNIT    XXI. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  nouns. 

UNIT    XXII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  pronouns. 

UNIT    XXIII. 

Aim — 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  adjectives. 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR.       12 lr 


UNIT    XXIV. 

Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  adverbs. 

UNIT  XXV. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  prepositions.. 

UNIT    XXVI. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  conjunctions. 

UNIT    XXVII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  summarize  what  they  have  learned  about  verbs. 

UNIT    XXVIII. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  classify  and  define  sentences. 

UNIT    XXIX. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  to  summarize  and  apply  the  laws  of  correct 
syntax  relative  to  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

UNIT    XXX. 
Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  summarize  and  apply  the  laws  of  correct 
syntax  relative  to  case  forms  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

UNIT    XXXI. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  to  summarize  and  apply  the  laws  of  correct 
syntax  relative  to  tense  forms  of  verbs. 

UNIT    XXXII. 

Aim — 

To  have  pupils  learn  to  summarize  and  apply  the  laws  of  correct 
syntax  relative  to  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

UNIT    XXXIII. 
Aim- 
To  have  pupils  learn  to  summarize  and  apply  laws  of  correct  snytax 
syntax  relative  to  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 


II.     The  application  of  the  "four  fundamental  propositions"  in  prepara- 
tion of  class  work  from  day  to  day,  necessitates  the  organization 
of  lesson-class-plans,  the  parts  of  which  are  arranged  under  the 
four  headings,  viz.: 
1 — Aim  or  aims. 

2. — What  must  be  known  or  done  by  the  student  to  realize  these- 
aims. 


122  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

3. — Of  proposition  2  what  does  the  student  already  know,  or  what 

can  he  do? 

4. — What  under  proposition  (2)  the  pupil  still  has  to  learn  or  do. 
The  lesson  plans  necessitate  the  selection  and  organization  of  the 
subject  matter  of  grammar.  The  selection  and  organization  of  the 
subject  matter  of  grammar  (for  purposes  of  teaching  the  same)  de- 
pend upon  three  other  things — (1)  the  content  of  grammar;  (2)  the 
purposes  or  values  of  the  study;  (3)  similarities  or  differences  be- 
tween data. 

The  selection  and  organization  of  similar  data  involves  often  a  unit 
or  topic-whole.  This  whole  may  be  so  large  that  it  is  not  adapted 
to  individual  or  daily  work,  i.  e.,  it  is  necessary  then  that  the  teacher 
should  organize  the  large  unit  or  topic-whole  into  smaller  units,  and 
again  organize  these  smaller  units  into  class-plans  each  corresponding 
in  turn  to  one  or  more  days'  work,  according  as  each  class-plan  de- 
veloped will  need  one  or  more  days  to  realize  number  1  of  the  four 
fundamental  propositions. 

II.     The  following  is  an  outline  of  a  unit-whole  based  upon  the  four 
fundamental   propositions: 
1. — Aim — To  lead  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  define  copulative, 

transitive  and  intransitive  verbs. 
2. — What  must  be  known  or  done  to  realize  above  aim. 

(a)  The  pupil  must  observe  in  a  series  of  sentences  supplied  by  the 
teacher  that  some  verbs  require  other  words  to  complete  the  assertion 
:about  the  subject. 

(b)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  incomplete  verbs. 

(c)  He  must  select  incomplete  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(d)  He  must  observe  again  in  this  series  of  sentences  that  some  verbs 
'do  not  require  other  words  to  complete  the  assertion  about  the  subject. 

(e)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  complete  verbs. 

(f)  He  must  select  complete  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(g)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  that  some  incomplete  verbs  are  com- 
pleted by  words  which  seem  to  qualify  the  subject,  as,  e.  g.,  "She  seems 
indifferent." 

(h)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  copulative  verbs. 

(i)  He  must  select  copulative  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences,  which 
Terbs  are  completed  by  words  qualifying  the  subject. 

(j)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  that  some  verbs  are  completed  by 
words  which  seem  to  name  as  well  as  qualify  the  subject. 

(k)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  also  called  copulative  verbs. 
He  must  select  such  copulative  verbs  as  are  completed  by  words  nam- 
ing the  subject. 

(jl)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  again  that  some  verbs  are  completed 
*by  words  which  seem  to  stand  for  the  name  of  the  subject,  as  "It  is  I," 
I  standing,  for  instance,  for  the  name-word  Mary  or  Grace. 

(m)   He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  also  called  copulative  verbs. 

(n)  He  must  select  copulative  verbs  which  are  completed  by  words 
-which  stand  for  the  name  of  the  subject. 

(o)   He  must  be  led  to  define  "copulative  verb." 

(p)  He  must  recall  that  a  word  which  qualifies  the  subject  is  called 
an  adjective.  He  must  then  be  told  that  a  word  qualifying  the  subject 
and  completing  the  verb  is  called  a  predicate  adjective. 

(q)  He  must  select  predicate  adjectives  of  copulative  verbs  in  this 
series  of  sentences. 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 

(r)  He  must  recall  that  a  name  word  is  a  noun.  He  must  be  told 
that  words  completing  verbs  which  seem  to  name  the  subject  as  well 
as  qualify  the  subject  are  called  predicate  nouns. 

(s)  He  must  select  predicate  nouns  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(t)  He  must  recall  that  a  word  standing  for  a  noun  is  a  pronoun. 
He  must  be  told  that  such  words  completing  verbs  which  stand  for 
name-words  are  called  predicate  pronouns. 

(u)  He  must  be  led  to  select  predicate  pronouns  in  this  series  of 
sentences. 

(v)  He  must  be  led  to  define  a  predicate  adjective,  predicate  noun, 
predicate  pronoun. 

(w)  He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  the  definition  of 
a  copulative  verb,  predicate  noun,  predicate  pronoun,  predicate  adjec- 
tive. 

(x)  He  must  analyze  a  series  of  sentences  taken  from  the  grammar 
in  which  he  selects  copulative  verbs  with  their  completing  words. 

(y)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  that  some  verbs  are  completed  by 
words  which  do  not  qualify,  name,  or  stand  for  the  name  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

(z)  He  must  observe  that  the  completing  word  of  such  verbs  receive 
the  act  asserted  by  the  verb. 

(a')   He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  transitive  verbs. 

(b')  He  must  select  transitive  verbs  and  their  completing  words  in  a 
series  of  sentences. 

(c')  He  must  be  told  that  the  completing  word  of  a  transitive  verb  is 
called  the  object  of  the  verb. 

(e')  He  must  be  led  to  define  transitive  verb  and  direct  object  of 
transitive  verb. 

(f)  He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  the  definition 
of  transitive  verb  and  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

(g')  He  must  be  tola  that  another  name  for  a  complete  verb  is  an 
intransitive  verb. 

(h')  He  must  be  led  to  select  intransitive  verbs  in  a  series  of  sen- 
tences presented  by  the  teacher. 

(d')   He  must  formulate  a  definition  for  an  intransitive  verb. 

(j')   He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  this  definition. 

(k')  He  must  be  led  to  analyze  a  series  of  sentences,  discriminating 
between  transitive  and  intransitive  and  copulative  verbs,  and  their 
completing  words,  if  they  have  such  words. 

(!')  He  must  be  led  to  make  a  summary  of  verbs  with  reference  to 
whether  they  are  complete  or  incomplete  and  with  reference  to  their 
completing  words. 

What  facts  of  grammar  must  have  been  taught  the  pupil  before  he  is 
taught  to  recognize  and  define  copulative,  transitive,  and  intransitive 
verbs. 

He  must  know  the  following: 

1. — That  a  sentence  is  an  expression  of  thought  in  words. 

2. — That  every  sentence  has  two  parts,  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

3. — The  definition  of  the  subject  of  a  sentence — simple,  and  many- 
worded. 

4. — The  definition  of  the  predicate  of  a  sentence — simple,  and  many- 
worded. 


124  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

5. — The  definition  of  a  noun. 

6. — The  definition  of  a  pronoun. 

7. — The  definition  of  an  adjective. 

8. — The  definition  of  a  verb. 

9- — The  pupil  must  be  able  to  distinguish  between  an  adjective  and  an 
adverb. 

III.  The  lesson  plan  developing  this  unit-whole  involves  so  much 
that  is  new  to  the  student  that  it  necessitates  the  organization  by  the 
teacher  of  lesson  plans  corresponding  to  only  one  of  two  advanced 
steps  of  the  whole  unit.  With  this  in  view  the  following  aims  or  series. 
of  aims  are  given  for  the  development  of  this  large  unit-whole  for  the 
organization  of  smaller  units  corresponding  to  daily  lesson  class-plans. 

Aims — 1.  To  teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  a  complete  and  incomplete 
verb. 

2nd  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  review  with  the  pupil  the  work  of  the  pre- 
ceding day  with  reference  to  complete  and  incomplete  verbs,  (b)  To 
teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  define  one  division  of  the  incomplete 
verb,  the  copulative  verb,  (c)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

3rd  Set  of  Aims.— (a)  Review  of  the  preceding  day's  lesson  with  ref- 
erence to  copulative  verbs,  (b)  To  teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  and 
define  a  transitive  verb,  (c)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

4th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  test  or  review  the  preceding  day's  work 
with  reference  to  transitive  verbs,  (b)  To  teach  the  pupil  to  recog- 
nize and  define  the  intransitive  verb,  (c)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the 
next  day's  lesson. 

5th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  lead  the  pupil  to  fix  and  formulate  the  defini- 
tions of  the  following:  copulative  verb,  transitive  verb,  intransitive 
verb,  predicate  noun,  predicate  pronoun,  predicate  adjective,  direct  ob- 
ject of  a  transitive  verb,  (b)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

6th  Set  of  Aims. — To  review  the  preceding  day's  work,  (b)  To  lead 
the  pupil  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  copulative  and  transitive  verbs  by 
leading  nim  to  discriminate  between  the  copulative  and  intransitive 
verb  in  a  series  of  sentences  selected  from  the  text-book,  (c)  To  pre- 
prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 

7th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  review  the  preceding  day's  work,  (b)  To 
lead  the  pupil  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  transitive  and  intransitive 
verbs  by  leading  him  to  discriminate  between  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive verbs  in  a  series  of  sentences  selected  from  the  text-book,  (c)  To 
prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's  recitation. 

8th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  review  the  preceding  day's  work,  (b)  To- 
lead  the  pupil  to  discriminate  between  copulative,  transitive,  and  in- 
transitive verbs  in  a  series  of  sentences  selected  from  the  text,  (c)  To 
prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 

NOTE. — Some  teachers  would  here  teach  the  laws  relative  to  the  case 
forms  of  pronouns  used  as  completing  predicates  and  of  pronouns  used 
as  direct  objects  of  transtive  verbs.  If  so,  the  following  series  of  aims 
develop. 

9th  Set  of  Aims. — To  lead  the  pupil  to  observe  and  formulate  the  fol- 
lowing laws:  (a)  That  a  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  in  the 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 

objective  case,  (b)  That  a  pronoun  used  as  a  completing  word  of  a 
•copulative  verb  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  of  that  verb,  (c)  To 
prepare  tne  pupil  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 

10th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  review  the  preceding  day's  work;  that  is, 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  apply  the  preceding  laws  in  a  series  of  sentences 
prepared  by  the  teacher,  (b)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

llth  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  review  the  preceding  dav's  work;  that  is, 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  discover  that  these  two  laws  are  oueyed  in  thought, 
— embodied  in  literary  form,  (b)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next 
•day's  lesson. 

12th  Set  of  Aims. —  (a)  To  lead  the  pupil  to  detect  and  hence  to 
avoid  errors  with  reference  to  case  forms  of  completing  words  used 
with  copulative  and  transitive  verbs,  (b)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the 
next,  day's  lesson. 

13th  Set  of  Aims. — To  lead  the  pupil  to  apply  above  laws  to  his  own 
•oral  and  written  work. 

If  the  preceding  aims  are  developed  with  reference  to  case  forms  of 
completing  words,  other  data  must  be  known  by  the  pupil  before  at- 
tempting to  teach  him  laws  governing  case  forms  of  completing  words, 
namely,  the  following:  (1)  The  pupil  must  know  the  definition  of  the 
term  case.  He  must  know  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  nominative  and 
objective  case.  He  must  be  able  to  inflect  the  following  personal  pro- 
nouns in  the  singular  and  plural,  I,  he,  she,  the  relative  pronoun  who 
and  its  compound  forms,  like  whosoever. 

IV.  Illustrations  of  class  or  lesson-plans  based  upon  the  four  funda- 
mental propositions,  which  lesson-plans  are  for  the  purpose  of  realiz- 
ing the  first  three  sets  of  aims  outlined  above  when  teaching  the  unit 
or  topic  whole;  compulative,  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs. 

Class-Plan  1. 

Aim  1. — To  teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  define  complete  and  in- 
complete verbs. 

2.  What  must  be  known  or  done  by  the  pupil  to  realize  these  aims. 

(a)  That  a  sentence  is  an  expression  of  thought  in  words. 

(b)  That  every  sentence  has  at  least  two  parts,  subject  and  predicate. 

(c)  That  the  subject  is  that  about  which  something  is  asserted. 

(d)  That  the  predicate  is  that  which  asserts  something  about  the  sub- 
ject. 

(e)  That  the  subject  may  be  many-worded. 

(f)  That  the  predicate  may  be  many-worded. 

(g)  That  a  verb  is  usually  the  predicate,  or  is  that  which  asserts 
something  about  tne  subject. 

(h)  The  pupil  must  be  able  to  analyze  a  series  of  sentences  presented 
t>y  the  teacher  and  observe  that  some  verbs  do  not  need  a  word  to  com- 
plete the  assertion  about  the  subject. 

(i)   He  must  observe  this  again  and  again. 

(j)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  complete  verbs. 

(k)   He  must  select  the  complete  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(1)   He  must  oe  led  to  define  a  complete  verb. 

(m)  He  must  observe  in  this  series  of  sentences  that  some  verbs  do 
require  other  words  to  complete  the  assertion  about  the  subject. 

(n)   He  must  observe'  this  again  and  again. 


126  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

(o)   He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  incomplete  verbs, 

(p)   He  must  select  incomplete  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(q)   He  must  be  led  to  define  an  incomplete  verb. 

(r)  He  must  be  led  to  discriminate  between  all  the  complete  and  in- 
complete verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences,  by  the  teacher. 

(s)  He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  the  definitions  of 
a  complete  and  an  incomplete  verb. 

(t)  He  must  be  told  to  analyze  a  series  of  sentences  selected  by  the 
teacher  taken  from  the  grammar,  to  select  and  name  the  complete  and 
incomplete  verbs.  This  last  is  in  preparation  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 

(3)  Of  all  under  proposition  (.2)  what  does  the  pupil  already  know 
or  what  can  he  do? 

He  knows  all  of  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g. 

(4)  What  remains  to  be  known  or  done? 

All  under  proposition  (2)  not  found  under  proposition  (3),  namely, 
from  h  to  s. 

Class-Plans  2. 

Aim. —  (a)  To  review  the  preceding  day's  lesson,  to  test  the  student's 
preparation  of  a  part  or  the  advance  lesson. 

(b)  To  teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  define  copulative  verbs  and 
their  completing  words. 

(c)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's  lesson. 

2. — What  must  be  known  or  done  to  realize  these  aims? 

(a)  He  must  define  again  a  complete  and  incomplete  verb. 

(b)  He  must  analyze  rapidly  the  series  of  sentences  indicated  the 
day  before  by  the  teacher,  selecting  the  complete  and  incomplete  verbs, 
that  is,  noting  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  stating  whether  the  verb 
is  the  complete  predicate  or  whether  the  verb  requires  another  word 
of  words  to  complete  the  assertion  about  the  subject. 

(c)  He  must  observe  in  a  given  series  of  sentences  jthat  incomplete 
verbs  are  completed  by  words  which  seem  to  qualify  the  subject,  as  in 
the  sentence:     "Sne  looks  pale." 

(d)  He  must  observe  this  again  and  again. 

(e)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  so  completed  are  called  copula- 
tive verbs. 

(f )  He  must  be  led  to  select  copulative  verbs  so  completed  in  a  series 
of  sentences. 

(g)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  that  some  verbs  are  completed  by 
words  which  seem  to  name  as  well  as  qualify  the  subject  as,  "He  is  a 
King." 

(h)   He  must  be  led  to  observe  this  again  and  again. 

(i)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  so  completed  are  also  called 
copulative  verbs. 

(j)  He  must  be  led  to  select  copulative  verbs  so  completed  in  this 
series  of  sentences. 

(k)  He  must  be  led  to  observe  that  some  verbs  are  completed  by 
words  which  seem  to  stand  for  the  name  of  the  subject  as,  "I  am  she." 

(1)   He  must  be  led  to  observe  this  again  and  again. 

(m)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  so  completed  are  also  called 
copulative  verbs. 

(n)  He  must  be  led  to  select  copulative  verbs  so  completed  in  this 
series  of  sentences. 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 

(o)   He  must  be  led  to  define  a  copulative  verb. 

(p)  He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  his  definition, 
of  a  copulative  verb. 

(q)  He  must  recall  that  a  word  completing  a  copulative  verb  which 
seems  to  qualify  the  subject  is  an  adjective.  He  must  be  told  to  call 
such  completing  words  of  a  copulative  verb  predicate  adjectives. 

(r)   He  must  select  predicate  adjectives  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(s)   He  must  be  led  to  define  a  predicate  adjective. 

(t)  He  must  recall  that  words  which  complete  the  verb,  which  name 
the  subject  as  well  as  qualify  it  are  nouns,  and  he  must  be  told  that 
such  completing  words  of  copulative  verbs  are  called  predicate  nouns. 

(u)   He  must  be  led  to  select  predicate  nouns  in  a  series  of  sentences. 

(v)   He  must  be  led  to  define  the  predicate  noun. 

(w)  He  must  recall  that  words  used  in  place  of  nouns  are  pronouns, 
and  must  be  told  that  pronouns  needed  to  complete  copulative  verbs 
are  called  predicate  pronouns. 

(x)   He  must  select  predicate  pronouns  in  this  series  of  sentences. 

(y)  He  must  be  led  to  define  a  predicate  pronoun. 

(z)  He  must  turn  u>  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  his  definitions 
of  a  predicate  noun,  predicate  pronoun,  predicate  adjective. 

(a')  In  preparation  of  the  next  day's  work  he  must  be  given  a  series 
of  sentences  in  which  he  is  to  select  the  complete  and  incomplete  verbs, 
the  incomplete  verbs  which  are  copulative,  their  completing  words. 

3. — Of  all  the  points  under  proposition  2  what  does  the  pupil  now 
know  or  what  can  he  do?  a,  b,  perhaps  s,  g,  k,  q,  t,  w. 

4. — What  remains  to  be  known  or  done? 

All  under  proposition  2  not  indicated  under  proposition  3. 

Class-Plan  3. 

Aim: — (a)  To  review  and  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  a  copulative 
verb  and  its  completing  words. 

(b)  To  teach  the  pupil  to  recognize  and  define  a  transitive  verb. 

(c)  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  next  day's  recitation. 

2. — What  must  be  known  or  done  by  the  pupil  to  realize  these  aims. 

(a)  The  pupil  must  define  again  a  copulative  verb,  a  predicate  ad- 
jective, a  predicate  noun  and  a  predicate  pronoun. 

(b)  The  pupil  must  analyze  rapidly  the  sense  of  sentences  assigned 
the  day  before,  select  the  complete  and  incomplete  verbs,  select  the  copu- 
lative verbs  and  name  their  completing  words. 

(c)  The  pupil  must  select  the  incomplete  verb  in  a  series  of  sentences 
supplied  by  the  teacher  and  observe  that  some  verbs  are  not  completed 
by  words  which  name,  qualify  or  stand  for  the  name  of  the  subject. 

(d)  He  must  observe  that  they  are  completed  by  words  standing  for 
objects  which  receive  the  act  asserted  by  the  verb. 

(e)  He  must  observe  this  again  and  again. 

(f)  He  must  be  told  that  such  verbs  are  called  transitive  verbs. 

(g)  He  must  select  all  the  transitive  verbs  in  this  series  of  sentences, 
(h)   He  must  be  led  to  define  a  transitive  verb. 

(i)  He  must  be  told  that  the  completing  word  of  a  transitive  verb  is 
called  the  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

(j)  He  must  select  all  of  the  objects  of  the  transitive  verbs  in  this 
series  of  sentences. 

(k)   He  must  be  led  to  define  the  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

(1)  He  must  turn  to  his  grammar  to  fix  and  perfect  his  classifica- 
tion of  a  transitive  verb,  of  a  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

(n)  In  preparation  for  the  next  day's  work  he  must  be  told  to  ana- 
lyze a  series  of  sentences  given  in  the  grammar  and  to  select  the  transi- 
tive incomplete  verbs  and  their  completing  words  in  this  series  of  sen- 
tences. 

3. — Of  all  included  under  proposition  2  what  does  the  pupil  now  know 
or  what  can  he  do?  a,  b,  perhaps  c,  d. 

4. — What  remains  to  be  known  or  done? 

All  not  included  under  proposition  3. 

NOTE. — If  a  lesson  or  class-plan  is  not  completed  in  one  day,  the  same 
lesson  is  continued  until  finished  before  the  teacher  attempts  to  realize 
,a  new  series  or  set  of  aims  in  the  development  of  this  large  unit- 
whole — "Copulative,  Transitive  and  Intransitive  verbs." 

a.  Further  lesson  plans  should  be  made  by  the  teacher  until  all  of 
the  aims  noted  under  III.  are  realized — these  aims  were  formulated 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  new  data,  testing  students'  preparation  ot 
assigned  work,  drilling  upon  data  taught,  application  of  data  learned, 
or  the  application  of  generalization  arrived  at  to  new  particulars. 

V.  Above  selections  and  grouping  of  material  and  organization  of 
the  same  in  lesson  plans  involves  what  plans  or  lines  of  work  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher? 

1. — The  teacher  must  know  the  subject  of  grammar  as  a  whole  and  see 
its  natural  and  logical  division  into  units.  See  units  I  to  XXXIX  given 
in  introduction. 

2. — The  teacher  must  see  the  relation  between  these  units  if  any  ex- 
ists. 

3. — The  teacher  must  determine  the  naming  of  the  "unit-heads." 

4. — The  teacher  must  determine  their  relative  importance. 

5. — The  teacher  must  determine  their  order. 

6. — The  teacher  must  organize  lesson-plans  corresponding  to  a  unit 
or  a  division  of  a  unit,  if  the  unit  is  so  large  as  to  require  a  series  of 
lesson  plans. 

7. — The  teacher  must  determine  what  topics  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  under  prop- 
osition "2"  of  the  lesson-plan  the  pupil  now  knows  or  can  do. 

8. — The  teacher  must  determine  how  he  may  rapidly  and  effectively 
bring  to  the  consciousness  of  the  pupils  the  data  already  known,  which 
may  be  brought  into  such  living  and  vital  relation  with  the  new  as  to 
aid  the  class  to  comprehend  the  new  or  unknown. 

9. — The  teacher  must  determine  his  mode  of  procedure  before  he  at- 
tempts to  teach  the  class  the  topics  under  proposition  "4"  of  the  lesson 
plan. 

10. — The  teacher  must  prepare  a  series  of  sentences,  which  sentences 
are  so  selected  and  grouped  that  the  pupil  may  observe  again  and  again 
some  grammatical  fact;  for  example,  that  some  verbs  require  other 
words  to  complete  the  assertion  about  the  subject  and  may  finally  ar- 
rive at  generalizations;  for  example,  verbs  which  require  other  words 
to  complete  the  assertion  about  the  subject  are  called  incomplete  verbs. 

11. — The  teacher  must  be  ready  to  refer  the  pupil  to  certain  pages  of 
the  text-book  for  reference  and  study.  The  pupil  will  need  to  compare 
the  definitions  and  rules  which  he  has  formulated  with  like  generaliza- 
tions in  the  text-book,  will  need  to  study  series  of  sentences  presented  in 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 

the  text  for  the  purpose  of  applying  the  generalizations  arrived  at  to 
new  particulars,  will  need  the  guidance  of  the  text-book  in  the  forma- 
tion of  summaries  of  units;  such  as  all  the  offices  of  nouns  in  sentences, 
classes  of  pronouns,  etc. 

12. — The  teacher  must  think  out  logical  summaries  of  units  in  order 
that  he  may  teach  his  class  to  form  similar  summaries. 

VI.  The  handling  of  the  class-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental 
propositions  in  the  classroom,  or  with  the  class. 

This  will  be  considered  under  three  heads: 

1.  Preparation. 

2.  Presentation. 

3.  Application  and  drill. 

1.  Preparation. 

(a)  The  teacher  organizes  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught,  and  the 
order  in  which  it  is  to  be  taught. 

(b)  The  teacher  announces  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  lesson. 

(c)  The  teacher  determines  the  questions  which  are  to  reach  back 
and  gathered  up  data  presented  in  former  lessons  which  will  serve  as  a 
transition  for  the  new  lesson. 

(d)  The  teacher  announces  the  matter  of  the  new  lesson  to  the  class. 

(e)  If  the  child  is  to  study  the  next  day's  lesson,  which  study  is  to 
precede  actual  recitation  in  the  classroom  the  teacher  makes  such  re- 
marks explanatory  of  the  topics  under  "proposition  4,"  if  such  need 
explanation,  and  gives  such  definite  directions  as  are  necessary  for  the 
child's  accurate  understanding  of  his  mode  of  procedure  in  preparing 
the  next  day's  lesson. 

2.  Presentation. 

The  recitation  is  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  the  pupil's  gaining  a 
truer  view  and  a  deeper  insight  of  the  subject  matter  which  he  has 
studied,  or  with  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  new  inductively,  in  which 
case  the  subject  matter  has  not  been  previously  assigned  to  the  pupil 
for  study. 

(a)  In  this  latter  case,  presentation  to  the  class  of  a  series  of  sen- 
tences to  be  used  in  teaching  the  new. 

(b)  Presentation  or  teaching  of  the  new: 

The  teacher  by  means  of  a  series  of  questions  and  directions  leads 
the  class  to  observe  again  and  again  concrete  illustrations  of  some 
grammatical  fact  or  phenomenon.  The  pupil  compares  these  illustra- 
tions or  concrete  examples  of  the  same  phenomenon,  states  the  similar- 
ity existing  between  these  individual  illustrations  or  concrete  examples 
and  arrive  at  a  definite  conclusion  or  generalization,  which  generaliza- 
tion may  be  a  definition,  or  a  rule  of  correct  syntax.  For  example: 
He  observes  that  some  verbs  are  followed  by  words  which  complete  the 
assertion  made  about  the  subject;  he  observes  this  again  and  again  in  a 
like  series  of  sentences;  he  states  in  his  own  words  this  observation 
which  he  has  repeatedly  made;  he  is  told  to  call  such  a  completing 
word  a  completing  predicate  and  is  then  led  to  define  the  term  "com- 
pleting predicate." 


130  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


3.  Practice,  Drill,  Application. 

Comparing  pupil's  generalization  with  text-book  generalization, 
further  application  of  generalization  to  many  new  particulars — repeti- 
tion of  the  generalization,  that  is  the  definition  or  rule;  when  a  whole 
"unit"  has  been  taught,  the  making  of  a  summary  of  the  whole;  repeti- 
tion of  the  facts  of  this  summary  in  an  orderly  series;  original  illustra- 
tions by  the  class  of  the  different  data  of  the  summary;  application  of 
rules  learned  to  pupils'  oral  and  written  work;  constant  search  in  liter- 
ature for  further  illustrations. 

*VII.  Class  work  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  is 
truly  pedagogical. 

1.  The  first  important  function  and  duty  of  the  teacher  is  to  prepare 
the  students'  mind  for  the  assimilation  of  new  knowledge,  and  to  pre- 
sent the  subject  matter  of  instruction  in  the  order  and  manner  which 
best  conduces  to  this  assimilation.     The  class-plan  based  upon  the  four 
fundamental  propositions  does  this.     Why? 

(a)  It  presents  the  subject  matter  in  logical  order. 

(b)  Points  out  definitely  what  is  to  be  done. 

(c)  Indicates  the  order  in  which  this  is  to  be  done. 

(d)  Brings  to  the  consciousness  of  the  pupil  preceding  known  data 
and  experiences  similar  to  or  relating  to  today's  subject-matter  of  in- 
struction. 

(e)  These  known  data  reach  out  and  bring  into  vital  relation  with 
themselves  the  new  elements  of  knowledge  to  be  learned. 

(f)  The  statement  of  the  aim  puts  the  pupil  into  the  proper  frame 
of  mind  for  work  in  so  far  as  it  may  excite  expectation,  arouse  the 
pupil's  activity  in  working  at  a  task. 

2.  The    class-plan   based   upon   the   four    fundamental    propositions 
makes  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  clear. 

(a)  It  presents  matter  not  in  the  mass,  but  in  small  logically  con- 
nected sections  to  each  of  which  in  succession  the  pupil  gives  his  in- 
dividual attention,  thus  ensuring  clearness  of  each  step. 

(  D)  After  attention  has  been  given  to  each  successive  step  of  the  les- 
son-whole, these  steps  are  brought  into  a  close  relation  with  each 
other; — the  pupil  thus  gains  clear  individual  notions  and  avoids  the 
apprehension  of  a  confused  mass  of  disconnected  details.  This  close 
connection  of  the  individual  steps  of  the  lesson-plan  is  brought  about 
by  means  of  requiring  the  pupil  to  make  a  clean  well-cut  summary  of 
the  whole  lesson. 

3.  The  class-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  is 
capable  of  presenting  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  in  a  connected 
series. 

(a)  The  class-plan  rightly  organized  calls  for  summaries  of  unit- 
wholes  as  a  final  means  of  review.  Each  lesson-plan  of  a  "unit"  corre- 
sponds to  one  or  more  onward  steps  of  a  series  of  related  steps. 

A  naturally  related  series  helps  form  intimate  and  lasting  associa- 
tions. 

(c)  The  class-plan  does  not  preclude  devices  to  fix  the  series  in  mind. 

(d)  The  class-plan  calls  for  persistent  application  of  generalizations 
to  new  particulars.     If  knowledge  is  to  have  a  rich  content,  the  gener- 
alization must  be  again  and  again  re-enforced  by  application  to  new  par- 
ticulars.    This  application  of  a  generalization  to  a  new  particular  co- 
ordinates, groups  knowledge. 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  re- 
quires the  taking  of  thought  about  the  best  sub-division  of  the  matter 
to  be  taught.     The  pupil  in  time  sees  the  "unit-whole,"  an  order  in 
grouping. 

5.  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  ad- 
mits of  the  use  of  the  monologue  or  dialogue  in  the  class,  of  analysis 
or  of  synthesis  with  regard  to  the  subject  matter,  of  the  method  of  in- 
duction and  of  deduction  with  regard  to  the  learner. 

6.  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  re- 
quires the  teacher  to  see  that  what  knowledge  the  pupil  has  on  hand  is 
put  to  use,  in  so  far  as  the  pupil  is  led  to  relate  the  known  to  the  un- 
known and  is  constantly  required  to  apply  generalizations  made  (rules, 
definitions,  classifications)  to  new  particulars. 

7.  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  calls 
for  careful  determination  of  each  day's  advance  lesson  and  of  careful 
preparation. 

(a)  The  right  order  and  manner  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught. 

(b)  Of  the  student's  mind  for  rapid  and  effective  assimilation  of  new 
data. 

8.  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  re- 
quires the  teacher  to  think  of  the  best  means  at  hand  to  aid  the  pupil  to 
assimilate  new  knowledge,  since  the  teacher  must  constantly  conceive 
of  means  to  realize  aim  or  "proposition  1." 

The  average  Grammar  usually  introduces  an  individual  generaliza- 
tion which  is  illustrated  by  a  single  sentence  and  then  applied  to  a 
few  disjointed  and  often  meaningless  sentences.  The  teacher's  attempt 
to  see  how  he  may  best  realize  the  aim  or  aims  set  forth  in  "proposi- 
tion 1"  leads  him  to  see  that  the  pupil  must  arrive  inductively  at  a 
generalization  and  apply  this  generalization  again  and  again  to  new 
particulars. 

VIII.  The  handling  of  a  class-plan  with  a  class  who  are  composed  of 
students  in  the  Professional  Review  Class  in  Grammar. 

1.  The  teacher  presents  a  large  unit,  the  outline  of  which  is  based 
upon  the  class-plan.     The  unit  is  large  for  two  reasons:      (a)   The  pupil 
has  a  breadth  of  knowledge  concerning  Grammar  before  entering  the 
professional  review  class,     (b)   The  large  unit  saves  time  in  so  far  as 
topics  are  reviewed. 

2.  The  teacher  at  least  once  during  the  half  quarter  takes  a  large 
unit  which  has  been  developed  with  the  class,  divides  this  unit  into  a 
series  of  logically  related  smaller  units,  organizes  a  series  of  class- 
plans  corresponding  to  each  of  the  smaller  units.     These  individual 
class-plans,  corresponding  to  the  units  of  the  large  class-plan,  make  up 
an  orderly  series  developing  the  whole  unit.     The  class-plan  embraces 
the  four  heads. 

1.  Aim  or  aims  of  ihe  day's  work. 

2.  What  must  be  known  or  done  to  realize  these  aims. 

3.  What  is  already  known  or  can  be  done  by  the  pupil. 

4.  What  remains  to  be  done  or  known. 

3.  Each  student  in  the  professional  class  is  expected  to  develop,  as  a 
piece  of  original  and  special  work  done  by  himself,  a  similar  series  of 
related  class-plans  which  are  parts  of  a  series  developing  a  large  unit, 
or  larger  class-plan  whole.  He  carefully  prepares  each  of  the  units  of 
the  series  in  an  orderly  outline— this  outline  is  based  upon  the  four 
fundamental  propositions  noted  above.  This  individual  work  of  each 


132  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

student  is  criticised  by  the  teacher  and  compared  with  class-plan  work 
presented  to  the  class  by  the  teacher.  The  student  then  reviews  and 
corrects  his  work  and  puts  it  in  the  best  shape  possible.  After  some 
two  or  three  weeks  have  been  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  class-plans 
outlined  by  the  teacher,  the  class  are  expected  to  formulate  the  results 
of  the  teaching  of  grammar  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  proposi- 
tions, which  results  they  infer  or  derive  from  their  own  experience  in 
the  classroom.  These  results  are  read  aloud  in  class  by  individual 
students,  compared,  and  different  students  are  required  to  state  how 
each  one  of  these  results  seems  to  him  to  have  been  accomplished.  At 
times  the  teacher  definitely  discusses  with  the  class  the  aims  in  view  in 
the  development  of  a  class-plan,  the  order  and  arrangement  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  instruction,  and  the  means  used  for  drill  and  application. 

The  teacher  reviews  with  the  class  the  subject  matter  of  grammar. 
This  subject  matter  was  organized  and  grouped  by  the  teacher  in  some 
thirty  units.  As  many  of  tnese  units  are  reviewed  with  the  class  as 
time  permits.  These  units  represent  large  wholes  which  then  need  sub- 
division into  smaller  units,  making  up  a  related  series  of  this  larger 
whole.  The  teacher  uses 'these  lesson-plans  for  two  reasons:  (a)  to  re- 
view with  the  pupil  the  essentials  of  English  Grammar;  (b)  to  illus- 
trate to  the  pupil  the  organization  of  the  subject  matter  of  Grammar 
based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions.  Thus  the  academic 
work  and  professional  work  are  combined.  There  is  a  necessity  for  the 
combination  of  the  academic  work  and  professional  for  two  reasons: 
(1)  The  average  student  in  the  professional  class  evinces  a  lack  of  un- 
derstanding of  Grammar.  (2)  It  seems  a  foolish  waste  of  time  to  first 
present  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  by  one  method  to  the  class, 
and  then  later  to  organize  this  subject  matter  of  instruction  based  upon 
the  four  fundamental  propositions  in  a  different  manner  and  order 
than  that  originally  presented  by  the  teacher.  The  review  or  the  aca- 
demic work  is  presented  to  the  class  inductively,  that  is,  the  teacher 
prepares  a  series  of  sentences  to  be  used  in  connection  with  each  unit 
of  instruction.  The  pupil  observes  the  phenomena  or  facts  through  the 
medium  of  these  correct  illustrations;  he  observes  like  illustrations;  he 
is  led  to  consciously  compare  them  and  to  determine  their  points  of 
similarity.  Through  this  observation,  comparison  and  abstraction  of 
a  similarity,  he  arrives  finally  at  a  generalization.  This  generalization 
may  be  a  definition,  it  may  be  a  rule  of  syntax.  This  generalization 
made  by  the  student  is  then  compared  with  the  text-book  generalization, 
is  fixed  and  formulated.  The  student  then  applies  the  generalization 
to  many  new  concrete  illustrations  of  the  same  phenomena.  These  con- 
crete illustrations  are  taken  from  the  text-book  in  Grammar.  The 
student  is  expected  to  make  a  summary  of  each  day's  new  lesson 
presented,  and  a  final  summary  of  the  series  of  successive  units  which 
go  to  make  up  a  larger  unit  or  whole.  The  student  is  thus  illustrating 
also  the  deductive  method  in  the  study  of  Grammar  in  so  far  as  he  is 
required  to  apply  tne  generalization  at  which  he  has  arrived  to  many  a 
new  particular. 

The  student  is  required  in  time  to  discuss  with  a  teacher  the  class- 
plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  under  the  following 
heads:  1 — Preparation  for  class-work,  (a)  the  preparation  or  organi- 
zation of  the  subject  matter  of  instruction;  (b)  the  preparation  of  the 
child's  mind  for  the  rapid  and  effective  assimilation  of  this  new  data. 
2 — The  presentation  of  the  same  in  the  classroom,  (a)  the  method  of 


THE  FOUR  PROPOSITIONS  APPLIED  TO  GRAMMAR.       133 

presentation  through  induction;  (b)  the  character,  number  and  kind 
of  the  sentences  or  concrete  illustrations  to  be  prepared  by  the  teacher; 
(c)  the  logical  order  of  the  presentation  of  the  new.  (3) — Drill  and 
application.  Necessity  of  drill  to  fulfill  the  aim  as  stated  under  the 
four  fundamental  propositions.  Means  to  vary  mode  of  drilling,  such 
as  the  summary  of  each  day's  work,  the  summary  of  larger  units,  and 
application  of  the  principle  derived  to  new  particulars. 

VIII.  The  following  results  of  the  application  of  the  four  funda- 
mental propositions  to  the  teaching  of  grammar  were  formulated  and 
stated  by  the  students  of  a  Professional  Review  Class  in  Grammar.  The 
conclusions  at  which  they  arrived  were  not  instigated  by  the  teacher 
except  in  so  far  as  she  in  her  review  work  with  her  class  presented 
to  them  the  units  of  subject  matter  in  Grammar  organized  in  lesson- 
plan  based  upon  these  propositions^. 

Results  formulated  by  the  class. 

1.  The  teacher  is  required  to  determine  the  aims  in  view  in  each 
succeeding  lesson.  ^ 

2.  The  "class-plan"  determines  the  method  of  what? 

3.  The  teacher  is  led  to  make  a  careful  analysis  of  subject  matter 
selected  to  be  taught  in  ordsr  to  determine  whether  the  selection  ia 
adapted  for  the  realization  of  the  aims  stated  under  "proposition  1." 

4.  The  class-plan  calls  for  a  careful  organization  as  well  as  selec- 
tion of  subject  matter  to  be  taught. 

5.  The  matter  of  organizing  the  "what"  aids  the  child's  memory 
of  data.     Why? 

(a)  Because  one  step  is  taught  thoroughly  at  a  time. 

(b)  Because  facts  are  taught  in  a  related  series. 

(c)  Because  of  the  careful  presentation  of  the  new  in  a  logical 

order  and  manner. 

6.  The  class-plan  paves  the  way  for  the  child's  effective  and  rapid 
assimilation  of  new  data.    Why? 

(a)  The  new  c"^ta  are  p.esented  in  an  orderly  and  logical  man- 

ner. 

(b)  The  child's  mind  is  prepared  for  this  effective  and  rapid 

assimilation  of  new  data,  since  the  teacher  brings  to  the 
consciousness  of  the  pupil  the  "known"  which  has  a  close 
and  vital  relation  to  the  "unknown." 

7.  The  class-plan  causes  a  teacher  to  discover  whether  the  child 
really  has  the  necessary  known  data  to  properly  understand  the  new 
or  related  unknown.     The  third  fundamental  proposition  calls  for  the 
recognition  of  this  by  the  teacher. 

8.  The  class-plan  necessitates  the  organization,  that  is,  the  selection 
and  arrangement  or  classification  of  subject  matter  for  teaching. 

9.  The  class-plan  prevents  waste  of  time.     How? 

(a)  Teacher  determines  beforehand  what  the  child  is  to  do,  the 

order  in  which'  this  is  to  be  done,  and  makes  a  definite 
and  exact  assignment  of  each  day's  succeeding  work. 

(b)  The  statement  of  the  aim  will  cause  the  child  to  work  with 

the  thought  of  finally  arriving  at  the  data  necessary  for 
the  realization  of  this  aim. 

(c)  The  class-plan  necessitates  the  teacher's  bringing  to  the  con- 

sciousness of  the  child  that  apperceptive  mass  which  has  a 
vital  and  close  relation  to  the  new. 


134  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

10.  The  class-plan  requires  so  careful  a  preparation  on  the  part  ot 
the  teacher  that  it  makes  the  teacher  free;  in  other  words  the  teacher 
is  better  prepared  to  meet  the  emergencies  which  may  arise  in  the 
classroom. 

11.  The  class-plan  makes  the  teaching  of  Grammar  practical,  in  so 
far  as  the  child  is  to  apply  every  generalization  reached  or  arrived  at 
to  new  and  varying  particulars. 

12.  The  class-plan  prevents  the  child's  memorizing  facts  by  page. 
How?    Teacher  does  not  assign  the  advance  lesson  by  page,  but  by 
topic  in  a  related  series  of  steps  developing  this  topic. 

13.  The  summaries  of  unit-wholes  made  admit  of  excellent  training 
in  language  power.     How?     (a)  The  child  learns  to  separate  essential 
data  from  non-essential,     (b)  The  child  is  required  to  make  a  condensed 
oral  summary  of  the  whole,     (c)   The  child  is  required  to  talk  definitely 
to  a  point. 

14.  Through  the  medium  of  a  class-plan  the  child  learns  the  relation 
existing  between  the  parts  of  the  whole.    Again  the  child  learns  the 
whole  through  a  related  series. 

15.  The  class-plan  forces  the  teacher  to  utilize  the  child's  previous 
knowledge  and  experience,  thus  stimulating  interest  and  attention. 

16.  The  child's  mind  is  aided  in  rapid  and  effective  assimilation  of 
new  data:      (a)   because  of  the  statement  of  .the  aim,   (b)   because  of 
the  orderly  presentation  of  subject  matter  in  a  related  series,   (c)  be- 
cause the  new  or  "unknown"  is  made  clear  through  the  medium  of  its 
close  and  vital  relation  to  the  "known." 

17.  Ihe  child  has  a  well  defined  plan,  a  method  of  study,  for  each 
day's  work,  in  other  words  he  knows  what  to  do,  and  the  order  in 
which  to  do  it. 

18.  The  class-plan  has  an  ethical  value  for  the  child  (a)  in  so  far 
-as  he  is  aided  and  guided  in  the  performance  of  a  definite  task  for 
the  fulfillment  of  a  definite  aim  or  purpose,  (b)  in  so  far  as  the  child 
cannot  plead  that  he  did  not  understand  the  assigned  lesson  or  duty. 

19.  The  class-plan  illustrates  the  inductive  and  deductive  process  of 
'.learning. 

20.  The  teacher  puts  to  use  the  capital  the  child  has  on  hand. 
.21.     The  class-plan  arouses  the  self-activity  of  the  pupil.    Why? 

(a)  Statement  of  aim  may  stimulate  interest  and  attention. 

(b)  Statement  of  aim  may  indicate  to  some  pupil  the  steps  to  Lo 

taken  to  arrive  at  this  aim. 

.     (c)     The  careful  assignment  of  the  next  day's  lesson  invites 
activity  of  the  pupil. 

22.  The  class-plan  may  be  a  means  of  valuable  mental  discipline. 

Why? 

(a)  The  "method  of  the  what"  often  points  out  the  "method  of 

the  how." 

(b)  The  child  is  led  to  compare,* observe,  abstract  and  gen- 

eralize. 

23.  The   class-plan   illustrates  the  proper  use   of  the  text-book  in 
the  following  respects:      (a)  The  child  is  to  compare  his  definitions, 
rules,  or  generalizations  arrived  at  with  those  given  in  the  text-book; 
(b)  the  chiid  is  to  acquire  from  the  text-book  new  and  further  illus- 
trative sentences,  which  sentences  are  to  be  used  for  the  application 
of  the  child's  generalizations  to  new  particulars;   (c)  the  average  text- 
book of  Grammar  presents  fine  summaries  of  whole  units.     These  units 


SOME  IMPORTANT  PEDAGOGICAL  PRINCIPLES. 

may  be  used  as  a  means  of  review;  (d)  the  average  text-book  in 
Grammar  presents  the  conclusions  of  trained  thinkers,  and  is  often 
a  fine  reference  book  concerning  technical  and  disputed  points. 

24.  The  class-plan  illustrates  how  the  child  each  day  may  be  led 
to  accomplish  something  definite,  a  step  in  advance,  and  how  at  the 
«nd  or  close  of  the  study  of  the  unit,  he  is  able  to  carry  away  essentials 
in  definite  and  permanent  form.     Why?     The  child  is  required  always 
to  make  a  summary  of  each  day's  advance  work,  as  well  as  a  summary 
•of  the  unit-whole. 

25.  The  class-plan  compels  the  child's  close  attention  to  the  aim  01. 
each  day's  lesson,  since  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  is  based  en- 
tirely upon  the  aim  or  aims  to  be  accomplished. 

26.  Class-plan  discloses  possible^  shortcomings  with  respect  to  the 
subject   matter   as   presented    in   the   average   text-book.     How?    The 
teacher  in  formulating  what  is  to  be  known  or  done  to  realize  aims 
or  propositions  must  inevitably  analyze  the  subject  matter  as  presented 
in  the  average  text,  must  criticise  the  presentation  of  the  same,  ana 
must   determine   whether   the   subject   needs    further   elucidation   and 
illustration  than  that  presented  by  the  text.     Again  many  a  text-book 
calls  for  the  rote-memorizing  of  underived  generals  and  the  applica- 
tion of  imperfectly  understood  generals  to  new  particulars. 

27.  The  class-plan  compels  a  teacher  to  recognize  and  use  an  im- 
portant principle  of  teaching;    namely,   "proceeding  from  the  known 
to  the  related  unknown." 


SOME     IMPORTANT    PEDAGOGICAL    PRINCIPLES    APPLICABLE 
IN  TEACHING  GRAMMAR,  COMPOSITION 

AND  RHETORIC. 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Platteville. 

GRAMMAR. 

1.  The  nature  of  a  study  largely  determines  the  aim  in  teaching 
that  study. 

2.  Grammar  is  a  science,  not  an  art;    "Grammar  is  the  logic  of 
speech,"   "The   beginning  of   the   analysis   of   the   thinking  process;" 
its  material  consists  of  ideas  and  thoughts. 

3.  The  method  of  science  is  the  method  of  Grammar;  observation, 
analysis,   abstraction,   comparison,   classification,   inference;    in   short, 
induction-deduction. 

4.  In  teaching  Grammar,  a  careful  distinction  must  be  made  between 
words  and  sentences  used  as  symbols,  and  the  ideas  and  thoughts  back 
of  the  words  and  sentences.     The  ideas  and  the  thoughts  are  the  "real 
things"  Grammar  deals  with. 

5.  The  "parts  of  speech"  stand  for  classes  of  ideas;  these  are  reached 
through  the  analysis  of  the  sentence,  the  starting  point  in  the  study  of 
Grammar. 

6.  The  first  step  is  induction,  the  goal  of  which  is  definitions,  rules 
and  principles. 

7.  The  students  in  Normal  schools  must  know  the  nature  of  scientific 
definitions,  and  must  be  trained  to  make  them. 


136  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

8.  The  next  step  in  the  study  of  Grammar  is  deduction,  the  applica- 
tion of  definitions,  rules,  principles  to  new  material.     This  is  where 
most  Grammars  begin;  hence  the  necessity  of  preliminary  training  in, 
the  inductive  process. 

9.  The  intelligent  application  of  the  deductive  method  in  the  study 
of  Grammar,  especially  in  teaching  Grammar,  makes  it  necesssary  for 
the  Normal  student  to  know  the  form  and  use  of  the  syllogism. 

10.  The  definitions,  rules  and   principles  of  Grammar  become  the 
premises  of  the  syllogism  in  the  detective  process.    As  the  text-books- 
in  Grammar  in  applying  the  deductive  process  use  only  the  shortened 
form  of  the  syllogism,  the  enthymeine,  the  Normal  student  must  know 
this  form  and  how  to  expand  it  into  the  syllogism.     Parsing  is  one 
application  of  the  syllogism  in  Grammar;  the  formal  analysis  of  the 
sentence  is  another. 

11.  If  the  Normal  student  is  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  study  of 
Grammar,  and  be  prepared  to  teach  it,  he  must  not  only  be  drilled, 
in  all  the  logical  steps  and  processes  of  the  study,  but  he  must  be  made 
conscious  of  the  nature  of  the  logical  process  and  of  the  steps  in  the 
logical  process.     This  is  the  professional  side  of  the  study  of  Grammar; 
in  short,  the  Normal  student  must  be  trained  to  handle  Grammar  as  an 
instrument  for  training  mental  powers. 

12.  This  can  be  done  only  after  the  student  knows  the  facts  of  the 
science  of  Grammar  and  is  skilled  in  using  these  facts.     Tnus  trained 
the  student  will  not  confound  language  as  an  art  with  Grammar,  the- 
science  of  language;  nor  will  he  try  to  make  the  one  do  duty  for  the 
other. 

Composition — Rhetoric. 

1.  In  the  Normal  school  composition  has  two  aims: 

(a)  To  teach  composition  as  an  art,  the  art  of  expression. 

(b)  To  train  the  student  how  to  teach  composition  as  the  art 

of  expresssion. 

2.  Like  all  arts  the  first  purpose  is  attained  by  practice,  drill  until 
the  habit  of  correct  and  facile  expression  is  fixed.     Maxim:     "Learn 
to  do  by  doing." 

3.  Like  speech,  composition  is  learned  by  imitation. 

4.  There  must  be  models  to  imitate  and  these  are  furnished  by  the 
best  literature,  and  by  the  most  cultured  speakers. 

5.  Hence  much  of  the  work  in  composition  will  be  conscious  imi- 
tation and  reproduction. 

6.  Thus  unconsciously  will  the  diction  and  style  of  the  pupils  be 
formed. 

7.  Besides  literature,  the  observation,  the  experience,  the  studies 
of  the  students,  will  furnish  material  for  composition. 

8.  These  materials  will  help  to  create  an  active  interest  without 
which  effort  will  be  vain. 

9.  A  powerful  source  of  interest  is  the  motive  to  express,  which- 
is  not  so  much  self-expression  as  a  desire  to  influence  others. 

10.  Oral  composition  should  be  made  the  basis  of  all  work  in  com- 
position, especially  in  the  lower  grades. 

11.  To   stimulate   self-activity,   spontaneous   freedom   and   interest,, 
vital    wholes    must   be   the    starting   point,    not   words,    phrases,    sen- 
tences, "dead  fragments  of  language,"  but  whole  compositions. 


SOME  IMPORTANT  PEDAGOGICAL  PRINCIPLES. 


137 


12.  The  order  should  be  first  the  whole  composition,  then  the  para- 
graph, next  the  sentence,  since  the  purpose  and  plan  of  the  whole  must 
mold  and  vitalize  the  parts. 

13.  Simplicity  and  clearness  are  the  qualities  to  be  secured. 

14.  The  discourse  processes,  their  nature  and  qualities,  should  be 
taught  both  in  connection  with  the  study  of  literature  and  the  school 
studies. 

15.  The  above  are  suggested  as  some  of  the  fundamental  principles 
that  are  applicable  to  teaching  composition  as  an  art,  as  a  means  of 
expression.     Not  only  should  the  Normal  student  be  trained  in  accord- 
ance with  these  principles  to  give  him  skill  in  expressing  and  teaching 
other  things,   but  he  should  also  be  trained  to  use  these  principles 
in  teaching  composition.     This  is  the  professional  side  of  the  work 
in  composition. 

16.  The  Normal  student  should  know  the  nature  of  composition,  the 
purpose  in  teaching  it  and  the  fundamental  principles  to  be  employed 
in  teaching  it.     That  is,  he  should  know  that  composition  is  an  art. 
and  that  skill  is  its  aim;  that  skill  is  attained  by  practice.     He  should 
know  that  composition,  like  speech,  is  largely  a  matter  of  imitation,  and 
that  children  learn  a  good  style  by  unconsciously  imitating  the  speech* 
they  hear  and  the  books  they  read  and  admire. 

17.  He   should   especially   know   that   composition   cannot  be   well 
taught  by  language  lessons  as  such;   that  is  the  acquisition  of  good 
diction  and  style  by  a  child,  is  an  unconscious  absorption,  and  not  the- 
result  of  the   reflective   study   of   language.     The   reflective   study   of 
language  gives  discipline  and  critical  power,  but  not  power  over  ex- 
pression as  such,  and,  as  was  said  of  Grammar,  such  study  is  not  for 
young  children. 

18.  This  is  not  to  say  that  errors  of  speech  and  style  are  not  to  be- 
pointed  out  and  corrected.     This  is  to  be  done  simply  as  a  matter  of 
authority,  not  as  a  matter  based  on  a  law  or  principle  of  language. 

19.  He  is  to  know  that  the  work  in  composition  must  deal  with, 
vital  wholes,  and  not  with  "dead  vocables;"  that  the  whole  molds  the 
parts,  giving  them  form  and  life.     Thus  the  parts,  paragraphs,  sen- 
tences, phrases,  words  are  living  organisms,  and  are  to  be  understood 
and  studied  only  in  the  light  of  the  whole. 

20.  The  Normal  student  is  to  be  trained  in  the  conscious  application 
of  the  principles  of  rhetoric  to  the  shaping,  planning  and  expressing 
of  his  other  lessons;   the  principles  of  narrative  to  his  history,  for 
example,  description  to  his  lessons  in  science;   exposition  to  science; 
argumentation  to  science  and  history,  etc. 

21.  Practice  should  also  be  given  to  the  application  of  these  terms-; 
in  the  preparation  of  lessons  for  lower  grade  work. 


138  •       INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


PLACE  AND  RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ORAL  AND  OF  WRIT- 
TEN WORK  IN  DEVELOPING  THE  POWER  OF  EASY,  FORCE- 
FUL,  AND    ACCURATE   EXPRESSION,    EITHER 
WRITTEN  OR  ORAL. 

LILLIAN  G.  KIMBALL,  Oshkosh. 

To  speak  the  truth  without  cost  of  great  effort  to  one's'  self,  anCt 
with  strong  and  certain  impress  on  one's  hearers,  this  is  easy,  force- 
ful, accurate  expression.  No  other  accomplishment  is  better  worth 
man's  cultivating  than  this,  for  since  man  is  a  social  being  and  des- 
tined for  advancement  through  the  development  of  the  powers  within 
him,  nothing  else  in  the  world  is  so  important  to  him  as  the  inter- 
change of  thought,  and  the  only  adequate  instrument  of  such  inter- 
change is  language.  A  command  of  this  instrument,  universal  because 
it  is  so  easy  to  take  up,  supreme  because  it  is  so  difficult  to  master, 
is  the  strongest  resource  of  anyone  who  cares  to  exert  immediate 
influence  upon  his  fellow-men.  It  is  indispensable  to  a  teacher,  be- 
•  cause  he  must  not  only  move  others  to  action,  but  be  their  guide 
and  example.  It  should  be  recognized  as  part  of  his  equipment, 
something  therefore  to  be  acquired  by  Normal  students,  a  power 
richly  worth  whatever  it  may  cost.  Every  means  at  our  command  to 
promote  the  acquirement  of  this  power  should  be  rightly  estimated 
by  us  and  duly  used.  One  of  these  means  is  practice,  conscious,  in- 
telligent practice,  and  this  can  be  afforded  along  two  lines,  oral  ex- 
presssion  and  written.  Let  us  see  what  the  contribution  of  each  is, 
in  order  that  we  may  determine  its  value  and  the  extent  to  which  it 
should  be  employed. 

In  order  to  be  accurate,  that  is,  to  tell  the  truth*,  one  must  have 
acquired  clear  knowledge,  and  he  must  have  done  clear  thinking.  It 
takes  time  and  concentration  to  think  clearly,  and  one  is  much  more 
apt  to  take  the  time  and  make  the  effort  when  he  writes  than  when 
he  speaks.  Accuracy,  too,  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  critical  habit  of 
mind,  which  comes  from  good  training  and  much  careful  reading  and 
listening.  Ordinarily  one  is  much  more  critical  of  himsellf  when 
writing  than  when  speaking,  sometimes,  indeed,  so  critical  that  all 
the  juice  of  live  thought  is  squeezed  and  dried  out  of  his  style,  but 
generally  criticism  leads  only  to  that  minute  cross-examination  ot 
one's  thought  and  that  painstaking  effort  to  get  it  into  words  that  re- 
sult i-n  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose,  saying  what  he  thinks. 

Again,  when  one  writes  what  he  has  to  say,  he  feels  that  he  has 
only  one  chance.  If  he  fails  of  getting  his  thought  into  words,  the 
failure  forever  stands  against  him.  Hence  he  realizes  that  he  must 
have  his  message  clearly  in  mind  before  he  seeks  to  deliver  it,  that 
it  must  be  conveyed  with  no  hesitation  or  ambiguity,  but  with  straight- 
forwardness and  simplicity.  For  while  accuracy  of  thought  is  the 
foundation  of  all  accurate  expression,  it  does  not  insure  it.  For  the 
clear  communication  of  thought,  one  must  have  a  store  of  words 
whose  meaning  is  fixed,  narrow,  definite.  Everyone  has  three  vo- 
cabularies, his  oral  vocabulary,  the  smallest  of  all,  but  the  one  by  which 
he  is  judged  and  estimated,  his  writing  vocabulary,  which  includes 
all  that  is  worthy  in  his  oral  vocabulary  and  many  other  words  that 
he  has  not  the  courage  or  the  grace  or  the  occasion  to  use  in  speech, 
and  an  interpreting  vocabulary,  which  is  the  largest  of  all.  We  wish 


RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  WORK.  13g 

the  writing  and  speaking  vocabularies  to  approximate  ever  nearer  to 
the  scope  of  the  interpreting  vocabulary.  And  this  growth  begins, 

think,  in  writing.  Long  before  one  dares  to  use  an  unfamiliar 
word  as  his  own  in  speech,  he  uses  it  in  written  composition,  and  so 
it  gradually  loses  its  strangeness. 

Then  there  is  more  that  compels  one  to  use  the  precise  word  in 
writing.  In  oral  discourse,  if  he  sees  that  one  word  does  not  hit  the 
mark,  he  may  explain  himself  by  the  use  of  many  words,  and  so 
repeat  and  re-present  his  thought  in  new  guise  that  at  last  it  must 
get  into  his  listener's  mind.  But  in  writing  one  must  be  sure  the  first 
time.  He  cannot  experiment  with  his  readers.  Then,  too,  the  spoken 
word  is  so  soon  forgotten.  It  does  not  stand  as  its  own  condemnation 
or  justification  forever,  as  does  ^he  written  word.  Therefore  is  the 
speaker  careless,  and  the  writer  exact. 

But  if  the  habit  of  accuracy  is  first  -acquired  in  writing,  it  does 
not  stop  there.  Inevitably  it  bends  all  expression  to  itself  by  its  com- 
pelling force  and  beauty.  It  brings  recognition  and  appreciation  of 
itself  as  it  grows,  and  so  it  worKs  its  way  into  oral  discourse,  where 
it  is  used  at  first  consciously,  with  effort,  but  ever  with  a  more  and 
more  free  and  unconscious  domination. 

Again,  since  accuracy  is  the  result  of  a  deliberate  attempt,  it  is 
attained  by  an  exercise  of  will,  and  too  often  writing  furnishes  more 
stimulus  to  the  action  of  the  will  than  does  speaking.  Because  the 
writer  feels  that  his  words  will  be  weighed  he  forces  himself  to  do 
his  best,  whereas  in  oral  discourse,  that  is,  in  school  recitations,  shyness 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  or  the  feeling  that  his  expression  is  only  short- 
lived at  best,  will  often  render  ineffectual  what  little  stimulus  there  is. 
And  yet  there  is  a  possible  condition  of  oral  discourse  that  might  be 
laid  hold  of  by  teachers  far  more  than  it  generally  is,  that  would 
furnish  a  strong  incentive  to  clear  speaking.  It  is  this,  a  feeling  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker  that  he  is  communicating  thought,  that  he  has 
an  audience  to  be  impressed.  In  the  natural  life  outside  the  school- 
room, one  speaks  to  be  heard  and  understood,  and  if  he  cares  greatly 
to  be  understood,  he  speaks  well.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
not  have  this  helpful  condition  present  in  the  schoolroom.  I  wish  that 
we  did  not  talk  of  our  class  meetings  always  as  recitations,  and  I 
wish  it  were  not  so  universal  a  custom  to  have  pupils  face  the  teacher 
instead  of  one  another.  For  inevitably  and  air  too  soon  they  get  the 
idea  and  are  controlled  by  it  that  they  go  to  class  merely  to  recite, 
or  give  back,  to  tne  teacher,  what  they  have  acquired.  They  feel 
sure  that  the  teacher  knows  better  than  they  know,  and  so  the  recitation 
becomes  mere  expression  on  their  part  with  no  end  in  view.  They  take 
it  for  granted  that  the  teacher  will  understand  what  they  mean 
whether  they  say  it  or  not,  and  such  a  presumption  is  disastrous 
to  accurate  expression,  for  it  makes  them  lazy  and  slipshod.  And  yet 
such  expression  is  not  uncommon,  so  it  must  be  due,  at  least  in 
part,  to  the  influence  of  some  teachers,  those  our  pupils  had  before 
-they  came  to  us. 

But  if  accuracy  is  developed  more  by  written  work  than  by  oral,  it 
is  no  less  true  that  ease  is  gained  sooner  through  much  practice  in 
speech.  By  ease  we  mean  readiness,  fluency,  such  a  command  of 
words  as  will  enable  a  speaker  to  summon  the  right  one  at  need,  and 
.also  such  a  command  of  sentence  structure  as  will  enable  him  to  com- 
plete correctly  the  sentence  that  he  has  set  out  to  build.  If  one  is  an 


140  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

easy  speaker  he  is  comfortable  and  confident  while  he  speaks.  There 
is  an  absence  of  anxiety  or  painful  effort  on  his  part  that  makes  it  a 
delight  to  listen  to  him.  It  has  been  said  that  'true  ease  in  writing 
comes  by  art;"  so  does  it  in  speech,  and  one  can  master  the  art  only 
by  practice.  The  teacher  finds  a  hundred  occasions  demanding  speech 
where  he  finds  one  for  written  composition,  hence  the  Normal  student 
should  have  the  bulk  of  his  practice  in  oral  discourse,  and  all  his 
teachers  should  see  to  it  that  this  practice  is  so  carried  on  as  to  in- 
crease his  facility.  It  makes  little  difference  except  to  the  writer 
whether  an  article  be  written  with  facility  or  not,  so  long  as  the  out- 
come is  good;  but  in  speech  a  lack  of  ease  in  expression  impairs  the 
very  thought  itself. 

We  have  said  that  to  be  easy  in  speech  one  must  have  the  habits 
of  building  good  sentences  and  of  using  precise  words.  To  effect  the 
acquirement  of  these  habits  by  students,  there  is  both  destructive 
and  constructive  work  to  be  done  by  the  teacher,  for  bad  habits  must 
be  corrected  and  good  ones  formed.  There  are  three  distinct  steps 
in  this  process:  (1),  becoming  aware  that  one  has  a  bad  habit;  (2), 
recognizing  it  when  it  has  controlled  ones  speech;  (3),  voluntarily 
opposing  it  before  it  can  control  speech.  After  the  third  step  has 
been  taken  a  sufficient  number  of  times,  the  bad  habit  is  supplanted  by 
a  good  one.  The  first  step  is  a  very  important  one,  and  is  not  taken  by 
the  student  without  assistance.  Neither  does  he  take  the  other  two 
steps  without  constant  reminders.  And  there  is  no  other  opportunity 
for  these  reminders  so  vital  as  the  ever-recurring  ones  furnished  by 
speech.  For  oral  self-expression  is  self-revelation,  not  of  one's  highest 
possibilities  in  language,  but  of  language  habits,  the  level  of  attain- 
ment. And  the  corrections,  suggestions,  and  assistance  of  the  teacher 
in  oral  discourse  benefit  not  only  the  one  speaking  but  the  whole  class, 
or,  at  least,  those  who  have  ears  to  hear. 

Frequently  a  severe  restraining  criticism  is  necessary  after  facility 
in  the  use  of  words  has  been  acquired,  for  there  is  a  facility  that 
is  mere  glibness,  justifying  the  remark  that  "it  is  the  purpose  of 
language  to  conceal  thought."  Sometimes  this  facility  is  the  means  of 
covering  up  its  own  existence,  so  that  it  is  not  suspected  either  by  the 
speaker  or  the  listener.  It  is  a  fault  hard  to  overcome,  and  utterly 
incompatible  with  forcefulness.  Closely  allied  to  it  is  another  danger 
of  oral  discourse,  namely,  the  great  freedom  it  allows  in  respect  of 
sentence  structure.  For  it  is  permissible  in  speech  to  break  off  the 
sentence  and  begin  anew,  or  to  modify  the  structure  during  the  progress 
of  the  sentence.  To  one  who  can  build  sentences  correctly  this  latitude 
is  not  dangerous,  just  as  slang  is  innocuous  to  a  master  of  English, 
but  to  beginners  this  freedon  is  exceedingly  harmful.  It  makes  them 
unregardful  of  plans,  and  ends  in  their  making  none  at  all.  They 
merely  think  aloud,  and  do  not  hold  themselves  to  the  rounding  out 
of  every  thought.  Therefore  it  is  that  teachers,  all  teachers,  should 
know  that  not  all  speech  is  practice,  but  that  to  produce  good  results 
speech  should  be  directed  by  intelligence  and  controlled  by  will.  The 
teacher  must  enlighten  the  understanding,  be  constant  in  his  criti- 
cism, helpful  by  the  example  he  sets,  and  inspiring  by  the  ideal  he 
presents. 

We  come  now  to  the  third  quality  of  all  effective  speech  or  writing, 
force.  This  does  not  always  mean  energy.  It  is  not  mere  brevity  or 
conciseness.  It  is  not  dependent  on  epigram,  nor  originality,  nor 


RELATIVE  IMPORTANCE  OF  ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  WORK. 

peculiarity.  It  is  simply  the  art  of  putting  things  so  that  they  make 
a  direct  and  powerful  appeal  to  the  mind  or  feelings  of  one  who  hears 
or  reads.  It  does  not  always  come  by  much  striving-  for  it,  and 
.simplicity,  not  elaboration,  is  its  handmaid.  It  is  more  to  be  desired 
than  either  of  the  other  qualities,  accuracy  and  ease,  for  without  it 
accuracy  has  no  life,  and  ease  is  but  the  ineffectual  trickling  of  water 
upon  sand.  Force  characterizes  discourse  of  many  widely  different 
styles,  but  back  of  it  are  always  these  two  essentials,  clear  thought 
and  firm  conviction.  To  be  forceful  one  must  know  what  he  thinks 
and  believe  what  he  says.  Force  is  found  in  expression  that  is  born 
of  an  impulse,  spoken  under  stimulus,  and  for  a  purpose.  An  impulse 
gives  spontaneity,  life,  to  discourse,  a  stimulus  provokes  the  will  and 
sustains  effort,  while  a  purpose  regulates  the  organization  of  material. 
It  may  not  always  be  possible  in^  school  exercises  to  have  students 
speak  or  write  from  an  impulse,  but  it  is  always  desirable,  and  we 
should  make  the  most  of  opportunities  that  present  themselves.  In- 
stead of  this  we  often  snub  or  discourage  expression  by  the  child  who 
liad  a  desire  to  say  something,  forgetting  that  what  he  desires  to  say 
will  be  said  better  and  be  of  more  benefit  to  him  than  what  he  is  forced 
or  expected  to  say.  The  stimulus  is  easier  to  find.  It  is  not  far  to 
seek,  and  it  should  be  allowed  to  exert  its  full  power.  In  oral  discourse 
the  idea  of  communication,  if  always  present,  would,  I  think,  prove  a 
strong  stimulus,  and  a  healthy,  natural  one.  At  the  same  time  it  would 
furnish  an  efficient  purpose. 

Force  is  impossible  if  divorced  from  accuracy,  so  that  all  the  requisites 
of  accuracy, — knowledge,  clear  thought,  correct  sentence  structure,  pre- 
cision in  words, — are  necessary  to  force.  Besides,  there  must  be  the  or- 
ganization of  material,  for  unless  it  is  presented  in  the  right  order,  it 
fails  to  produce  a  cumulative  effect,  and  is  therefore  -weak.  All  of 
these  requisites  involve  effort  and  preparation,  hence  an  appreciation 
of  force  may  first  be  gained  through  writing,  where  composing  is  a  con- 
scious process,  and  there  is  time  and  opportunity  for  revision.  But  if 
it  is  first  manifested  consciously  in  written  discourse,  it  is  needed  most 
in  speech.  That  is  where  it  must  finally  come;  hence,  while  instruc- 
tion in  securing  force  may  be  carried  out  first  in  writing,  it  is  through 
constant  practice  in  oral  expression  that  this  quality  must  become  a 
characteristic  of  one's  style,  inseparable  from  all  his  expression.  For 
all  day  long  the  teacher  is  called  upon  to  be  forceful.  He  must  be  im- 
pressive in  all  that  he  says, — in  his  directions,  his  explanations,  his 
appeals.  I  believe  that  if  we  can  so  direct  the  practice  in  oral  dis- 
course that  our  students  get  in  our  classrooms  as  to  make  them  simple, 
tjlear,  and  convincing  in  all  that  they  say,  or  if  *we  can  make  them  see 
tne  value  of  such  expression  so  that  they  will  never  leave  off  striving 
for  it,  we  shall  send  them  out  with  a  power  in  the  schoolroom  greater 
than  that  afforded  by  scholarship  or  pedagogy. 

To  sum  up,  the  conclusions  that  I  have  reached  are  these: 

(1)  A  conscious  acquirement  of  accuracy  and  force  in  written  ex- 
pression precedes  the  habitual  manifestation  of  it  in  speech. 

(2)  A  writing  vocabulary  characterized   by  precision  and   copious- 
ness is  a  preliminary  to  such  a  vocabulary  in  speech. 

(3)  Ease  is  a  characteristic  of  language  that  finds  its  greatest  need 
and  place  in  speech. 

(4)  There  is  much  more  abundant  opportunity  for  oral  discourse  in 
•school  than  for  written,  and  impulse,  stimulus,  and  purpose  may  be 


142  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

present  there  more  generally  and  more  powerfully  than   in  written 
work. 

(5)  Not  all  oral   discourse   is  valuable  as  practice.     To  be  so  the- 
teacher  must  criticize,  teach,  encourage,  and  inspire. 

(6)  A  teacher  finds  far  more  occasions  for  oral  discourse  than  for 
written. 

Hence  our  students  should  write  mainly  for  the  aid  that  writing  gives 
to  oral  expression.  The  greater  part  of  their  practice  in  expression 
should  be  oral,  and  this  practice  should  be  afforded  in  every  class  ana. 
rendered  helpful  by  every  teacher. 


RHETORICALS:   TRAINING  IN  USE  OF  ENGLISH;    TRAINING  IN 
EXPRESSION;  HOW  MADE  MOST  EFFECTIVE. 

ROBEET  RIENOW,  Whitewater. 

Some  one  has  said  that  "Everything  outside  of  God  is  expression.'* 
This  concise  statement  leads  us  at  once  to  the  true  purpose  of  all  rhe- 
torical exercises,  the  development,  in  the  pupil,  of  the  power  of  oral 
expression,  that  power  by  which  he  brings  himself  into  living  contact 
with  his  fellow  men;  that  power  of  bringing  to  his  companions  the  in- 
nermost thoughts  of  the  mind  and  the  emotions  of  the  soul;  that  power 
of  voice  and  body  by  which  he  shall  impress  his  personality  upon  his 
surroundings,  and  "bring  things  to  pass"  by  virtue  of  his  imposition  of 
himself  upon  the  world  around  him.  In  speaking  of  oral  expression  1 
would  not  confuse  it  with  acting,  the  function  of  the  stage.  By  oral 
expression  I  refer  particularly  to  the  power  of  the  voice,  aided  by 
mobility  of  countenance  and  graceful  gesture,  to  express  thought  and 
emotion.  On  the  other  hand  I  would  not  confuse  such  work  in  ex- 
pression with  the  highly  elaborated  fads  of  Delsartean  Elocution,  where 
attention  is  directed  to  the  largely  mechanical  means  of  conveying 
thought  and  feeling.  The  Normal  school  has  a  function  peculiarly  its 
own  in  this  most  important  field  of  work.  We  cannot  hope  to  turn  out 
teachers  of  elocution,  instructors  in  dramatic  art,  polished  orators,  or 
accomplished  readers.  We  have  a  higher  ideal  than  any  of  these,  we 
have  the  responsibility  of  sending  into  the  schools  of  our  state  teachers 
who  can  arouse  in  their  pupils  the  old  love  for  public  speaking,  the  de- 
sire to  express  in  strong,  effective,  enthusiastic  and  graceful  manner 
their  thoughts  and  feelings;  teachers  who  shall  make  every  recitation 
an  exercise  in  the  use  of  good  pure  English,  and  who  shall  bring  to 
their  pupils  the  example  of  graceful  bearing,  enthusiastic  presentation 
of  work,  and  an  effective  yet  unassuming  delivery  of  beautiful  and  soul- 
stirring  literature. 

Supt.  Harvey  in  his  "Manual  for  High  Schools"  makes  a  statement 
which  those  of  us  who  come  in  contact  with  district  school  pupils  in 
the  reading  class  will  gladly  assent  to:  namely,  that  "Expressive  read- 
ing has  become  a  lost  art  in  our  schools."  Now,  while  it  is  not  my 
purpose  to  cover  the  ground  of  "expressive  reading,"  I  believe  that  the 
function  of  rhetoricals  is  so  closely  allied  to  that  of  reading  that  they 
must  not  be  separated.  Rhetorical  work  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
methods  of  developing  expressive  readers  and  fluent  talkers.  The  rhe- 
torical exercise  and  debating  society  are  to  the  department  of  exprcs- 


TRAINING  USE  OF  RHETORICALS. 

sion  what  the  experiment  is  to  the  science  teacher,  the  means  of  put- 
ting into  use  and  practice  the  theory  he  has  been  developing.  Rhetor- 
icals  should  be  made  the  laboratory  of  the  reading  teachers.  They 
give  the  best  opportunity  of  testing  the  pupil's  power  of  interesting 
his  hearers,  of  impressing  himself  upon  them.  There  is  no  exercise 
that  taxes  the  pupil's  power  to  use  good  English  more  than  rhetoricals. 
Under  the  careful  and  ever  watchful  criticism  of  the  teacher  he  is  able 
to  recite  his  declamation -with  some  degree  of  success,  he  may  even 
read  an  essay  so  as  to  be  heard  and  understood,  but  place  him  before  an 
audience  and  he  is  himself  once  more,  all  his  original  habits  crop  out, 
his  old  mistakes  appear,  his  weakness  is  evident  to  all  and  to  himself 
especially.  He  finds,  especially  in  the  debate,  that  words  are  intangi- 
ble, evanescent  things  easily  eluding  his  grasp;  that  constant,  patient, 
and  persevering  practice  is  tne  only  means  of  giving  him  that  power 
to  use  good  English  readily  and  spontaneously.  Therefore  I  believe 
that  work  in  debating  should  be  under  some  regulation  of  the  school 
and  in  the  first  two  years  be  made  compulsory  and  a  part  of  regular 
rhetorical  work.  I  am  sure  that  such  practice  as  is  given  by  the  well 
delivered  declamation  or  the  well  prepared  debate  or  extemporaneous 
speech  cultivates  a  power  over  language  that  is  secondary  to  no  exercise 
invented  by  Rhetoric  or  Elocution. 

It  has  been  said  that  New  England  has  been  so  long  free  from  the 
baser  evils  of  politics  because  of  the  training  given  her  citizens  in  the 
Town  Meeting.  Ought  we  not  to  send  into  our  common  schools  teachers 
who  can  bring  to  their  pupils  the  inspiration  of  example,  the  strongest 
of  all  examples,  of  clear,  concise,  correct,  energetic  public  speaking? 
Will  this  not  bring  to  our  embryo  American  citizens  a  taste  for  partici- 
pation in  the  politics  of  their  district  or  village,  which  not  even  a 
knowledge  of  civil  government  can  create?  Our  difficulty  lies  not  so 
much  in  the  ignorance  of  our  citizens  as  in  their  inability  to  participate 
in  public  life.  The  school  should  be  to  the  nation  what  the  town  meet- 
ing has  been  to  New  England. 

We  are  often  told  that  the  age  of  oratory  is  past;  let  us  rather  say 
it  has  but  changed  its  form  from  flowery  bombast  to  lucid  exposition 
of  fact  for  a  well  defined  purpose.  The  opportunity  is  broader  today 
for  public  speaking  than  ever  before,  and  the  most  effective  public 
speaking  is  the  direct  result  of  instruction  and  practice.  Orators  may 
be  born,  but  public  speakers  can  be  made.  In  no  profession  is  this 
more  true  than  in  that  of  teaching.  Never  before  has  the  demand 
been  so  great  for  teachers  who  can  present  their  ideas  clearly,  inci- 
sively and  earnestly  to  public  gatherings.  The  time  is  past  when  a 
teacher  can  fortify  herself  within  the  four  walls  of  her  schoolroom  and 
feel  safe  in  droning  with  monotonous  weakness  her  daily  lessons.  The 
proper  classroom  presentation  of  matter,  the  County,  State,  and  Na- 
tional associations,  in  fact,  public  gatherings  of  every  size  and  descrip- 
tion call  for  the  power  of  effective  expression.  How  many  a  paper  is 
spoiled  by  poor  delivery,  timidity,  self-consciousness;  how  many  an 
improvement  in  schools  is  lost  because  some  diffident,  weak  teacher 
"just  didn't  dare  ask  for  it!"  I  have  had  seniors  in  my  classes  who, 
after  teaching  six  years,  could  not  stand  before  a  class  and  make  a 
recitation,  much  less  read  a  simple  poem  effectively.  Every  week  we 
listen  to  essays  spoiled  by  poor  delivery  and  weak  voices. 

Here  lies  the  work  of  Rhetoricals.  They  should  aim  at  self-reliance 
and  self-control.  In  the  delivery  of  his  debate  or  declamation  the  pupil 


144  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

for  the  first  time  perhaps  really  finds  himself,  really  comes  into  con- 
scious knowledge  of  his  ability  not  merely  to  instruct  an  audience 
but  to  move  them,  to  persuade. 

But  I  hear  you  say,  "What  place  does  the  essay  find  in  the  Rhetorical 
program?"  I  believe  that  is  the  best  essay,  reads  the  best,  that  was 
written  to  be  read;  written  with  the  audience  before  him,  with  his  pur- 
pose clear.  This  will  bring  interest  and  life  to  the  work,  for  he  knows 
he  is  to  be  judged  by  his  production  and  by  his  delivery  of  it.  I  do 
not  believe  a  manner  of  delivery  can  be  taken  on  after  an  essay  has 
been  prepared  that  will  harmonize  with  the  production,  rather  as  some 
one  has  said,  the  "preparation  of  the  matter  forms  its  own  manner." 

So  far  I  have  had  in  mind  as  the  make  up  of  Rhetoricals,  work  in 
Declamations,  Essays  and  Debates.  That  the  results  I  have  spoken 
of  can  be  obtained  by  these  means  is  beyond  dispute.  Many  a  boy 
has  been  led  to  his  life's  work  through  rhetorical  work  well  conducted. 

But  in  rhetorical  work  one  thing  is  almost  completely  neglected  that 
deserves  a  high  place  in  training  in  the  use  of  English,  namely,  the  ex- 
temporaneous talk.  I  am  convinced  that  if  some  of  the  time  spent  in 
much  writing,  which  Bacon  tells  us  "maketh  an  exact  man"  were 
spent  in  extemporaneous  talking,  which  we  are  told  "maketh  a  ready 
man,"  our  pupils  would  be  the  gainers  thereby.  There  is  an  inspira- 
tion, a  spontaneity  about  talking  that  is  refreshing  and  original.  The 
style  of  many  of  our  so-called  orations  would  be  less  stilted  and  me- 
chanical if  the  author  would  only  write  as  he  talks.  The  declamations 
and  essays  would  be  more  natural  and  be  given  with  far  more  energy 
and  enthusiasm  if  the  reader  had  only  been  taught  to  talk.  Now,  in  the 
recitation  with  from  ten  to  fifty  pupils  to  look  out  for,  the  slow,  back- 
ward talker  cannot  be  allowed  to  use  up  valuable  time  of  the  class.  Oft- 
times  he  is  a  clear  thinker,  and  faithful  student,  but  "O,  so  slow." 
What  can  be  done  for  him?  Certainly  the  recitation  is  no  place  for 
his  training.  Where  can  he  go?  In  many  of  our  schools  there  is  no 
place  for  him  save  in  a  literary  society,  where  he  is  soon  crowded  out 
by  more  ambitious  students.  How  true  it  is  that  some  of  our  poorest 
students,  if  brought  to  a  realizing  sense  of  their  ability,  and  taught  the 
art  of  oral  expression,  would  make  our  best  teachers. 

We  have  thus  far  seen  the  work  to  be  done  through  Rhetoricals, 
which  I  have  made  to  include  much  more  than  is  now  covered  by  that 
term.  I  have  intentionally  done  so  for  I  am  confident  that  we  are  neg- 
lecting many  rich  fields  of  labor  for  lack  of  proper  organization  and 
use.  I  am  convinced  that  work  in  debating^  extemporaneous  speaking, 
declamation  and  essay  reading  should  be  a  part  of  the  department  of 
oral  expression ;  that  such  work,  whether  done  in  a  literary  society  or 
;at  the  so-called  Rhetorical  exercise,  should  be  planned  and  guided  by 
some  member  of  this  department.  In  an  experience  dating  from  my 
earliest  High  school  recollection,  including  four  years  of  High  school 
teaching,  I  have  become  convinced  that  Literary  societies  left  as  an  op- 
tional matter  to  students  reach  only  those  who  are  interested  and  able, 
and  therefore  need  the  help  least;  that  considering  the  time  spent  and 
work  that  might  be  done,  they  are  doing  next  to  nothing.  In  our  Nor- 
mal schools  just  the  class  of  pupils  we  want  most  to  receive  such  train- 
ing, are  not  getting  it;  and  never  will  through  the  present  Rhetorical 
programs.  The  best  work  I  ever  did  in  a  Literary  or  Rhetorical  way 
was  when  I  mapped  out  the  required  work  for  every  class,  including 
work  in  Deuating,  Extemporaneous  speaking,  Declamation  and  Essays, 


TRAINING  USE  OF  RHETORIC ALS. 


145 


liad  such  work  done  in  a  Literary  society  Friday  evenings  and  was 
present  myself  to  see  that  it  was  done.  By  such  a  means  more  atten- 
tion can  be  given  to  individual  pupils,  and  certainly  here  individual 
work  will  count  more  than  in  any  other  place  I  know  of.  This  work 
so  unified  and  classihed  might  start  with  work  in  enunciation  and  pro- 
nunciation for  those  who  needed  it,  to  be  followed  by  work  in  interpret- 
ing though c  and  delivering  declamations  for  clearness  and  force  of  ex- 
pression; this  followed  by  work  in  melody  and  quality  and  interpreta- 
tions of  emotions.  Such  work  would  supply  material  in  class,  founded 
upon  careful  training  and  a  clear  understanding,  for  the  weekly  dec- 
lamation on  the  rhetorical  program.  From  a  class  whose  purpose  was 
drill  in  debating  and  extemporanous  speaking  we  could  draw  material 
for  a  short  ten  minutes'  talk  to  the  school.  This  work  would  of  course 
be  confined  to  1st  and  2nd  year  pupils.  By  a  careful  debate  program 
every  pupil  during  his  first  two  years  should  be  required  to  debate  at 
least  once  a  quarter,  his  debate  being  approved  by  a  member  of  the  de- 
partment. Such  work  would  of  course  necessitate  the  entire  time  ot 
one  person,  but  could  be  done  and  with  splendid  results.  We  could  in 
this  way  keep  a  careful  and  salutary  hold  upon  literary  society  work 
.and  make  it  do  its  proper  share  in  the  work  of  oral  expression. 

The  girls  or  our  Normal  schools  mtlst  have  the  same  training  as  the 
boys  in  the  work.  Two  thirds  of  our  students  are  girls  and  their  nat- 
Tiral  timidity  holds  them  back  from  such  work.  On  the  other  hand 
many  of  our  young  men  need  holding  back,  they  would  give  all  their 
time  to  debates,  oratorical  and  declamatory  contests.  Let  us  aim  to 
develop  the  weak,  to  give  them  confidence,  self-reliance,  and  fluency. 
This  can  only  be  done  by  the  opportunity  being  created  and  their  be- 
ing compelled  to  make  use  of  it.  At  first  it  may  be  hard  for  them,  their 
first  utterances  will  be  slow  and  halting,  but  in  a  short  time  they  will 
.have  had  revealed  to  them  hidden  resources  and  talents  they  have 
never  dreamed  of,  and  from  that  time  on  they  will  do  from  choice, 
what  they  have  been  compelled  to  begin. 

All  this  early  work  must  be  prepared  under  instruction.  I  cannot 
but  believe  that  much  harm  is  done  by  the  preparation  of  declama- 
tions pupils  never  understood  and  never  are  called  upon  to  recite. 
Time  used  in  memorizing  selections  without  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 
tent is  worse  than  wasted.  Half  the  work  well  done  is  much  more  to 
be  desired  than  tne  present  work  poorly  done. 

If  the  Literary  society  could  only  be  utilized  for  such  rhetorical 
work,  weekly  Rhetoricals  would  be  unnecessary  and  undesirable.  The 
habit  of  coming  before  an  audience  poorly  prepared  is  a  pernicious 
one,  and  is,  I  believe,  rostered  by  too  frequent  rhetorical  programs  and 
too  little  preparation  in  the  line  of  study  and  rehearsal. 

The  work  I  have  outlined  may  seem  extensive  but  I  am  certain  ot 
one  thing,  it  is  not  out  of  proportion  to  the  benefits  to  be  derived. 
Rhetorical  work  should  be  made  a  part  of  the  work  in  oral  expression, 
that  our  teachers  may  carry  a  more  exalted  idea  of  its  real  purpose 
and  usefulness  with  them  to  their  schools.  Why  should  teachers  de- 
spise rhetorical  exercises?  Because  they  see  in  them  little  or  no  rela- 
tion to  tneir  professional  work.  If  every  exercise  of  that  nature  were 
presented  to  them  in  the  light  of  an  exercise  in  oral  expression  and  in 
the  spirit  of  an  exercise  in  reading,  I  am  sure  it  would  attract  more  in- 
terest If  it  were  understood  that  a  pupil's  rank  as  a  teacher  is  tc  be 

10 


146  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

decided  in  a  degree  upon  his  or  her  ability  to  appear  well  on  the  plat- 
form and  read  or  recite  creditably,  more  pains  would  be  taken  in  that 
work.  Our  pupils  feel  too  much  that  "it  makes  no  difference  how  I  say 
a  thing  if  I  only  know  it."  In  fact  they  often  become  quite  indignant 
if  criticised  on  expression  in  class  work.  Much  of  this  fault  lies  at 
our  own  door.  We  have  made  too  little  of  the  beautiful  and  useful  art 
of  oral  expression.  We  think  little  of  that  which  is  not  reduced  to. 
writing.  All  his  tests  and  examinations  are  in  writing,  his  whole 
school  life  has  been  filled  with  writing.  Let  us  bend  our  energies  in 
another  direction  for  awhile,  and  teach  the  true  importance  of  the 
spoken  word;  open  the  windows  of  his  soul  and  let  him  pour  forth, 
"himself,"  for  not  until  he  has  made  the  printed  page  his  own,  not  un- 
til ne  has  entered  into  its  life  and  made  it  a  'part  of  his  life  can  h& 
really  appreciate  it;  and  then  only  partially  until  he  has  expressed  it. 


IN  WHAT  WAY  MAY  THE  WORK  IN  ENGLISH  BE  MOST  EF- 
FECTIVELY SUPPLEMENTED  BY  TEACHERS  IN  OTHER  DE- 
PARTMENTS? 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Platteville. 

I.  Every  teacher  in  the  Normal  school  should  be  the  assistant  of  the- 
language  teacher.     In  fact,  the  teaching  of  language  is  something  no 
teacher  can  escape.     He  may  or  he  may  not  teach  the  arithmetic  or  the 
geography  that  he  sets  out  to  teach,  but  he  will  teach  English  by  his 
example  and  by  the  ideals  that  he  reveals  to  students,  whether  he  will 
or  no. 

II.  The  teachers  of  all  other  subjects  must  realize,  that  "Impression 
is  completed  only  by  expression,"  and  that  it  is  just  as  much  their 
business  to  secure  a  clear,  logical  statement  of  the  subject  matter,  as 
to  see  that  the  facts  of  the  subject  matter  are  mastered. 

III.  He  should  remember  that  clear  thinking  can  be  secured  only 
through  clear  logical  expression,  and  that  every  lesson  should  be  a  lan- 
guage lesson. 

IV.  As  oral  speech  is  the  foundation  of  written  composition,  the  pupil 
should   be   required   and  trained   in   every   recitation   to   organize  his 
ideas  and  language  in  accordance  with  the  simple  fundamental  laws 
and  forms  of  discourse,  according  as  the  subject  matter  of  the  recita- 
tion   requires    narration,    description,    exposition,    or    argumentation. 
There  should  be  occasional  written  recitations  and  reviews  whose  main 
purpose  is  to  train  and  test  the  power  of  pupils  so  to  organize  and: 
state  their  knowledge. 

V.  Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  that  must  be  paid  for  excellence. 
But  it  will  be  time  and  effort  saved  in  the  end,  as  it  will  re-act  on  the 
pupil's  power  to  think. 

VI.  The  teacher  of  Latin  and  German  should  always  require  as  the 
final    evidence    of   mastery,    that   translations    be    expressed    in    pure, 
idiomatic  English.     There  is  no  other  evidence  that  the  pupil  compre- 
hends the  thoughts  of  the  original. 

VII.  The  Socratic  method  of  conducting  a  recitation  may  do  for  de- 
veloping a  subject,  and  to  stimulate  thought,  but  the  topical  method 
only  will  show  complete  possession  and  power  to  prove  that  possession. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER  OF  ENGLISH   SECTION. 

VIII.  At  first  teachers  should  give  model  lessons,  after  the  facts  are 
learned,  and  require  pupils  to  reproduce  by  imitation  largely;   but  as 
soon  as  possible  pupils  should  be  required  to  organize  and  completely 
express  the  lessons.     This  power  only  is  the  test  of  mastery,  and  only 
when  he  can  do  this,  is  the  pupil  prepared  to  leave  the  subject. 

IX.  Until  the  teachers  of  the  Normal  schools  feel  the  transcendent 
importance  of  these  rules  and  principles,  and  put  them  into  daily  prac- 
tice, the  English  will  not  be  materially  improved  and  the  Normal  stu- 
dent prepared  to  teach. 

X.  It  would  be  well  for  teachers  of  other  subjects  to  report  pupils 
whose  language,  spoken  and  written,  is  not  clear  and  correct,  and  that 
such  pupils  be  required  to  take  extra  work  in  English  until  their  lan- 
guage shall  be  up  to  the  required  standard. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER. 
I. 

GRAMMAR. 

It  was  voted  to  recommend  the  following  statement  of  purpose  and 
scope  in  Academic  grammar  work  in  Normal  schools: 

A.  Purpose. 

The  purpose  of  teaching  English  grammar  in  the  Normal  schools 
should  be: 

1.  To  awaken  in  the  minds  of  students  a  consciousness  of  thought 
processes;. 

2.  To  require  a  reasonably  comprehensive  mastery  of  the  scientific 
structure  of  the  English  language; 

3.  To  train  students  to  use  the  principles  of  grammar  as  aids  in  in- 
terpreting literature  and  in  correct  use  of  the  language. 

B.  Scope. 

The  scope  should  include  a  study  of  the  kinds  and  elements  of  sen- 
tence structure,  and  the  classification  and  inflections  of  words. 

Moved  by  Miss  Kimball  and  carried  that  the  plan  of  teaching  Gram- 
mar by  application  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions  as  presented 
by  Mrs.  Madden  of  Milwaukee  Normal,  be  recommended  for  use  ty 
teachers  of  Grammar. 


The  Scope  of  Composition  as  an  Academic  Subject 

I.     Punctuation:     This  should  fit  the  student — 

1.  To  punctuate  intelligently  what  he  writes. 

2.  To  criticise  the  punctuation  of  others. 
II.  Words:     This  should— 

1.  Increase  the  student's  vocabulary. 

2.  Render  his  use  of  words  more  precise  and  definite. 

3.  Enable  him  to  avoid  common  errors. 

4.  Enable  him  to  detect  and  account  for  errors  in  language  of 

others. 


148  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

III.  Practice  in  securing  the  essential  qualities  of  good  style  in  the  dis- 
course, the  paragraph,  the  sentence. 

IV.  Kinds  of  Discourse:  Narration,  Description,  Exposition,  Argumen- 
tation, as  exemplified  in  the  single  paragraph  and  in  continued 
4iscourse. 

1.  The  choice  of  theme  and  title. 

2.  The  preparation  of  an  outline. 

3.  The  purpose,  nature,  and  characteristics  of  each  kind. 

4.  How  these  characteristics  may  be  attained. 

The  Scope  of  Composition  as  a  Professional  Subject. 

The  student  should  learn  here: 

I.  The  purpose  of  Language  in  the  Grades.     It  is  to  train  pupils  to 
express  themselves  with  accuracy,  ease,  and  force,  both  orally 
and  in  writing. 
II.  The  Means  to  be  Employed. 

1.  Conversation. 

2.  Narration — 

(a)  of  stories  told  or  read. 

(b)  of  stories  in  pictures. 

(c)  of  original  stories. 

3.  Exposition — 

(a)  based  upon  experience. 

(b)  based  upon  information  acquired  in  other  studies. 
±.  Description — 

(a)  of  pictures. 

(b)  of  objects. 

(c)  of  persons. 

(d)  of  places  and  scenes. 

5.  Persuasion — to  be  used  in  letters. 

6.  Models    from    good    authors    to    re-enforce    instruction    by 

teachers. 
III.  How  to  Employ  the  Means. 

1.  How  to  select  stories,  pictures,  models,  etc. 

2.  How  to  present  them  so  as  to  lead  to  good  results  in  language. 

3.  How  to  criticise — 

(a)  What. 

(b)  In  what  order  of  importance. 

(c)  How  and  when. 
IV.  How  to  Grade  the  Work. 

(a)  In  what  order  to  present  the  different  kinds  of  discourse. 

(b)  In  what  order  to  teach  the  characteristics  of  each  kind. 

(c)  What  to  criticise  in  different  grades. 

(d)  Wnat  kind  of  worK  to  expect  in  different  grades. 

It  was  moved  and  carried  that  Mr.  Hardy's  recommendation  con- 
cerning the  aid  to  be  given  work  in  the  English  Department  by  other 
teachers  be  approved  by  the  English  Section. 

ALBERT  HARDY. 


PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  OF  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY.         149 


GEOGRAPHY. 

Leader,  F.  E.  MITCHELL,  Oshkosh. 


PURPOSES  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  WORK  OF  GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE 
NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

J.  A.  MERRILL,  Superior. 

I.  General  Principles. 

The  organization  of  the  public  school  makes  it  necessary  that  it  pro- 
vide the  student  with  the  elements  of  good  citizenship.  In  order  to  do 
this  it  is  fundamentally  plain  that  the  first  problem  is  to  put  the  child 
in  the  possession  of  his  rational  self.  In  the  accomplishment  of  this, 
courses  of  study  are  made  through  which  the  child  is  led  with  the  idea 
that  his  growing  mind  will  assimilate  the  proper  amount  of  nourish- 
ment and  thereby  bring  him  to  mental  adolescence. 

Mankind  has  progressed  from  ignorance  to  civilization  along  well  de- 
fined lines  of  growth.  While  these  lines  are  variously  connected  with 
one  another,  they  may  in  their  embryonic  relations  be  considered  to  rep- 
resent expression,  numerical  relation,  and  science. 

In  this  view  of  the  case,  geography  is  placed  in  the  course  of  study. 
Broadly  considered  it  is  a  part  of  the  mental  food  of  the  child,  specific- 
ally considered  it  represents  one  of  the  great  lines  of  human  develop- 
ment, namely,  science. 

The  growth  of  science  is  the  material  progress  of  man  in  his  hand- 
to-hand  struggle  with  nature.  The  forces  which  govern  his  progress  as 
well  as  the  forces  which  govern  the  nature  with  which  he  deals  are 
geographic  factors,  and  the  relations  which  these  various  factors  sus- 
tain to  one  another  are  geographic  relations. 

Geography,  therefore,  in  representing  the  scientific  side  of  racial 
development  must  also  be  to  the  child  the  scientific  atmosphere  in 
which  his  mind  develops.  It  is  in  the  earlier  years  the  contact  with 
nature,  which  is  so  essential  to  mental  vitality,  and  in  later  years  it 
diverges  into  a  score  of  lines  of  investigation,  each  of  which  has  en- 
riched humanity.  Therefore,  with  this  fundamental  principle  before 
us  the  position  of  geography  in  the  course  of  study  cannot  be  doubtful, 
nor  the  source  of  its  subject  matter  a  question. 

In  the  Normal  school  the  course  in  geography  should  give  the  stu- 
dents who  will  become  teachers  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles 
and  relations  which  govern  its  subject  matter  and  the  ability  to  organ- 
ize its  multiplicity  of  details  into  simple  and  logical  groups.  It  may 
be  the  same  in  kind  as  in  the  common  schools,  although  it  should  per- 
haps occupy  a  higher  plane  of  reasoning  and  give  a  broader  under- 
standing of  cause  and  effect. 

The  following  is  the  general  statement  of  such  a  course  which  it  i3 
believed  will  be  found  helpful  in  Normal  schools: 

II.  Purposes. 

1.  A  principal  purpose  of  geography,  briefly  put,  is  to  cause  the  stu- 
dent to  react  against  his  environment  and  to  make  him  an  intelligent 


150  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

master  of  his  surroundings.  The  vagueness  of  this  proposition  will  dis- 
appear somewhat  if  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  mental  activity  re- 
sulting from  acquirement  will  make  the  child  a  thinker  and  will  lead 
his  thought  to  be  self-directive.  Furthermore,  this,  being  a  considera- 
tion of  causes  and  effects,  will  lead  the  individual  to  the  search  for 
primary  causes  and  to  expect  legitimate  effects  from  propositions  under 
consideration. 

2.  It  should  develop  the  broadest  sympatny  and  appreciation  for  all 
nature  especially  the  plants  and  animals  by  which  the  child  is  sur- 
rounded.    A  proper  sympathy  with  nature  has  been  the  dream  of  the 
educational  reformers  and  is  no  inconsiderable  basis  for  morality  and 
ethics.     It  Res  at  the  foundation  of  the  arts  as  well  as  the  sciences  and 
keeps  the  soul  in  a  transient  mood  which  welcomes  the  approach  of 
truth  from  whatever  direction. 

3.  The  study  of  geography  makes  the  person  an  intelligent  reader 
and  traveler.     These  are  the  richest  paths  which  lead  to  culture,  and 
no  one  who  has  contemplated  the  trips  of  Franklin,  or  Emerson,  and 
the  travels  of  Carpenter,  Stanley,  and  Livingston,  as  well  as  a  score  of 
others,  can  deny  that  this  element  opens  up  one  of  the  important  phases 
of  education. 

III.  Subject  Matter. 

In  a  Normal  school  geography  should  be  taught  in  its  correct  rela- 
tion to  other  subjects.  Its  subject  matter  is  the  same  as  its  pedagogical 
content  and  both  are  in  harmony  with  the  fundamental  laws  that  have 
been  heretofore  considered. 

The  following  suggestive  course  is 'based  on  the  supposition  that 
evolution  is  the  proper  conception  of  education  and  is  therefore  the 
basis  for  teaching  and  arrangement  of  subject  matter.  The  general 
proposition  is  that  geography  comprises  a  knowledge  of  the  world  with 
the  forces  that  build  and  destroy  it.  A  knowledge  of  the  life  which  it 
has  developed  and  now  sustains,  and  man's  relation  to  the  phenomena 
around  him.  This  may  be  further  subdivided  into  the  following  lines 
of  development: 

1.  Geological.     This  begins  with  a  consideration  of  surface  and  ends 
in  a  conception  of  the  topography  of  the  world. 

2.  Biological.     Tnis  begins  with  the  plant  life  which  draws  its  sus- 
tenance from  the  soil;  it  ends  with  the  highest  form  of  animal  life  with 
which  mankind  has  to  deal. 

3.  Industrial.     This  begins  with  the  simple  management  of  natural 
plants  and  ends  with  the  complex  industries  and  the  commerce  which 
sustains  the  civilization  of  the  world. 

4.  Sociological.     Beginning   with   the    commercial   enterprise    which 
gives  men  occupation  and  obligation,  this  line  ends  with  history  which 
is  largely  the  result  of  the  commercial  relationship  of  men. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  of  these  lines  of  development  begins  in 
the  experience  of  the  child,  or  in  the  experience  which  may  be  his,  and 
ends  in  a  concept  which  is  world-wide  in  its  application.  Each  line 
begins  in  a  unit  which  can  be  observed  and  handled  and  ends  with  an 
idea  much  of  which  is  to  be  imagined  and  correlated  with  other  com- 
plex notions  which  go  to  make  up  the  world  to  the  individual.  In  a 
Hormal  school  the  students  should  have  a  firm  grasp  of  this  thought 
which  will  enable  them  to  locate  any  subject  under  discussion  in  its 


PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  OF  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

relation  to  the  world  idea.  Thus  they  will  be  able  to  correlate  this 
work  so  that  the  work  of  the  various  grades  may  be  adapted  to  the 
widening  horizon  of  the  growing  child. 

IV.  Scope. 

Since  geography  includes  the  subject  matter  above  cited  it  may  be 
made  a  resting  place  for  much,  if  not  all  of  the  modern  so-called  nature 
study.  The  most  serious  objection  raised  against  nature  study  in  the 
grades  is  that  it  lacks  definiteness  both  in  the  beginning  and  in  the 
end  sought.  It  is  often  given  not  so  much  to  enrich  the  course  of  study 
as  to  make  it  more  attractive,  and  'it  therefore  loses  its  force  by  lack 
of  correlation.  Nature  study  given  in  connection  with  geography  is 
governed  by  a  fixed  plan  and  should  be  a  prominent  feature. 

2.  Local  geography  also  has  a  prominent  place.     Not  alone  the  local 
geography  which  makes  the  child  an  inquirer  into  his  natural  surround- 
ings, but  that  which  looks  upon  the  community  as  a  miniature  world 
containing,  as  Froebel  declares,  "all  in  all."     This  part  of  the  subject 
considers  those  geographical  units  and  their  relations  to  geographic 
forces  which,  when  thoroughly  mastered  and  used  with  proper  supple- 
mentary work,  will  bring  the  great  and  the  distant  within  the  grasp 
of  the  mind.     Local  geography,  therefore,  is  a  series  of  selected  types 
through  the  medium  of  which  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  world  are  un- 
derstood. 

3.  World  geography,  the  legitimate  outcome  of  local  geography,  has 
an  important  place  in  geography  teaching  and  must  ever  remain  the 
most  important  feature  of  geography.     Its  importance  does  not  demand 
that  it  shall  receive  the  most  time  and  attention,  but  that  it  be  ap- 
proached in  such  a  way  that  it  will  receive  the  deepest  thought  and  the 
most  concentrated  attention.     It  is  looked  upon  as  the  sum  total  of 
geographical  relations. 

4.  Furthermore,   the   scope   of  geography   includes   certain   folk-lore 
stories  and  myths  which  are  often  given  without  reference  to  a  definite 
plan.     They  may  be  made  to  illustrate  the  method  of  history  formation, 
to  preserve  localities  which  it  is  desirable  to  remember,  and  to  corre- 
late knowledge  of  the  development  of  the  people  with  the  natural  con- 
ditions which  foster  such  development.     In  the  lower  grades  simple 
folk-lore  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  stories  increasing  in  the  higher 
grades  to  the  reading  of  fairy  stories,  biography  and  history. 

5.  In  geography  as  in  other  subjects  the  study  of  the  English  lan- 
guage should  have  a  place,  and  hence  the  full  import  of  geography  is 
not  realized  until  the  gathering  of  ideas,  as  before  stated,  is  crystallized 
and  expressed  in  forceful,  vigorous  English.     The  composition  writing 
which  necessarily  accompanies  every  original  exercise  in  geography,  de- 
velops the  expression  and  increases  the  value  of  the  exercise  in  many 
ways.     Such  compositions  should  be  the  pleasant  expression  of  intelli- 
gent thought  rather  than  an  accumulation  of  statistics  gathered  from 
the  usual  sources.     It  is  manifestly  natural  for  a  student  to  write  flu- 
ently on  a  subject  in  which  he  is  interested  and  about  which  he  has 
thought  intelligently,  and  consequently  geography  will  contribute  in 
no  small  degree  to  the  study  of  English. 

V.  Plan  of  Work. 

Though  not  in  strict  compliance  with  the  wording  of  my  subject,  I 
desire  to  add  a  few  brief  points  on  the  plan  of  work  necessary  in  the 
foregoing  method. 


152  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

1.  It  is  throughout  a  study  by  types.     These  types  are  studied  with 
greater  or  less  fulness  as  the  nature  of  the  types  demand  and  are  com- 
bined by  the  process  of  reasoning  into  larger  concepts.     Thus,  in  the 
study  of  North  American  Continent,  the  Mississippi   River  Basin  is 
taken  as  a  type  of  depressed  surface;  wheat,  cotton,  and  corn  raising  as 
typical  industries  of  production;   cattle  raising  as  a  type  of  industry 
of  manufacture;  iron,  of  mining,  etc.     Finally  these  notions  are  com- 
bined into  the  larger  unit-continent. 

2.  Systematic  field-work  is  a  necessity.     By  this  is  meant  that  it 
should  have  a  definite  place  in  the  course  and  should  be  accurately 
planned  and  worked  out  by  the  teachers  before  the  students  are  intro- 
duced to  it.     This  does  more  than  illustrate  geographical  definitions, 
it  develops  ideas  and  makes  them  living  thoughts. 

3.  Map-drawing  is  a  means  of  combining  individual  types  and  is  used 
in  contour,  chalk  model,  or  diagram,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
combination  desired. 

4.  Much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  interpretation  of  pictures  as  well 
as  maps.     Pictures  may  be  gathered  from  many  sources  and  combined 
to  suit  the  phases  of  the  subject  under  consideration.     The  thought 
thus  gained  may  supplement  or  take  the  place  of  the  printed  descrip- 
tions. 

5.  Considerable  energy  should  be  put  on  systematic  drill,  which  will 
not  only  freshen  the  mind  in  the  details  studied,  but  will  bring  new- 
combinations  and  generalizations  when  viewed  from  different  stand- 
points.    Frequent  correlation  of  the  old  and  the  new,  the  past  and  the 
present,  forms  a  mental  atmosphere  of  cheerfulness  and  confidence  as 
the  complexity  of  the  subject  increases. 


DISCUSSION. 

CORNELIA  E.  ROGERS,  Whitewater. 

Before  one  can  have  an  intelligent  opinion  of  the  purposes  and  scope 
of  the  work  in  geography  in  the  Normal  school,  he  must  have  a  clear 
understanding  of  what  geography  is,  and  an  enthusiastic  interest  in 
everything  that  pertains  to  the  subject,  and  to  the  successful  teaching 
of  the  subject.  Prof.  Merrill's  paper  shows  clearly  that  he  has  such  an 
understanding  and  interest;  and  I  indorse  his  paper  with  emphasis. 
But  I  wonder  where  the  time  is  coming  from  in  which  to  develop  the 
subject  in  such  a  manner  as  he  would  have  it  developed. 

The  purposes  of  geography  in  the  public  schools  also  obtain  in  the 
Normal  school;  while  in  addition  to  these,  the  Normal  school  gives  to 
the  pupil  that  training  in  geography  which  will  enable  him  to  teach 
the  subject  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time  and  with  the  least  ex- 
penditure of  effort. 

If  pupils  who  enter  a  Normal  school  only  knew  what  many  people 
suppose  they  know,  it  would  go  far  toward  settling  the  questions  of 
purposes  and  scope  with  which  we  have  to  wrestle.  But  experience  has 
proved  that  they  lack  a  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  often  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  subject  beyond  the  idea  of  locative  geography.  Geog- 
raphy is  the  one  subject  in  the  school  curriculum  that  brings  the  child 
in  touch  with  the  physical  forms,  the  active  forces,  the  living  phenom- 


DISCUSSION.  15:-> 

ena  around  him,  and  teaches  him  through  sense-perception  to  know  and 
feel  his  rational  place  in  nature.  Everyone  admits  that  it  is  good 
pedagogy  to  begin  the  subject  of  geography  with  the  child's  environ- 
ment, for  in  dealing  with  his  geographical  surroundings  the  pupil  finds 
abundant  material  with  which  to  exercise  his  mental  powers.  He  ob- 
serves, he  records,  he  reflects,  he  discovers  natural  laws,  and  the  source 
of  all  law,  and  brings  himself  into  harmony  with  law.  He  realizes  the 
pleasure  of  mental  activity.  He  craves  more  knowledge  and  desires  a 
continuation  and  enhancement  of  the  pleasure  of  self-activity.  No 
teacher  can  do  more  for  a  pupil,  and  no  other  subject  yields  so  rich  a, 
field  for  this  kind  of  thinking  as  does  geography.  Now  the  pupil  on 
entering  a  Normal  school  has  never  been  taught  to  think  of  geography 
as  including  such  knowledge,  relationships,  and  values.  Then  good 
common  sense  demands  that  he  sh&ll  be  taught  the  home  geography 
and  its  values,  that  he  in  turn  may  be  able  to  teach  better  than  he  has 
been  taught.  This  takes  time,  as  I  know  from  experience,  for  it  is  not 
something  that  can  be  poured  into  and  superimposed  upon  the  mind  01 
the  pupil. 

Geography  "opens  the  door"  of  the  sciences  and  allows  the  pupil  to 
get  glimpses  of  those  broad,  rich  fields  which  will  surround  and  influ- 
ence him  through  life.  In  dealing  with  these  elementary  facts  in  sci- 
ence there  is  danger  of  distraction  and  loss  of  mental  energy.  It  ia 
found  that  botany  and  geography,  for  instance,  have  facts  in  common 
and  therefore  enter  each  other's  domain;  but  the  geography  teacher 
will  see  and  teach  the  geographical  relation  and  not  the  botanical  sci- 
ence. These  glimpses  of  elementary  science,  rightly  considered,  are  in 
themselves  sufficient  reason  for  teaching  geography  in  the  grades. 
Meager  as  these  facts  and  relations  are,  they  enable  the  children  to  be 
more  on  the  alert  for  things  and  the  causes  of  things,  and  more  rational 
in  their  judgments  of  every  day  phenomena.  As  most  pupils  never 
reach  the  high  school,  the  science  taught  in  connection  with  geography 
is  the  sum  total  of  their  science  training;  but  even  this  is  often  a  life- 
long inspiration  to  them.  Then  it  behooves  the  Normal  school  to  pre- 
pare teachers  to  teach  this  large  and  important  phase  of  geographical 
relations.  It  is  vital,  and  must  not  be  left  out  of  the  course. 

One  purpose  of  geography  in  the  Normal  school,  it  seems  to  me,  is 
to  give  direct  information  about  the  earth,  and  its  relations  to  man; 
and  a  knowledge  of  how  to  teach  those  facts  and  relations  the  most 
effectively.  The  one  thing  that  I  should  like  to  know  is,  what  phases 
of  geography  are  the  most  valuable  in  giving  knowledge  and  power. 

The  "method  of  the  what"  is  a  grave  question  when  earth  and  her 
relations  stare  us  in  the  face.  Any  general  outline  is  almost  endless, 
and  the  mass  of  details  swamps  one.  Of  the  wealth  suggested  in  the 
outline  what  shall  we  select  that  shall  be  typical  of  its  kind,  and  that 
shall  be  so  inspiring  that  the  pupil  will  continue  his  observation  and 
research?  There  is  so  much  that  is  valuable  that  we  feel  that  we  ought 
to  do  this,  and  not  to  leave  the  other  undone.  What  part  in  the  out- 
line makes  for  power  and  strength?  What  will  most  broaden  and 
deepen  and  cultivate  in  the  time  at  our  command?  Is  it  best  to  let  each 
teacher  in  the  Normal  school  do  as  he  pleases? 

This  subject  matter  we  must  not  only  adapt  to  our  own  pupils,  but 
we  must  afterwards  translate  it  so  that  our  own  pupils  shall  be  able 
to  adapt  it  to  the  capabilities  of  the  children  of  the  state.  Otherwise 
they  will  teach  what  we  teach  and  as  we  teach  it,  without  regard  to 


154  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

vthe  age  or  ability  of  the  pupils  taught.  The  public  school  lays  the 
foundation  for  success  in  life,  and  we  are  training  teachers  for  the 
public  schools.  Has  this  anything  to  do  with  purposes  and  scope  of 
the  work  in  geography  in  a  Normal  school?  It  goes  without  saying 
that  a  good  business  man  in  these  days  of  close  competition  and  large 
mercantile  fields  must  know  the  details  of  his  father-land.  The  time 
is  near  at  hand,  is  even  here,  when  a  knowledge  of  the  details  of  the 
civilized  world  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  commercial  success.  Then 
the  teachers  that  we  train  should  be  able  to  impart  the  basic  knowl- 
edge antT  principles  of  geography  which  will  enable  the  young  man  on 
leaving  school  to  continue  to  acquire,  arrange,  and  hold  that  body  ot 
geographic  knowledge  which  is  to  be  found  in  current  literature.  This 
takes  time. 

Another  purpose  of  geography  in  a  Normal  school  is  to  give  to  the 
pupil  a  basis  for  the  study  of  history,  which  is  an  important  subject 
in  every  course  of  study.  What  phases  of  geography  will  do  this? 
Diesterweg,  Hinsdale,  Higginson,  Draper,  Shaler,  and  scores  of  others 
say  that  in  order  to  understand  the  migrations  and  development  of  na- 
tions, and  the  great  military  operations  of  the  world,  with  their  causes 
;and  effects,  one  must  know  in  detail  the  arrangement  of  mountain 
chains  and  valleys,  plains  and  their  rivers;  must  know  climate  and 
soil,  mineral  wealth  and  the  possibilities  of  agriculture.  Surely  this  de- 
termines a  large  factor  of  the  scope  of  geography  in  a  Normal  school 
and  gives  sufficient  reason  for  teaching  geography  broadly  and  deeply. 

And  further,  detailed  knowledge  of  one's  country  lays  a  stable  founda- 
tion for  intelligent  patriotism.  We  love  best  that  which  we  know  best. 
If  we  know  our  country  well,  it  goes  a  long  way  toward  giving  us 
courage  to  die  for  it,  and  even  to  live  for  it.  Has  not  the  day  come 
when  he  who  legislates  wisely  for  his  fellow  citizens  must  be  a  man 
who  has  read  his  geography  lessons  well?  And  in  this  country  where 
the  public  school  boy  of  today  casts  his  ballot  on  the  morrow,  should 
not  geography  be  a  prominent  subject  in  the  broad  training  'for 
citizenship? 

I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  that  I  think  the  universe  turns  on 
geography  (but  the  universe  is  geography  all  the  same),  but  inas- 
much as  geography  gives  mental  discipline  of  a  high  order,  gives  in- 
formation valuable  in  itself,  gives  the  basis  for  the  sciences  and  for 
•history,  aids  materially  in  business  success,  broadens  one's  sympathies, 
stimulates  patriotism,  surely  it  must  be  considered  a  study  that  is  full 
of  riches,  and  that  requires  a  great  deal  of  time. 

In  attempting  to  put  different  studies  in  their  proper  places,  one 
class  of  educational  reformers  places  geography  second  only  to  arith- 
metic in  mental  discipline;  another  class  second  only  to  history, 
and  then  admits  that  unless  history  teaching  be  based  on  geography 
it  is  building  a  house  on  the  sands;  another  second  only  to  literature 
in  inspiration,  and  says,  substantially,  that  the  poet  gets  most  of  his 
inspiration  from  a  close  study  of  geographical  relations;  and  still 
another  class  makes  geography  the  central  study  of  a  great  scheme  of 
concentration;  then  surely  the  Normal  school  is  justified  in  giving 
igeography  a  large  place  in  its  curriculum. 


SUPPLEMENTAL  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 


HOW  FAR  MAY  THE  STUDY  OF  GEOGRAPHY  TEXT-BOOKS  BE 
SUPPLEMENTED  BY  OUTSIDE  READING, 

'(a)  In  the  Normal  school?    (b)  In  the  common  school?    (c)  In  ivhat 
way  can  the  work  be  organized! 

ALICIA  DE  RIEMER,  Stevens  Point. 

Relationship  is  the  very  main  spring  of  geography.  Without  it  the 
subject  is  limited,  devitalized  and  uninteresting,  with  it  new  life  is 
awakened,  the  perspective  enlarged,  and  the  conceptions  broadened. 
If  we  accept  the  current  definition  of  geography,  namely,  "a  study 
of  earth  in  its  relation  to  man,"  we  recognize  inevitably  the  links 
of  relationship  which  establish  mutual  interdependences  between  the 
inorganic  earth  on  one  hand,  and  man  on  the  other.  At  the  very  outset 
we  admit  that,  properly  treated,  no  phase  of  geography  should  be 
studied  by  itself  but  solely  with  reference  to  its  relation  to  neighboring 
fields  of  knowledge,  such  as  history,  geology,  meteorology,  botany, 
anthropology,  zoology.  To  what  extent  one  is  justified  in  encroaching 
upon  these  neignboring  fields  of  science,  aside  from  the  material 
found  in  geography  text-books,  requires  much  sound  judgment  and 
careful  discrimination. 

It  is  true  that  all  of  our  modern  school  geographies  treat  of  these 
allied  sciences  but  they  are  not  wholly  comprehensive  nor  the  only 
desirable  sources  of  help.  Most  of  them  are  marvelous  encyclopedias 
of  the  universe,  dealing  with  a  mixture  of  sciences  without  coherence, 
without  logical  sequence,  sure  ruin  to  unity  of  thought.  Dr.  G.  Stanley 
Hall,  in  a  recent  address  before  the  New  England  Association  of 
School  Superintendents,  remarked  that  our  geographies  would  lead  us 
to  believe  that  "not  the  serpent,  but  the  sausage  is  the  emblem  of 
wisdom." 

To  limit  one's  knowledge  of  geographic  facts,  then,  to  the  matter 
-contained  within  the  covers  of  most  modern  geographies,  would 
lead  to  distraction.  Furthermore,  it  means  stultification  and  stagna- 
tion. Geography  is  a  living,  a  progressive  subject.  The  face  of  the 
map  is  being  changed  daily.  To  keep  abreast  with  the  times  we  must 
look  beyond  the  text  by  constantly  referring  to  the  newspaper  and 
the  current  magazine  as  well  as  to  recent  book  publications.  We  are 
to  blame  if  the  student  finds  the  daily  lesson  a  dry,  indigestible  bill  of 
'fare. 

No  teacher  of  geography  need  be,  should  be  entirely  dependent  upon 
a  text-book.  The  primitive  custom  of  assigning  a  certain  portion  of  the 
text  consisting  of  certain  absolute,  empirical  statements  to  be  memor- 
ized is  characteristic  of  American  methods  of  teaching  the  subject. 
In  my  judgment,  the  text-book  should  be  used  in  the  Normal  school 
merely  as  a  foundation  reference,  the  course  in  geography  being  graded 
into  topics  fitted  to  the  peculiar  needs  and  interests  of  the  class. 
We  study  a  subject,  never  a  text-book.  In  accordance  with  this  idea 
we  cull  from  all  sources  wherever  we  can  find  help.  By  such  a  plan 
"the  student  is  thrown  quite  entirely  on  tne  resources  of  the  library 
for  daily  consultation  and  reference.  Such  a  plan  is  particularly 
•adaptable  and  effective  in  the  geography  work  of  the  Normal  school 
owing  to  the  following  conditions:  First,  a  large  proportion  of  our 


156  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

students  come  to  us  witn  a  meager  knowledge  of  the  subject  proper, 
with  much  less  knowledge  of  correlated  subjects  and  with  little  under- 
standing oi  how  to  use  books.  Their  recourse  to  current  literature,, 
much  less  to  a  well  selected  library,  has  been  limited.  What  they 
need,  then,  is  a  broader  conception  of  the  subject,  a  wider  range  of 
information  and  training  in  seeking  new  material  and  organizing 
it  in  a  logical  way. 

Again,  one  of  the  aims  of  geography  work  in  Normal  school  train- 
ing is  to  show  the  student  how  to  teach,  but  he  must  know  first 
what  to  each.  No  subject  in  the  entire  curriculum  calls  for  a  wider 
range  of  information  than  geography.  The  most  resourceful  instructor, 
then,  is  he  who  knows  his  subject,  who  is  able  to  marshal  into  line  hia 
information  at  the  opportune  time  to  the  best  advanage,  to  be  able  to 
suggest  material  apropos  of  the  subject  in  hand.  He  may  possess  a 
magnetic  presence,  may  be  pedagogical  in  his  reasoning,  may  have 
tact,  but  these  are  ineffective  for  good  if  he  be  not  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  his  subject. 

There  are  two  ways  of  securing  wider  information,  viz:  by  travel, 
and  by  reading.  The  one  is  not  always  possible,  the  other  indis- 
pensable. Reading  with  a  purpose  is  exercise,  without  purpose  we 
merely  saunter.  Well  planned  lessons,  which  require  a  reasonable- 
amount  of  investigation  and  which  give  the  student  training  not  only 
in  seeking,  but  in  testing  and  in  arranging  geographic  facts  are  par- 
ticularly valuable  and  the  library  should  offer  facilities  necessary  for 
such  work  in  geography. 

Supplemental  work  gives  the  student  greater  independence,  opens 
his  eyes  to  the  splendid  storehouse  of  material  outside  of  the  text- 
book, brings  him  in  close  touch  with  many  sources  of  information, 
makes  him  more  generous  and  magnanimous  in  judging  the  disparities 
and  contradictions  which  exist  among  different  authorities  and  makes 
him  an  enthusiast. 

But  one  great  difficulty  in  realizing  all  our  plans  is  lack  of  time. 
Ten  weeks  or  three  months  in  which  to  cover  the  entire  geographic 
field,  pressing  demands  upon  students  along  the  same  line  in  other 
departments,  the  difficulty  of  securing  books,  pupils  widely  diverse 
in  ability  to  comprehend  and  to  organize  material,  these  are  a  few  of 
the  drawbacks.  It  is  obviously  impossible  with  these  demands  and 
disparities  to  hold  our  Normal  students  responsible  for  doing  outside 
reading  of  more  than  a  very  few  entire  books  during  the  year.  Orig- 
inal research,  that  is,  to  add  something  to  the  cause  and  progress  of 
the  science,  is  entirely  out  of  consideration;  but,  whatever  the  method 
of  work  pursued,  supplementary  reading  of  certain  definite  chapters 
or  pages  bearing  upon  the  lesson  each  day  is  possible  and  extremely 
desirable. 

Let  us  step  into  the  library  and  solicit  the  cooperation  of  the  li- 
brarian. Let  us  learn  what  volumes  bear  directly  upon  geography 
proper,  then  let  us  familiarize  ourselves  with  correlated  reference 
books.  "We  may  be  able  to  arrange  for  a  geography  section  or  alcove 
in  the  library  where,  with  the  aid  of  our  librarian,  all  reference 
books  pertaining  to  tne  day's  lesson  may  be  grouped  and  where  students- 
will  find  helpful  material. 

All  supplementary  reading  should  be  definite  and  clear  cut  so  that 
no  time  is  wasted  and  so  that  the  greatest  good  may  come  from  all 
the  energy  expended.  See  that  the  reference  list  includes  the  exact 


SUPPLEMENTAL  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 


157 


title  with  chapter  and  page,  such  list  to  be  prepared  each  day  in 
.advance  by  the  instructor  and  hung  in  the  geography  alcove  so  that 
there  is  no  protracted  hunt  for  especial  points  in  a  large  mass  or 
references.  This  plan  is  necessarily  preceded  by  a  definite  outline  in 
•class  of  the  important  points  to  be  discussed  on  the  morrow.  One 
hour  or  one  hour  and  a  half  of  serious,  concentrated  reading  in  the 
preparation  of  the  advance  lesson  each  day  is  not  too  much  to  re- 
quire of  the  average  student  and  should  produce  excellent  results. 
If  time  permits,  particular  topics  on  which  students  are  to  write 
special  papers  or  are  to  account  for  orally,  may  be  assigned  or  chosen 
during  the  quarter  and  possibly  may  take  the  place  of  a  written  class 
test.  This  exercise  shows  the  result  of  study  in  outside  sources  of 
reference,  and  is  especially  helpful  in  giving  training  in  the  seeking 
and  the  organization  of  new  facts,  bujt  the  student  should  not  be  led  to 
feel  that  he  is  doing  original  work — it  should  not  be  called  research — 
it  is  merely  exercise  in  adapting  material. 

But  library  books  are  not  the  only  aids.  There  is  an  abundant 
live  material  in  the  current  periodicals  and  newspapers.  I  should 
feel  that  my  pupils  were  poorly  fitted  for  their  work  if  they  did  not 
know  such  authors  as  Geikie,  Gilbert,  Davis,  Russell,  Tare  and  others. 
Furthermore,  I  want  them  to  be  familiar  with  the  leading  geographical 
publications,  such  as,  The  Geographical  Magazine,  National  Geograph- 
ical Magazine,  Journal  of  School  Geography,  Bulletin  of  American 
Bureau  of  Geography  and  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine.  As  an  in- 
centive to  reading,  I  would  suggest  that  each  pupil  during  the  quarter 
prepare  a  topical  classified  reference  list  of  geographical  articles  which 
has  noticed  in  the  current  magazines  and  report  in  the  form  of  a  short 
review  upon  at  least  one  article  which  he  has  read  during  each  week. 
This  exercise  leads  to  careful  reading  and  affords  practice  in  com- 
piling and  labeling  geographic  material  which  may  be  helpful  in  the 
future  as  reference. 

Another  means  of  creating  an  up-to-date  interest  in  geographical 
•events  is  the  current  geography  bulletin  board.  Each  pupil  is  asked 
to  write  on  the  board  space  assigned  for  the  purpose,  or  on  a  sheet 
of  manila  paper  hung  in  the  geographic  alcove,  any  important  item  he 
reads  during  the  week,  providing  it  has  not  already  been  written;  this 
necessitates  his  reading  the  contents  of  the  board  before  jotting  down 
his  item.  On  Friday  afternoon  the  bulletin  may  be  read  and  special 
points  discussed  for  a  few  moments.  This  plan  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  the  grades. 

Still  another  source  of  information  is  the  newspaper-clippings  to 
which  the  young  people  should  be  encouraged  to  contribute.  To  make 
them  available,  I  would  suggest  pasting  them  on  sheets  of  heavy  paste- 
board according  to  some  plan  and  within  easy  reach  of  all. 

Furthermore,  many  valuable  articles  may  be  cut  out  of  abandoned  or 
duplicate  periodicals,  such  as  McClure  or  Harpers,  and  these  the 
pupils  will  gladly  bind  in  manila  paper  covers  at  odd  moments.  Such 
references  often  furnish  us  with  just  the  material  needed  on  a  par- 
ticular subject  not  treated  of  in  the  ordinary  reference  text.  In  all 
our  supplementary  contrivances,  we  should  so  arrange  material  as  to 
save  time  and  energy  in  ransacking  drawers  and  shelves. 

The  aforesaid  are  some  of  the  ways  by  which  interest  in  supple- 
mentary reading  may  be  created,  for  when  the  interest  is  once  awakened 
there  is  no  fear  about  the  results.  Just  how  much  supplementary 


158  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

reading  is  justifiable  and  how  varied  the  schemes  for  stimulating 
interest  should  depend  altogether  upon  the  length  of  the  term,  the 
average  ability  of  tne  class  and  the  pleasure  of  the  instructor. 

Similar  plans  with  certain  modifications  may  be  introduced  suc- 
cessfully in  the  common  schools.  There  the  difficulty  of  securing  books, 
simple  enough  for  the  child's  grasp  is  one  perplexing  feature.  Such 
books  as  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader,  Thwaites'  Story  of  the 
Badger  State,  Knox's  Boy  Travelers  do  more  in  fixing  facts  and 
creating  a  desire  to  know  more  than  all  the  geographies  in  the 
universe. 

The  greatest  danger  with  children,  however,  is  in  presenting  prob- 
lems that  are  too  inclusive;  no  child  should  be  asked  to  look  up  de- 
batable questions  on  an  elusive  topic  that  would  require  whole  books 
for  a  proper  presentation  in  print. 

It  would  be  well  to  take  a  glimpse  at  the  geography  requirement* 
in  the  graded  scnools  of  Germany,  for  Germany  can  teach  us  lessons 
of  long  and  successful  experience  in  the  study  of  geography,  which  is 
carefully  graded  in  the  elementary  schools,  continued  in  the  high 
school,  and  emphasized  in  the  University.  Learning  lessons  from  the- 
book,  committing  geographic  facts  to  memory,  which  is  so  character- 
istic of  many  American  schools,  is  unknown  in  Germany,  France  and 
Switzerland.  Instead,  the  pupils  learn  from  direct  observation  and 
reading  of  books  of  travel,  science  and  history.  Commissioner  Harris, 
in  his  report  on  the  teaching  of  geography  in  schools  of  France,  laid 
much  stress  on  the  readiness  with  which  pupils  in  all  grades  responded 
to  an  assigned  subject  in  class  showing  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  due 
to  supplemental  reading. 

The  course  in  reading  as  in  the  Normal  department  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  accordance  with  the  child's  abilities  and  the  choice  of 
facts  must  be  determined  by  his  future  needs  in  special  lines. 

Let  us  remember,  then,  that  in  Normal  schools  students  are  handi- 
capped by  lack  of  time,  meager  information,  many  demands  in  other 
departments,  limited  facilities  for  broadening  knowledge,  and  that  an 
understanding  of  geographic  conditions  in  their  relation  to  applied  sub- 
jects is  indispensable  to  a  successful  teacher. 

Much  information  is  to  be  obtained  by  well  organized  plans  of 
reading,  and  daily  supplemental  reading  stimulates  and  awakens 
interest,  makes  the  student  realize  that  the  text-book  is  not  the  only 
means  of  imparting  knowledge,  and  makes  him  more  generous  and 
open-minded  in  judging  the  disparities  and  contradictions  which  exist 
among  different  authorities. 

Moreover,  supplemental  reading  teaches  him  how  to  use  books  and 
above  all  familiarize  him  with  their  contents.  In  view  of  all  these 
conditions  on  the  part  of  the  student  there  should  come  a  develop- 
ment of  more  careful  planning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  the 
elimination  of  many  features  of  work  which  tend  to  debase  geography 
as  a  study  and  to  euro  the  interest  of  the  child.  An  acquaintance  with 
the  related  fields  of  geography  through  a  series  of  well  selected  ref- 
erences leading  to  an  independent  result,  is  perhaps  the  epitome  of  th& 
suggestions  advanced. 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PROPOSITIONS  IN  TEACHING. 

HISTORY,  POLITICAL  ECONOMY  AND       CIVICS. 

Leader,  A.  J.  HUTTON,  Whitewater. 


AIMS  IN  TEACHING  ECONOMICS. 
W.  H.  CHEEVEE,  Milwaukee. 

1.  To  create  an  interest  in  the  economic  questions  of  the  day. 

2.  To  develop  a  desire  to  read  intelligently  economic  literature  as- 
found  in  the  daily  press,  magazines  and  books. 

3.  To  broaden  the  student  and  give  him  topics  for  conversation  as- 
he  meets  his  patrons  socially. 

4.  To  train  the  student's  observation  and  judgment  so  that  he  will, 
not  judge  from  insufficient  facts  and  will  see  both  sides  of  a  mooted 
question. 

5.  To  correct  wrong  views  as  to  the  relations  between  capital  and 
labor,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  etc. 

6.  To  show  the  relation  of  economics  to — 
a.     Geography. 

ft.  History 

c.  Arithmetic. 

d.  Civics. 

7.  To  show  the  dependence  of  the  individual  upon  society. 

8.  To  create   in  the  student  a  catholic  spirit,  a  sense  of  justice;, 
and  a  feeling  of  his  own  responsibility. 


USE  OP  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PROPOSITIONS  1,  2,  3,  AND  4  IN 
THE  TEACHING  OF\  HISTORY. 

(Copyrighted.) 
GRACE  DARLING  MADDEN,  Milwaukee. 

I.  The  application  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions  in  the  prep- 
aration from  day  to  day  of  class  work  necessitates  a  lesson-plan — the 
parts  of  this  lesson-plan  arranged  under  four  headings,  viz.:     1 — Aim 
or  aims  to  be  realized  in  the  next  recitation.     2 — 'What  must  be  known 
or   done  to   realize   these  aims.     3 — What  of  the   things   enumerated, 
under  proposition  2  the  pupil  now  knows  or  ca  ndo.     4 — What  of  the 
things  enumerated  under  proposition  2  the  pupil  still  has  to  learn  or  do. 

II.  These  lesson-plans  necessitate  the  selection  and  organization  of 
subject-matter. 

There  are  difficulties  attending  the  grouping  of  subject-matter   of 
history.     Why? 

(a)  Because  of  the  multitude  of  events  or  data. 

(b)  Because  of  the  chronological  grouping  of  data  as  presented 

in  many  text-books  rather  than  the  "institutional 
metnod"  of  grouping,  i.  e.,  the  author  groups  the  data 
presented  in  iue  order  of  time  in  which  they  occurred.  He 
follows  the  method  which  builds  up  associations  in 
"chronological  units"  while  the  "institutional  method'* 
marks  the  progress  of  any  one  idea  or  institution. 


1(30  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

In  the  first  formal  study  of  history  through  the  medium  of  the  text- 
book the  teacher  should,  with  his  class,  follow  the  text-book  arrange- 
ment of  tne  chronological  method  of  organizing  historic  data,  since 
the  organization  of  an  historical  topic  by  the  "institutional  method" 
of  grouping  implies  a  knowledge  of  later  phases  of  the  subject,  which 
phases  occur  perhaps  a  century  or  more  later  than  earlier  phases 
of  the  same  subject,  this  later  data  being  properly  understood  only 
in  connection  with  a  study  of  many  other  events  which  happened 
contemporaneously  with  them. 

The  class-plan,  then,  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions 
must  follow  the  chronological  method  of  classifying  events,  if  the 
class  is  studying  the  historical  data  for  the  first  time  through  the 
medium  of  a  text-book. 

After  this  is  done  and  the  proper  time  for  a  careful  review  arrives, 
this  review  should  be  conducted  following  the  "idea"  or  "institutional 
method"  of  grouping. 

This  would  necessitate  the  formation  of  a  second  series  of  class- 
plans  in  which  the  data  formerly  organized  by  means  of  "chronological 
units"  are  again  outlined  following  the  "institutional  or  idea  method." 
The  latter  work  is  absolutely  necessary  for  no  one  really  knows  history 
who  has  not  been  led  to  associate  historic  facts  and  reassociate  them 
until  he  sees  the  development  of  an  "institutional  unit." 

Teachers  in  history  in  Normal  schools  should  train  students  to 
organize  properly  history  topics  for  teaching  purposes.  The  students 
in  the  Professional  Review  classes  in  history,  then,  should  study  the 
adaptation  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions  to  the  teaching  of 
history,  when  historic  data  are  presented  following  the  chronological 
or  text-book  method  of  grouping,  and  again,  when  historic  data  are 
presented  following  the  "institutional  method"  of  grouping. 

The  students  in  the  Professional  Review  classes  in  our  Normal 
schools  have  studied  history  for  several  years  and  are  supposed  to 
have  gained  a  chronological  view  of  the  leading  historic  data  of  their 
nation's  nistory.  Hence  tne  teacher  of  the  Professional  Review  class 
should  organize  in  these  class-plans  (based  upon  the  four  funda- 
mental propositions)  subject-matter  which  is  so  grouped  that  it  il- 
lustrates the  "institutional  method."  Again  the  teacher  should  or- 
ganize class-plans  in  which  the  subject-matter  presented  to  be  taught 
should  illustrate  the  chronological  method  of  grouping. 

The  former  of  these  two  series  of  class-plans  is  necessary  in  the  Pro- 
fessional Review  class  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  It  serves  as  a  means  of  reviewing  "academic"  history. 

2.  It  illustrates  to  the  student  the  organization  of  data  which  go  to 
make  up  a  whole  "institution"  or  idea. 

3.  It  gives   tiie  student  a  certain  faculty  and  power — in  that  final 
•organization  of  data — at  wfcfich  the  trained  student  of  history  arrives. 

No  one  can  really  teach  history  who  cannot  make  this  final  and  best 
organization  of  historic  data,  who  cannot  trace  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect,  the  gradual  development  of  an  idea  or  institution  through 
years  of  time,  what  "has  become"  as  well  as  "what  was." 

4.  It  presents  to  the  pupil  an  illustration  of  the  adaptation  of  the 
four  fundamental  propositions  to  the  outlining  of  subject-matter  of  in- 
struction, which  subject-matter  is  presented  through  a  series  of  class- 
plans,  each  plan  outlining  an  onward  step  or  steps  in  the  development 

'Of  an  "institution."     The  other  or  latter  of  these  series  of  class-plans 


USE  OF  PROPOSITIONS   IN  TEACHING  HISTORY. 

is  necessary  as  the  future  teacher  should  follow  the  arrangement  of 
data  as  presented  in  the  text-book  and  should  present  historic  events 
grouped  in  chronological  units.  As  the  former  of  these  series  is  the 
more  difficult,  the  teacher  in  the  Professional  Review  class  in  history 
should  illustrate  this  the  more  frequently.  The  following  is  a  skeleton 
oultine  of  important  historical  data  grouped  according  to  the  "institu- 
tional method."  This  outline  embraces  the  subject-matter  presented 
in  Channing's  Students'  History  of  the  United  States  from  about  the 
year  1790  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 

A.  Struggle  between   Nationality   and  Democracy — Doctrine   of   Na- 
tional Sovereignty  vs.  State  Sovereignty. 

I.  Over  Domestic  Questions,     a.  Assumption   Bill.     b.  Funding  Bill, 
c.  Excise  Tax  on  Whiskey,     d.  United  States  Bank. 

II.  Over  Foreign  Questions  or  Relations. 

1.  With  France,     a.  Question  of  Aiding  France,     b.  Citizen  Genet,     c. 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.     d.     Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 

2.  With     England,     a.  Impressment     of     Our     Seamen,     b.  British 
Orders  in  Council,     c.  Our  Embargo  Act.     d.  Our  Non-Intercourse  Act. 
e.  Opposition  to  Declaration  of  War  with  England,     f.  Hartford  Con- 
vention. 

B.  Approach  of  Nationality  and  Democracy. 

1.  Louisiana  Purchase.  2.  What  Political  Parties  Seemed  for  the 
Time  to  Advocate  Each  Other's  Views  as  Sectional  Interests  Seemed 
to  be  Threatened.  3.  Era  of  Good  Feeling.  4.  Desire  for  National  Ex- 
pansion, i.  e.,  Opening  of  the  West,  Internal  Improvements.  5.  Pride  in 
National  Life  Between  1835-1840. 

D.  Nationality  and  Tariff. 

1.  How  Free  and  Slave  Labor  Made  Industries  Sectional  in  Character 
and  Extent.  2.  Forces  Which  Developed  Manufactures  in  Free  States. 
3.  Opposition  of  Slavery  Section  to  Protection  of  These  Industries.  4. 
Nullification  of  South  Carolina.  5.  Compromise  Upon  the  Issue. 

C.  Nationality  and  Slavery. 

1.  Slavery  Conflict  in  1820.  a.  Origin  of  the  Conflict,  b.  The  Mis- 
•souri  Struggle  and  Compromise  of  1820.  c.  Threats  of  Secession. 

E.  Growth  of  Sectionalization,  or  of  Sectional  Interests,  Feeling  and 
Legislation  with  Respect  to  Extension  of  Slavery. 

1.  Movement  for  Texas  by  Southerners.  2.  Real  Motive  of  Mexican 
War.  3.  Acquisition  of  Mexican  Cession.  4.  Gold  in  California.  5. 
How  3  and  4  aided  in  Sectionalization.  6.  Compromise  of  1850  as  a 
Result  of  3  and  4.  7.  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  and  Civil  War  in  Kansas. 

F.  Continued  Growth  of  Sectionalization  with  Respect  to  the  Slavery 
Issue. 

1.  Abolition  Movement.  2.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  3.  Dred  Scott  De- 
cision. 4.  Lincoln-Douglas  Debates.  5.  Charleston  Convention.  6.  Se- 
cession. 7.  The  Slave  Holding  Section's  Appeal  to  Arms.  8.  Feeling  of 
Nationality  in  the  North.  9.  Beginning  of  the  Civil  War.  10.  Contrast 
of  North  and  South  in  1860  with  Respect  to  Differences  in  Their  Social 
and  Industrial  Life. 

III.  Illustration  of  a  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental 
propositions.     This  lesson-plan  develops  the  unit  marked  above  as  c, 
or  "Nationality  and  Slavery." 

1.  Aims. 

11 


102  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

(a)  To  lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  the  question  of  slavery  is  a  sec- 
tional question  and  is  a  question  or  problem  which  arises  again  and 
again. 

(c)  How  the  Missouri  struggle  affected  sectional  ill-feeling  and  re- 
newed the  question  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  central  government. 

2.  What  must  be  known  or  done  in  order  to  realize  these  aims. 

a.  The  student  must  review  the  history  of  former  disputed  questions 
which  arose  concerning  slavery,  from  the  time  of  framing  the  Con- 
stitution unil  1820. 

(b)  Tne   student  must  group   and   state   former   illustrations   rela- 
tive to  questioning  the  constitutionality  of  acts  of  central  government. 

(c)  The  student  must  know  the  relative  number  of  free  and  slave 
states  just  previous  to  1820,  and  be  able  to  color  the  slave  and  free 
area  upon  an  outline  map. 

(d)  The  student  must  know  why  each  section,  slave  or  free,  was 
anxious  to  retain  an  equal  or  greater  balance  of  power  through  the  num- 
ber of  their  representatives  and  senators. 

(e)  The  student  must  know  of  Missouri's  desire  to  be  admitted  to 
the  union,  and  of  the  various  bills  and  resolutions  proposed  relative 
to  her  admission  and  to  the  question  of  slavery  within  her  boundaries 
and  within  the  Louisiana  Purchase  from  which  Missouri   is  carved. 

(f)  The  student  must  know  that  the  question  arose  of  Congress'  con- 
stitutional ritght  to  forbid  slavery  in  territories. 

(g)  The  student  must  know  of  the  attempt  to  admit  Maine  and  of 
the  relation  of  its  admission  to  that  of  Missouri. 

(h)  The  student  must  know  the  final  provisions  embodied  in  the 
Missouri  Compromise. 

(i)  The  student  must  know  the  terms  of  the  "obnoxious  clause" 
in  Missouri's  constitution,  of  the  dispute  concerning  this  clause  arid 
how  the  dispute  was  settled. 

(j)  The  student  must  know  the  effect  of  above  bill  and  its  dis- 
cussion upon  sectional  ill-feeling  and  how  it  illustrated  sectional  feeling 
and  interests. 

(k)  The  student  must  study  his  text-book,  and  if  possible,  do 
collateral  reading. 

(1)  The  student  must  give  a  summary  of  each  of  the  above  topics 
a,  b,  c,  etc. 

(m)  The  student  must  be  able  to  give  a  brief,  clean-cut  summary 
of  the  whole  unit. 

3.  What  is  known. 

(a)   Perhaps  something  of  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j. 

All  under  2  not  found  to  be  known  under  3,  i.  e.,  probably  c,  d,  e, 
f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m. 

Note — The  extent  of  what  is  known  is  determined  by  what  the 
teacher  has  already  taught  a  and  b  were  taught  under  preceding 
lesson-plans  before  the  Missouri  Compromise  is  reached.  The  extent 
of  what  is  known  is  also  determined  by  questions  asked  by  the 
teacher  upon  the  topics  c,  d,  e,  etc.  The  amount  of  this  knowledge 
already  known  depends  upon  former  experiences  of  individual  pupils, 
the  reading  they  have  done,  work  in  history  in  other  grades,  conver- 
sations heard  in  the  home,  etc. 

IV.  This  preceding  lesson-plan  is  a  small  unit  in  the  series  indicated 
under  topic  "Struggle  Between  Nationality  and  Democracy,"  "The  Doc- 
trine of  National  Sovereignty  vs.  State  Sovereignty."  It  is  small 


USE  OF  PROPOSITIONS   IN  TEACHING  HISTORY. 

since  it  indicates  but  one  onward  step  in  the  struggle  concerning  the 
powers  of  the  central  government  and  in  the  strife  between  sectional 
interests.  Other  historical  units  are  so  large  and  represent  so  many 
steps  in  the  development  of  an  institution  or  idea  that  the  teacher 
must  use  judgment  with  respect  to  the  subdivision  of  this  larger  unit 
into  a  series  of  smaller  ones  to  be  presented  in  logical  order  corre- 
sponding to  a  series  of  lesson-plans,  for  example,  a  series  of  lesson- 
plans,  and  not  one  lesson-plan  should  be  made,  if  the  unit  "Nationality 
and  Tariff  be  presented  to  a  class.  These  lesson-plans  should  realize 
one  or  more,  at  a  time,  of  the  series  of  aims  stated  below. 

Aim  (1)  To  lead  the  class  to  contrast  the  slave  and  free  sections 
with  respect  to  their  industries  in  about  the  year  1790. 

Aim  (2)   To  lead  the  class  to  review  and  summarize  the  forces  which 
made  the  industries  of  the  slave  and  free  sections  sectional  in  character. 
Aim   (3)   To  teach  the  influence  of  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  up- 
on cotton  growing  in  the  South  and  upon  the  rise  of  cotton  manu- 
factories in  the  North. 

Aim  (4)  To  teach  the  influence  upon  our  commerce  of  attacks  on 
our  neutral  trade  by  Prance  and  England. 

Aim  (5)  To  teach  the  influence  of  our  retaliatory  measures  (our 
Embargo  and  Non-intercoursce  Acts)  upon  the  rise  of  manufactures 
in  New  England,  upon  our  ship-owning  and  commercial  interests. 

Aim  (6)  To  teach  the  further  influence  of  the  war  of  1812  upon  our 
industrial  interests. 

Aim  (7)  To  trace  the  growing  desire  to  protect  our  new  manu- 
facturing interests. 

Aim  (8)  To  trace  the  growth  of  sectional  feeling  for  and  against  a 
protective  tariff  due  to  the  preceding  development  of  sectional  in- 
dustries. 

Aim  (10)  To  teach  and  compare  the  views  and  debates  of  Hayne, 
Webster  and  Calhoun  concerning  national  sovereignty  and  state  sov- 
ereignty, these  debates  being  precipitated  by  the  Foote  Resolution  and 
the  tariff  issue* 

Aim  (11)  To  teach  the  nullification  of  the  tariff  act  of  1832  by  South 
Carolina,  coercion  of  South  Carolina  by  President  Jackson. 

Aim  (12)  To  teach  how  the  tariff  issue  was  compromised  and  settled 
for  the  time  being, 

Aim  (13)  To  review  and  summarize  all  relative  to  the  unit  "Nation- 
ality and  Tariff." 

Aim  (14)  To  review  and  summarize  preceding  compromises  made 
between  opposing  parties  and  sections  upon  vital  issues. 

Aim  (15)  To  review  and  summarize  all  preceding  attempts  to  ques- 
tion and  criticise  acts  of  the  central  government. 

This  paper  is  so  long  that  the  writer  will  not  attempt  to  give  illus- 
trations of  class-plans  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  in 
which  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught  is  grouped  following  the  chrono- 
logical order  or  the  arrangement  of  matter  as  presented  by  the  text- 
book, but  will  refer  teachers  for  fine  illustrations  of  lesson-plans  so 
organized  to  the  suggestive  lesson-plans  in  history  outlined  by  C.  E. 
Patzer  for  use  in  the  Teachers'  Institutes  in  Wisconsin  in  1899. 

V.  Above  selection  and  grouping  of  material  and  organization  of  the 
same  in  lesson-plans  involves  what  phases  or  lines  of  work  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher? 

1.  The  teacher  must  know  the   subject  of  American  history  as  a 


1Q4:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

whole  and  see  the  natural  and  logical  division  into  eras  or  epochs. 

2.  The  teacher  must  see  the  relation  between  these  epochs  in  order 
that  the  student  may  not  gain  the  impression  that  the  history  of  any 
country  develops  "in  sections." 

3.  The  teacher  must  determine  the  natural  units  of  each  epoch. 

4.  The  teacher  must  see  the   relation  between  these  units   if  any 
exists. 

5.  The  teacher  must  then  determine  the  naming  of  the  "unit-heads." 

6.  The  teacher  must  determine  their  relative  importance. 

7.  The  teacher  must  determine  their  order. 

8.  The  teacher  must  organize  the  lesson-plans  corresponding  to  a  unit 
or  a  division  of  a  unit,  if  the  unit  is  so  large  as  to  require  a  series 
of  lesson-plans  showing  progressive  steps  in  the  development  of  an  in- 
stitution. 

9.  The  teacher  must  refer  the  student  to  the  paragraphs  in  the  text- 
book referring  to  the  different  topics  under  proposition  4  of  the  lesson- 
plan. 

10.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  topics  under  4  of  the  lesson- 
plan  need  further  elucidation  than  that  afforded  by  the  text  and  must 
prepare  are  the  notes  and  questions  and  select  historical  and  illustrative 
reading  for  the  pupil. 

11.  The   teacher  must  arrange   these   "questions   for   thought"   and 
reference  readings  in  an  order  corresponding  to  sub-topics  under  pro- 
position 4  of  the  lesson-plan. 

12.  The  teacher  must  be  ready  to  assign  to  individual  pupils  refer- 
ences to   read,  indicate   the   purpose  of   each   reference,  and   to   what 
in  the  reference  the  student  should  pay  attention. 

13.  The  teacher  must  determine  what  of   the   sub-topics   indicated 
under  proposition  2  of  the  lesson-plan  the  pupil  now  knows  or  can  do. 

14.  The  teacher  must  think  out  how  he  may  rapidly  and  effectively 
bring  to  the  consciousness  of  the  pupil  the  known  data  already  possessed 
by  the  student,  which  may  be  brought  into  such  living  and  vital  relation 
with  the  new  as  to  aid  the  pupil  to  comprehend  the  new  or  unknown. 

15.  The  teacher  must  think  out  a  clean-cut  summary  of  each  sub- 
topic  under  proposition  4,  and  also  a  clean-cut  summary  of  4  as  a  whole 
unit. 

VI.  The  handling  of  the  class-plan  (based  upon  the  four  fundamental 
propositions  in  the  class-room). 

1.  The  teacher's  preparation  of  her  class  for  the  next  day's  work. 

(a)  Announcement  of  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  next  day's  lesson. 

(b)  Presentation  to  the  class  of  that  part  of  the  plan  corresponding 
to  proposition  4. 

(c)  Questions  by  the  teacher  which  reach  back  and  gather  up  the 
data  presented  in  former  lessons  which  will  serve  as  a  transition  to 
and  preparation  for  the  new  lesson. 

(d)  Further  questioning  determining  what  is  known  by  the  pupil 
under  2. 

(e)  Remarks  and  notes  by  the  teacher  explanatory  of  topics  indicated 
under  4  if  such  need  explanation. 

(f)  The  teacher  indicates  the  exact  paragraph  in  the  textbook,  pre- 
sents  a   series   of   questions   for    critical   thought,    assigns   reference 
reading,  indicates  the  purpose  of  this  reading  and  what  to  look  for  in 
these  references,  all  of  this  designed  for  the  purpose  of  further  eluci- 


,USE  OF  PROPOSITIONS   IN  TEACHING  HISTORY. 

dation  of  the  subject  than  that  given  by  the  text,  if  further  data  is 
needed. 

(2)  The  next  day's  recitation  conducted  with  the  purpose  of  the 
pupil's  gaining  a  truer  view  and  a  deeper  insight. 

(a)  Placing  together  before  the  eyes  of  the  class  the  teacher's  written 
headings  under  4  -as  a  guide  to  the  impression  upon  the  mind  of  all 
that  is  to  be  held. 

(b)  Recitation  by  the  pupil  of  first  sub-topic  under  4. 

(c)  Dialogue  between  teacher  and  pupils  correcting  erroneous  state- 
ments, clearing  up  vague  ideas,  adding  data  omitted  by  pupil. 

(d)  Answering  of  critical  questions  prepared  by  teacher  or  pupils 
relating  to  hrst  sub-topic  under  4. 

(e)  Dialogue  to  group  the  various  portions  of  subject-matter  now 
belonging  to  this  in  light  of  latterfcwork. 

(f)  A  fuller  and  better  recitation  upon  this  first  sub-topic  in  light 
of  latter  work  indicated. 

(g)  Proceed  with  each  succeeding  topic  under  4  as  with  8. 

(h)  Concentration  questions  now  by  the  teacher  or  suggestion  by 
pupils  indicating  the  important  data  in  logical  order  of  4  as  a  whole. 

NOTE. — Only  so  many  sub-topics,  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  should  be  handled  each 
day  as  time  allotted  to  class  recitation  will  allow. 

3.  Practice,  Drill  and  Application. 

Connected  recitation  of  all  the  individual  topics  under  4.  Repetition 
of  condensed  headings  in  connection.  "Recitations  of  smaller  sections 
in  full  and  connected  form  again,  if  this  seems  necessary,  all  this 
to  show  an  understanding  of  the  whole.  Application  of,  and  com- 
parison, if  possiole,  of  principle  of  conduct,  of  motives,  of  traits  oT 
character,  of  the  question  of  political  problem  involved,  etc.*,  to  similar 
affairs  of  local  and  national  life  today.  Illustration  of  this  last. 

VII.  Class  work  based  on  the  "four  fundamental  propositions"  is 
truly  pedagogical. 

(1)  The   first   important   function   and   duty   of   the   teacher   is  to 
prepare  the   student's  mind   for  the   assimilation   of  new  knowledge 
and   to   present  the   subject-matter   of   instruction   in   the   order   and 
manner  which  best  conduces  to  this  assimilation.     The  class-plan  based 
upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  does  this.     Why? 

(a)  It  presents  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  in  logical  order, 

(b)  Points  out  definitely  what  is  to  be  done. 

(c)  Indicates  the  order  in  which  this  is  to  be  done. 

(d)  Brings  to  the  consciousness  of  the  pupil  preceding  known  data 
and   experiences   similar   to   or   relating  to   today's   subject-matter   of 
instruction. 

(e)  These  known  data  reach  out  and  bring  into  vital  relation  with 
themselves  the  new  elements  of  knowledge  to  be  learned. 

(f)  The  statement  of  the  aim  puts  the  pupil  into  the  proper  frame 
of  mind  for  work  in  so  far  as  it  may  excite  expectation,  stimulates 
interest  and  inquiry,  arouses  self-activity  in  working  at  a  task.     The 
analysis  of  known  data  should  be  developed  in  the  same  order  as  pre- 
sented in  preceding  lessons,  then  the  mind  is  in  the  condition  in  which 
it  has  reached  its  greatest  capacity  of  taking  on  new  knowledge;  i.  e., 
avoid  mixing  up  this  preliminary  recalling  of  former  data  with  new 
data  for  assimilation. 

(2)  Class-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions  makes 
the  subject-matter  of  instruction  clear. 


166  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

(a)  It  presents  matter  not  in  the  mass,  but  in  small  logically  con- 
nected sections,  to  each  of  which,  in  succession,  the  pupil  gives  his 
undivided  attention,  thus  ensuring  clearness  of  each  step. 

(b)  Then  after  attention   has   been  given  to  each   successive   step 
of  the  lesson-whole,  these  steps  or  units  are  brought  into  close  relation 
with   each   other.     The   student   thus   gains   clear   individual   notions 
and  avoids  the  apprehension  of  a  confused  mass  of  disconnected  details. 
This  close  connection  of  individual  steps  of  the  lesson-plan  is  brought 
about  by  means  of  requiring  the  student  to  make  a  clear,  well-cut  sum- 
mary of  the  whole.     The  number  of  the  individual  units  or  steps  of 
the  whole  lesson-plan  must  be  determined,  of  course,  by  the  age  and 
mental  strength  of  the  pupil. 

(3)  The   class-plan  based   upon  the  four  fundamental   propositions 
is  capable  of  presenting  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  in  a  connected 
series. 

(a)  The  average  text-book  of  history  presents  a  mass  of  unrelated 
data.     The  class-plan,  rightly  organized,  presents  finally  as  a  means  of 
review  a  related  series  as   has    been    indicated.     A   naturally    related 
series  helps  form  intimate  and  lasting  associations.     Each  lesson-plan 
of  a  related  series  corresponds  to  an  onward  step,  to  an  extension  of 
the  subject-matter.     The  class-plan  does  not  preclude  devices  to  fix  the 
series  in  mind. 

(b)  The  class-plan  breaks  up  the  accidental  historical  associations 
based  upon  the  time  or  space  relation,  which  relation  prevents  thought 
and  true  insight.     There  is  need  of  a  wide  and  persistent  application 
of  general  truths.     If  knowledge  is  to  have  a  rich  content,  the  general 
truth  must  be  again  and  again  reinforced  by  application  to  new  par- 
ticulars.    Trtie  application  of  a  general  truth  to  particulars  co-ordinates, 
groups  knowledge.     The  lesson-plan  in  history  permits  of  so  grouping 
that  the  lessons  they  teach  appear  in  the  consciousness  of  the  learner. 

(4)  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions 
requires  the  taking  of  thought  about  the  best  subdivision  of  the  matter 
to  be  taught.     The  pupil  in  time  sees  the  "method-whole"  an  order  in 
grouping,  an  evolution  of  an  institution;  what  "has  become"  as  well 
as  what  happened. 

(5)  The  lesson-plan  based  upon  the  four  fundamental  propositions 
admits   of  the  use  of  the  dialogue,  the  monologue   in   the   class,   of 
analysis  or  of  synthesis  with  regard  to  the  subject-matter  learned. 

(6)  The  lesson-plan  requires  the  teacher  to  see  that  what  knowledge 
the  child  has  on  hand  is  put  to  use. 

VIII.  The  writer  asked  students  of  a  certain  Professional  Review 
Class  in  history  to  formulate  and  state  the  results  as  they  had  con- 
ceived them,  of  the  adaptation  of  the  four  fundamental  propositions 
to  the  teaching  of  history.  The  class  had  studied  a  series  of  class- 
plans  developing  an  "institutional  unit"  presented  by  the  teacher, 
had  formulated  for  class  revision  and  criticism  a  series  of  class-plans 
developing  a  "chronological  unit"  of  history,  had  discussed  the  class- 
plan  under  the  following  heads:  (a)  Preparation,  (b)  presentation, 
(c)  drill  and  application. 

The  results  they  formulated  are  the  following: 

1.  The  class-plan  is  a  basis  for  real  topical  work. 

2.  The  class-plan  prevents  the  pupil's  memorizing  of  facts  "by  page. 
3    The  student  must  select  the  central,  essential  points  of  each  lesson. 
5'  Sudents  learn  to  separate  the  essential  data  from  the  non-essential. 


DISCUSSION. 


167 


4.  The  summaries  made  by  the  students  admit  of  excellent  training 
in  language  power. 

6.  Students  learn  the  relations  existing  between  the  parts  of  a  "whole" 
learn  wholes  in  a  series,  thus  acquiring  an  historic  vista  and  breadth  of 
view. 

7.  The  teacher  consciously  selects  the  known  as  a  basis  to  which 
to  relate  the  unknown,  if  the  known  exists. 

8.  The  student's  time  is  saved.     Why?     He  knows  what  to  do,  the 
order  in  which  to  do  it. 

(a)  Result  8  is  true  again,  since  the  student's  mind  is  aided  for 
the  rapid  and  effective  assimilation  of  new  data.  The  teacher  con- 
sciously brings  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil  preceding  known  data  and 
experiences  similar  to  or  relating  to  today's  subject-matter  of  in- 
struction. 

9.  The  text-book  is  not  neglected,  but  its  proper  and  thorough  use  is 
indicated,  i.  e.,  the  chronological  order  of  the  text-book  is  followed 
and  yet  there  is  also  a  constant  attempt  to  group  and  co-ordinate  re- 
lated events,  not  only  in  lesson-plans  which  group  related  data  of  an 
"institution,"  but  also  with  each  day's  advance  lesson  the  teacher  looks 
back,  gathers   up   and   requires  the   student  to   review  other   similar 
data:    (See  a  and  b,  under  proposition  2  of  class-plan  on  Missouri  Com- 
promise and  see  aims  1,  13,  14,  15,  in  the  series  of  aims  relating  to 
unit  "Nationality  and  Tariff.") 

10.  The  student  is  led  to  make  summaries  of  several  days'  or  weeks' 
work. 

11.  The  student  carries  away  essentials  in  definite  form. 

12.  The   class-plan  necessitates   the  accomplishment,   each   day,   of 
something  definite,  a  step  in  advance. 

13.  The  class-plan  compels  close  attention  to  the  aims  or  purpose.3 
and  the  determination  of  what  to  do  to  realize  these  aims. 

14.  That  part  of  the  class-plan  corresponding  to  proposition  2  dis- 
closes  to   teacher  the   possible   short-comings   of  the  text-book   in   re- 
gard to  the  subject-matter:  for  example,  the  text-book,  at  times,  does 
not  present  a  sufficient  number  of  details  for  the  child  to  picture  the 
historic  scene  or  event;    for  instance,  the  first  home  and  first  clear- 
ings of  land  in  the  new  west.     Again  the  text-book  does  not  present  a 
sufficient  number  of  details  for  the  average  child  to  understand  the 
purpose  and  organization  of  some  institution;  for  instance,  the  United 
States  bank. 

15.  The  class-plan  necessitates  the  organization  of  subject-matter. 

16.  The   class-plan   calls  for  such  careful  preparation  on  the   part 
of  the  teacher  that  he  is  made  free,  i.  e.,  ready  to  meet  such  emergencies 
as  arise. 

17.  The  class  plan  has  an  ethical  value  in  so  far  as  the  child  can- 
not plead  that  he  did  not  understand  the  assignment  of  the  next  day's 
lesson.    He  is  required  to  perform  a  definite  duty  in  a  definite  manner. 


DISCUSSION. 
G.  C.  SHUTTS,  Whitewater. 

Mrs.  Madden  in  her  paper  advocated  the  organizing  of  the  subject- 
matter  under  special  topics,  as  opposed  to  the  chronological  plan. 
By  questioning  she  admitted  that  for  grade  work  and  for  a  Normal 


168  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

or  high  school  class  taking  the  subject  for  the  first  time,  that  to  follow 
a  text,  relating  the  events  to  a  central  theme  is  advisable.  These  events 
cotemporary  in  time  are  all  more  or  less  causes  or  effects  in  institutional 
growth;  and  this  should  be  made  apparent  to  the  pupil. 

The  great  cause  of  shortcomings  in  the  teaching  of  history  is  lack 
of  appreciation  of  its  meaning.  Lacking  here,  it  is  impossible  to  select 
and  organize  the  material  for  study.  Too  many  times  the  assignment 
consists  in  calling  for  so  many  pages  of  the  text.  The  pupil  here,  ig- 
norant of  the  central  thought  that  should  guide  him  in  relating  the 
material  he  is  studying,  does  the  best  he  can  and  commits  to  memory 
the  statements  of  events  found  in  the  text.  The  recitation  puts  a  pre- 
mium on  that  kind  of  study  by  simply  calling  for  a  rehearsal  of  what 
was  learned,  neither  relating  nor  making  use  of  what  was  presented 
by  the  pupil.  Events,  simply,  are  magnified, — treated  as  if  they  were 
the  real  content  of  history.  No  relations  are  established  and  their 
meaning  is  not  considered. 

Now,  unless  we  have  attained  to  the  thought  that  history  is  the  story 
of  the  growth  of  an  institution,  an  evolution,  and  in  studying  history 
we  are  trying  to  find  out  how,  what  now  is,  or  was  at  any  given  stage, 
grew,  and  what  were  the  steps  in  Us  growth,  and  how  they  are  related 
to  the  present  product;  how  certain  steps  were  produced  by  preceding 
ones,  and  how  these  combined  with  new  conditions  modified  succeed- 
ing ones,  we  cannot  put  the  real  aim  before  the  pupils. 

To  teach  history  successfully,  then,  back  of  the  lesson-plan  must 
exist  a  true  conception  of  the  meaning  of  history.  But  the  nature  of 
the  plan  is  such  that  it  necessitates  inquiry  along  the  essential  lines; 
and  will  help  any  teacher  to  do  his  work  more  perfectly.  The  mere 
fact  of  seeking  for  an  aim,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  because  the 
lesson-plan  calls  for  it,  if  faithfully  pursued,  will  put  one  along  the 
right  path  of  inquiry,  and  may  lead  one  out  into  the  true  field  of  his- 
tory. The  search  for  that  which  must  be  known  or  done  to  accomplish 
the  aim  is  more  than  likely  to  cause  an  earnest  teacher  who  really  de- 
sires to  know  the  truth,  to  discover  an  organizing  principle,  and  a 
logical  arrangement  of  the  material  to  support  that  principle.  In 
short,  the  lesson-plan  is  a  valuable  instrument  to  put  the  teacher  in 
touch  with  his  subject.  It  will  not  teach  him  history  but  it  will  open 
the  door  for  him  and  if  he  has  the  spirit  and  energy  to  enter,  it  may 
lead  him  into  a  large  place  in  history  thought. 

On  the  other  hand  it  puts  the  teacher  in  the  right  attitude  toward 
his  class.  Too  much  work  is  prepared  purely  from  the  basis  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter. One  with  a  cyclopedic  knowledge  of  hist9ry  may,  in  his 
preparation  for  his  class,  so  far  ignore  his  pupils  that  the  result  will 
be  a  failure/  The  lesson-plan  brings  one  to  a  consideration  of  his  pupils. 
It  is  not  history  that  the  teacher  should  study  wholly,  but  history  in 
relation  and  adaptation  to  the  class.  What  must  the  pupil  know? 
That  depends  on  what  he  can  learn.  This  brings  one  to  the  study  of 
the  pupil,  an  important  consideration.  What  of  that  which  he  should 
know,  does  he  now  know  or  has  he  learned?  This  leads  one  again  to 
a  comparison  of  his  subject-matter  in  relation  to  the  pupil. 

In  short,  the  fundamental  propositions  are  pedagogical  when  looked 
at  from  the  history  side,  the  pupil  side,  or  the  teacher  side.  This 
trinity,  the  teacher,  the  pupil,  the  subject-matter,  must  be  kept  in 
equilibrium.  To  adapt,  for  illustration,  Dr.  McGregor's  triangle:  it 
any  one  of  the  three  elements  be  smaller  than  the  true  relation  de- 


PURPOSES  AND  SCOPE  OF  WORK  IN  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 

mands,  the  area  of  the  trinagle,  i.  e.,  the  pedagogical  product,  is  less- 
ened. 

The  study  of  the  four  propositions  in  preparing  worK  in  history  for 
a  class,  tends  to  keep  these  three  elements  in  equilibrium.  The  propo- 
sitions cannot  work  miracles  but  they  put  teacher  and  pupils  at  the  best- 
point  of  vantage  possible. 


PURPOSES  AND  SCOPE  OP  WORK  IN  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  IN 
THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

ALBERT  H.  SANFOBQ*  Stevens  Point. 
I.  Purposes. 

1.  To  help  Normal  students  toward  good  citizenship  by: 

a.  Giving  information.     This  information   should  not  be  restricted; 
to  the  Constitution  of  U.  S.  and  to  the  Constitution  of  Wisconsin,  and 
should    not   necessarily    include    everything    in    those    documents;    it. 
should  rather  aim  to  cover  the  field  of  government  as  it  is  actually 
carried  on  today.     There  should  be  only  so  much  history  of  government 
as  is  necessary  to  understand  this. 

b.  Cultivating  judicial-mindedness. 

c.  Teaching  right  principles  and  high  ideals  of  government. 

d.  Awakening  an  interest  in  public  affairs  that  should  look  forward 
to  future  participation  in  them. 

2.  To  encourage  the  good  teaching  of  civil  government  by  Normal  stu- 
dents, through  the  transmission  of  a,  b,  c  and  d   (.above)  to  their  pu- 
pils and  by  directing  attention  to  methods  and  materials. 

II.  Scope.  The  field  of  actual  government,  local,  state  and  national. 
If  time  does  not  allow  covering  the  entire  field,  it  is  better  to  work  out 
thoroughly  some  topics  and  completely  ignore  others,  than  to  treat 
superficially  all  the  topics  included  in  this  outline. 

A.  Local  government. 

1.  An  outline  of  town,  village,  city  and  county  governments,  by  the 
comparative  method.     Officers  and   their  functions    are   the   principal 
topics  here.    This  and  the  next  topic  should  be  studied  with  constant 
reference  to  the  locality. 

2.  Certain  operations    of  local    government.     The    following  topics 
should  be  illustrated  by  use  of  legal  blanks,  county  board  reports,  sam- 
ple ballots,  etc.     Attention  should  be  given  to  evils,  abuses  and  reme* 
dies  of  actual  government;  e.  g.,  undervaluation,  bribery,  machine  rule, 
etc.     Practice  in  use  of  statutes  and  session  laws  gives  valuable  train- 
ing. 

Taxation — assessment,  equalization,  apportionment,  etc. 

Elections — registration,  ballot  systems,  canvass,  suffrage,  political 
parties. 

Trials — arrest,  complaint,  subpoena,  preliminary  examination,  venire, 
juries,  writ  of  error,  etc. 

Highways  and  Bridges. 

Support  of  Poor  and  Insane. 

3.  History,    briefly,    of    local    government.     (1)   Colonial.     (2)  The 
spread  westward. 


170  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

4.  City  government  in  general.  Reading  from  references  on  fran- 
chises, reform  movements,  water  supply,  sanitation,  condition  of  the 
poor,  police  systems,  etc. 

B.  State  government — following,  in  general,  text  of  the  State  Con- 
.stitution.     Make  time  for  discussion  of  current  happenings    (term  of 

court,    meeting   of    legislature,    Congress,    etc.),  and    actual    practices 
(lobby,  pass  system,  etc.),  by  treating  slightly  or  omitting  Arts.  II.,  IX., 
.XL,  XilL,  XIV.     Also  Art.  IV,  sections  12,  13,  15,  and  Art.  V.,  Sec.  7* 

1.  Fundamental  principles  in  Bill  of  Rights. 

2.  The  Legislature  and  its  workings. 

3.  Executive. 

4.  Administrative.     Use  of   Blue   Book   and   State   Reports   to  show 
functions  of  administrative  officers,  boards  and  commissions. 

5.  Judiciary.     List  of  courts  and  organization  of  each.     Slight  atten- 
tion to  jurisdiction. 

6.  Finance.     Sources  of  state  revenues;  origin  and  use  of  funds. 

7.  Education.     Omittea  if  taught  in  School  Law  class. 

C.  National    government.      Here,    library    reading    (particularly    in 
iBryce)  upon  selected  topics.     Also  attention  to  newspapers  and  periodi- 
cals. 

1.  Formation  of  the  Union,  especially  Constitutional  Convention. 

2.  Framework  of  National  government;  Legislative,  Executive,  Judi- 
cial; following  the  text  of  the  Constitution. 

3.  Workings  of  National  government.     Topics  2,  3,  4  are  not  succes- 
sive, but  interwoven,  topics  under  3  and  4  fitting  into  proper  places  in 
the  study  of  topic  2.     Some  important  topics  are:     Procedure  in  Con- 
gress,   Committee    system,    English    Cabinet    system    in    Comparison, 
Power  of  Speaker,  Money  of  U.  S.,  Forms  of  Taxation,  Postal  system, 
Inter-state  Commerce,  Census,  Control  of  Trusts,  International  Arbitra- 
tion, Acquisition  and  Government  of  Territories,  Civil  Service  Reform. 

4.  History    of    National    government    under    the    Constitution:    the 
Amendments  in  their  historical  setting,  Controversies  over  loose  and 
strict  construction,  Tariff,  Internal  Improvements,  Nullification,  Seces- 
sion, Reconstruction. 

5.  Current  Political  Events.     Make  time  (a  few  minutes  almost  every 
day)   for  this  by  omitting  or  slighting  non-essentials,  e.  g.:   Impeach- 
ments, Privileges  and  Disabilities  of  members  of  Congress,  Details  of 
Art.  I.,  Sees.  9  and  10,  Jurisdiction  of  U.  S.  Courts  and  Treason. 


SUPPLEMENTING  PREVIOUS  PAPER. 

J.  F.  SIMS,  River  Falls. 

A.  Local  Government. 

1.  Personal  attendance  at  council  meetings,  town  and  school  meetings, 
-and  caucuses  is  required,  and  reports  upon  what  was  done  there  are 
presented  to  the  class.  Students  are  also  required  to  visit  the  place  of 
holding  elections,  court-rooms  when  court  is  in  session  and  report  ob- 
servations. 

2.  The  sources  of  authority  for  the  action  of  the  various  law-making 
organizations  such  as  Town,  School  and  Council  Meetings,  and  County 
Board  are  discussed. 

3.  In  discussing  functions  of  officials  in  local  government,  constant 


TRAINING  STUDENTS  TO  ORGANIZE  HISTORY  TOPIC.     tf± 

appeal  is  made  to  the  students  as  to  what  kind  of  a  man,  or  what  kind 
•of  men,  should  be  chosen  to  exercise  these  functions.  They  are  asked 
what  they  would  do  in  a  community  to  secure  the  election  of  the  right 
kind  of  men  to  office,  or  initiate  movements  toward  the  better  govern- 
ment of  the  community. 

B.  State  Government. 

1.  A  definite  effort  is  made  to  show  that  the  people  of  the  state 
through  the  legislature  are  the  sovereign  body,  and  that  this  legislature 
confers  authority  for  action  on  lower  organizations,  which  authority  it 
can  change  at  any  time  by  repealing  or  amending  laws  or  making  new 
ones. 

2.  Legislative  Powers  are  unlimited  save  by:  — 

(a)  Powers  granted  to  the  U.  S.  Government  in  the  U.  S.  Constitution. 

(b)  Powers  denied  to  the  States  in  the  U.  S.  Constitution. 

(c)  Powers  prohibited  to  the  State  in  the  State  Constitution. 

C.  U.  S.  Government. 

1.  Congress  can  enact  no  laws  save:  — 

(a)  That  power  for  that  action  is  granted  in  U.  S.  Constitution. 

(b)  That  power  for  that  action  is  implied  in  U.  S.  Constitution 

(c)  That  power  for  that  action  is  necessary  to  carry  into  execution 
the  powers  expressed  or  implied  in  the  U.  S.  Constitution. 

2.  These  powers  were  granted  by  the  States.     By  amending  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  U.  S.  through  the  initiative  and  final  action  of  States, 
the  States  may  still  have  a  strong  hold  in  the  control  of  the  central 
government,  though  such  power  is  exercised  under  greater  difficulty, 
necessarily,  than  the  individual  state  has  in  conferring  or  curtailing 
powers  of  home  organizations  such  as  City,  Town,  County. 

3.  Certain  sections  of  the  constitution,  state  as  well  as  national,  are 
memorized,  especially  those  dealing  with  the  powers  of  the  different 
departments  of  the  government. 

4.  More  stress  is  placed  on  the  study  of  functions  of  the  different  gov- 
ernmental organizations  than  upon  framework,  the  framework  being 
considered  incidentally. 

5.  Constant  comparisons  are  made  of  one  constitution  with  the  other, 
and  the  bearing  of  constitutional  provisions  upon  current  political  ques- 
tions, and  upon  facts  in  U.  S.  History,  is  emphasized. 

6.  The  students  are  led  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  they  live  under 
two  governments,  State  and  National,  each  having  its  own  definite 
sphere  of  action. 


SHOULD  TEACHERS  OF  HISTORY  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  TRAIN 
STUDENTS  TO  ORGANIZE  PROPERLY  A  HISTORY  TOPIC  FOR 
TEACHING  PURPOSES?  IF  SO,  HOW  MAY  IT  BEST  BE  DONE? 

E.  W.  WALKER,  West  Superior. 

To  the  first  question  there  can  be  but  one  answer.  The  very  exist- 
ence of  Normal  schools  depends  upon  their  power  to  train  students  to 
organize  for  teaching  purposes  topics  in  any  common  school  subject. 
Topics  in  history  are  not  barred  from  this  list. 

Yet  we  have  been  long  in  reaching  a  full  appreciation  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  only  .organized  knowledge  that  gives  teaching  power;  that  it  is 


172  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

only  in  organizing  the  knowledge  one  has  that  a  field  is  offered  for  in- 
creasing his  teaching  power.  Possibly  drilling  power  may  be  exercised, 
without  organization,  but  teaching  power,  never. 

The  teacher  possessing  only  a  fair  amount  of  historic  knowledge  but 
with  a  well  denned  power  of  organizing  the  knowledge  he  has,  will  do 
vastly  more  effective  history  teaching  than  one  with  great  knowledge 
but  little  power  of  organization.  Indeed,  it  is  quite  possible  for  one  to 
know  so  much  more  history  than  his  power  of  organization  enables  him* 
handle,  that  his  teaching  would  actually  be  improved  did  he  know  less. 
His  low  power  of  organization  could  then  use  the  little  knowledge  he 
has  and  make  that  little  effective.  The  artillerist  could  give  pointers 
to  the  teacher  in  this.  He  knows  that  each  gun  has  a  certain  power  to 
resist  strain  and  that  a  charge  of  ammunition  whose  explosive  force 
falls  within  that  limit  has  a  high  propulsive  power.  If  too  heavy  a 
charge  is  used,  the  penetrating  power  is  actually  less,  to  say  nothing 
of  a  tendency  to  injure  the  gun.  The  gun  has  more  ammunition  than 
it  can  organize  for  effective  use  in  one  direction. 

History  is  peculiarly  liable  to  take  on  this  condition.  Its  facts  are 
in  themselves  so  fascinating  that  the  tendency  to  glean  more  and  more 
of  them  is  strong.  This  gleaning  process  is  not  history  study.  The 
mind  must  work  over  these  interesting  facts  of  history,  associate  them, 
re-associate  them,  and  even  reject  many  before  history  study  can  be 
said  to  have  taken  place.  And  the  power  of  rejection  is  not  easily  ac- 
quired. To  know  a  great  many  interesting  facts  about  a  given  inci- 
dent or  person' and  to  refuse  to  use  them  because  they  contribute  little 
to  the  development  of  a  worthy  idea  requires  a  real  effort  of  will  that 
may  be  called  courage.  To  see  wherein  they  do  contribute  to  this  de- 
velopment requires  a  strong  historic  sense.  To  lead  others  to  see  this 
requires  skill,  power  of  organization,  and  teaching  power.  Between 
these  two  conditions  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  teacher  to  have  a  body  of 
facts  greater  than  his  power  of  organization  can  use  effectively.  In 
that  case  either  his  body  of  facts  should  be  lessened  or  his  power  of  or- 
ganization should  be  increased.  Manifestly  the  latter  alternative  is 
the  better,  and  to  this  end  should  he  be  trained  to  organize  the  knowl- 
edge he  has. 

Clearly  then  teachers  in  history  in  Normal  schools  should  train  stu- 
dents to  organize  properly  a  history  topic  for  teaching  purposes. 

How  may  it  best  be  done?  This  question  is  not  so  readily  disposed 
of.  Before  I  consider  this  let  me  express  an  opinion  as  to  when  it  can 
best  be  done.  It  should  not  be  attempted  by  the  academic  classes.  One 
cannot  organize  a  topic  nor  make  a  lesson-plan  in  a  subject  he  is  study- 
ing in  progress:  Organization  implies  a  knowledge  of  later  phases 
of  the  subject.  It  should  be  undertaken  only  with  the  professional  re- 
view classes.  We  cannot  determine  how  ^is  training  in  topic  organ- 
ization can  best  be  done  without  a  clear  comprehension  of  what  are  the 
purposes,  scope,  and  plan  of  the  history  work  in  the  grades  and  high 
schools.  Let  us  turn  briefly  to  this  problem. 

History  is  essentially  a  study  of  associations  and  comparisons.  Each 
fact  in  history  to  be  worthy  of  a  place  in  history  at  all,  must  be  in  some 
way  associated  with  other  facts  either  as  cause,  or  as  result,  or  as  co- 
temporary.  Not  until  the  teacher  recognizes  these  associations  and 
uses  them  in  planning  his  work  can  he  be  said  to  have  a  method  in  his 
history  teaching.  "How  came  this  to  be?"  "What  came  of  it?"  "What- 
more  occurred  at  this  time?"  are  pertinent  questions  respecting  every 


TRAINING  STUDENTS   TO   ORGANIZE  HISTORY  TOPIC.     ^73 

historic  fact.  When  the  teacher  finds  himself  asking  himself  and  his 
class  these  questions,  he  has  a  method  in  his  work  though  he  know  it 
.not. 

Which  of  the  two  methods  now  in  common  use  he  has  depends  on 
which  particular  questions  he  asks  most  often.  If  his  question  is  "What 
<other  things  occurred  at  this  time?"  he  follows  the  method  which  builds 
up  associations  by  chronological  units,  i.  e.,  which  marks  off  the  history 
of  the  United  States  into  periods  by  dates  and  seeks  to  associate  closely 
the  events  of  any  one  period  arid  to  lodge  them  safely  and  permanently 
in  the  memory  of  the  child.  This  method  says  the  time  from  1765  to 
1783  is  the  period  of  revolution  and  associates  indiscriminately  the 
Stamp  Act,  the  First  Colonial  Congress,  the  Importation  Act,  the  Bos- 
ton Massacre,  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  the  Continental  Congress,  the  mili- 
tary operations,  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  the  French  Treaty 
of  Alliance,  because  they  occur  in  this  period  of  time.  We  may  call 
this  the  chronological  method. 

If  the  teacher  habitually  asks  himself  or  his  class,  "How  came  this 
•to  be?"  and  "What  came  of  it?"  he  follows  the  method  which  builds  up 
associations  by  institutional  units,  i.  e.,  which  recognizes  in  the  history 
of  the  United  States  the  growth  of  different  ideas  and  seeks  to  associate 
closely  the  events  wnich  mark  the  progress  of  any  one  idea,  and  to  thus 
suggest  to  the  pupil's  mind  in  addition  to  his  knowledge  of  facts,  the 
notion  that  ideas  grow.  This  method  says  the  growth  of  the  idea  of 
union  among  the  English  colonies  stands  as  a  worthy  idea  unit  and  as- 
sociates the  New  England  Federation  of  1643,  Franklin's  Albany  Plan, 
the  First  Colonial  Congress,  the  Continental  Congress,  the  Articles  of 
Confederation,  -the  Annapolis  Convention,  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion, secession  and  reconstruction  as  events  which  mark  the  progress  of 
this  idea  though  they  are  widely  separated  in  time.  We  may  call  this 
the  idea  or  institutional  method. 

These  two  methods  wholly  different  in  purpose  and  plan  of  attack 
are  both  sound.  Each  has  its  place. 

The  idea  method  of  presentation  is  more  inspiring  because  subtly 
and  surely  it  will  dawn  upon  the  class  that  ideas  grow,  that  the  world 
moves.  It  makes  them  optimistic. 

I  do  not  believe  an  intensive  study  of  any  one  period,  with  a  view  to 
seeing  the  characteristic  life  and  civilization  of  that  time,  to  be  so 
profitable  as  we  seem  to  think.  It  some  way  suggests  condition,  not 
action;  it  makes  statics  not  dynamics  the  important  thought.  In  a 
progressive  state  this  is  a  contradiction.  History  is  not  a  statement 
•of  dead  events;  it  is  ever  a  record  of  movement;  it  is  always  forceful, 
dynamical.  There  is  no  point  in  knowing  of  the  condition  of  life  in 
the  early  days  of  Virginia,  tne  hardships,  the  .privation,  the  threat  from 
famine  and  from  savages,  except  to  know  that  one  man,  John  Smith, 
moved  through  these  conditions  shrewdly,  tactfully,  and  forcefully  and 
mastered  them.  I  do  not  care  so  much  to  have  my  child  know  the  con- 
dition of  Lincoln's  early  life  as  to  know  what  he  did  in  that  condition. 
That  is  the  great  thing.  We  are  prone  to  point  the  child  to  these  hard 
conditions  from  which  greatness  has  sprung,  either  in  national  or  in 
individual  life  as  though  the  greatness  came  because  of  these  condi- 
tions instead  of  in  spite  of  them.  Lincoln  would  have  used  other  con- 
ditions just  as  he  did  those  of  his  boyhood.  Otherwise  he  would  not 
be  Lincoln.  What  the  child  should  see  is  that  Lincoln  did  certain 
-things.  No  matter  what  the  condition  under  which  he  did  them!  Am- 


174  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

bition,  action,  movement — these  are  the  key  ideas  for  the  child  to  get 
whether  it  be  the  movement  of  an  idea,  an  individual,  or  of  a  nation. 
So  I  see  in  the  idea  method  of  history  teaching  much  more  of  value- 
than  I  do  in  the  time  method. 

In  most  courses  of  study  one  year  is  given  to  a  formal  study  of  United: 
States  history,  usually  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade.  This  is  ordi- 
narily prefaced  by  a  somewhat  haphazard  reading  of  biography  begin- 
ning as  low  as  the  third  grade. 

This  biography  work  should  be  arranged  with  reference  to  the  insti- 
tutional method.  Men  standing  for  the  same  idea,  though  not  con- 
temporaries, should  be  studied  consecutively.  This  will  give  occasion: 
for  the  formation  of  groups,  thus:  — 

1.  Columbus,  Miles  Standi§h,  John  Smith,  La  Salle,  De   Soto,  Wm. 
Penn,  Daniel  Boone,  Fremont.     This  is  the  poineer  group.     Shrewdness, 
tact,  and  daring  are  the  attributes  of  each.     Each  met  new  and  unusual 
conditions  with  a  strong  power  of  the  initiative,  the  wit  to  do  what  he* 
had  never  done  before  nor  heard  of  others  doing.     This  gives  a  virility 
to  this  group  quite  remarkable. 

2.  Paul  Jones,  Oliver  Perry,  David  Farragut,  George  Dewey.     A  study 
of  these  tour  men  will  necessarily  give  the  pupil  a  view  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States  Navy.     Nothing  could  do  it  better.     What  a, 
tale  of  progress  is  wrapped  up  in  this  succession  of  pictures — Flambor- 
ough  Head,  Put-in-Bay  on  Lake  Erie,  Mobile,  Manila! 

3.  Eli  Whitney,   Robert  Fulton,   Elias   Howe,   Samuel   Morse,   John- 
Ericson,  Cyrus  Field,  Thomas  Edison.     Power  of  initiative  again.    Pio- 
neers again,  but  in  another  field. 

Many  groups  can  be  formed.  Washington,  Grant,  Lee,  Sherman  for- 
warders. Longfellow,  Whittier,  Bryant,  Holmes  for  poets.  These  will 
suffice  to  illustrate  my  thought.  In  the  successive  study  of  men  Actu- 
ated by  the  same  dominant  idea,  the  worth  of  an  idea,  and  of  that  idea,, 
dawns  on  the  child.  This  pre-supposes  of  course  that  its  great  worth 
has  first  dawned  upon  the  teacher,  for  through  no  method  can  we  im- 
press upon  the  child  what  is  not  strongly  in  our  own  consciousness. 

In  the  study  of  formal  history  in  the  grades,  let  the  first  study  be  by 
the  usual  text-book  arrangement,  i.  e.,  the  chronological  method.  Let 
this  work  be  done  accurately,  definitely,  thoroughly,  breaking  away 
from  the  text-book  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  then  only  for  greater  clearness, 
not  to  enhance  the  interest.  Let  the  interest  reside  in  the  fact  of  mas- 
tery of  work  assigned  rather  than  in  much  reading.  It  is  not  difficult 
to  arouse  interest  simply  in  achievement.  Lastly,  when  this  is  done 
and  the  time  for  review  arrives  conduct  the  review  by  the  idea  method. 
This  will  be  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  work.  Be  brave  enough  to 
minimize  less  important  neriods  that  more  time  may  be  given  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  chronological  work  is  done.  It  is  the 
fruitage  of  best  history  teaching. 

The  school  wherein  exists  a  fair  adherence  to  the  plan  herein  set 
forth  or  at  least  to  some  plan  which  is  based  on  the  principles  set  forth 
in  the  early  part  of  this  paper,  I  believe,  does  much  more  than  to  teach 
history  to  the  pupils.  It  does  that.  But  better,  it  so  teaches  it  as  to 
make  its  material  contribute  to  still  greater  ends. 

From  the  above  it  is  clear  that  three  classes  of  history  topics  exist, 
one  for  biography  work  in  the  lower  grades,  one  for  the  chronological 
work  in  upper  grades,  and  one  for  the  idea  work  in  upper  grades. 

It  is  not  feasible  in  the  time  allowed  to  the  professional  reviews  to- 


DISCUSSION.  -^75. 

do  very  much  with  all  three  phases.  This  is  all  I  have  ever  been  able- 
to  do: 

First.  Relative  to  the  biographical  work:  Have  each  student  in  the 
class  make  out  lists  01  men  standing  for  the  same  dominant  idea  and 
whose  careers  adapt  themselves  readily  to  lower  grade  teaching. 

Second.  Relative  to  the  chronological  method:  Each  student  is  as- 
signed one  period,  as  Jefferson's  administration.  He  makes  a  list  of. 
the  events  occurring  in  this  time  of  which  some  assumed  class,  as 
eighth  grade,  should  know.  He  then  makes  out  a  brief  bibliography 
for  his  own  use  and  that  of  the  class. 

Third.  Relative  to  the  idea  method:  Each  student  is  assigned  one 
topic,  as  "Coinage  legislation  in  the  United  States."  He  makes  a  list 
of  all  the  coinage  acts  passed  by  Congress,  associating  with  each  the 
main  feature  thereof  with  the  conditions  which  led  to  its  passage 
and  the  result  of  the  operation  of  the"  act. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  nothing  is  said  as  to  method  of  presentation 
of  these  topics.  This  can  safely  be  left  to  other  classes,  as  academic 
history,  practice-teaching,  methods,  observation,  pedagogy.  This  work- 
concerns  only  the  "what"  of  history  teaching. 


DISCUSSION. 

J.  A.  WILGUS,  Platteville. 

I  will  first  name  a  few  points  wherein  I  differ  from  Prof.  Walker, 
whose  paper  you  have  just  heard. 

1.  Almosc  at  the  very  outset  of  his  paper  Prof.  Walker  sets  forth  this 
condition,  viz.:  A  person  is  doing  poor  history  teaching  because  he 
"knows  so  much  more  history  than  his  power  of  organization  enables 
him  to  handle."  The  remedy  he  sugegsts  for  the  condition  is  to  cir- 
cumscribe the  knowledge,  so  as  to  make  it  conform  to  the  "low  power 
of  organization."  I  take  issue  squarely  here  for  two  reasons:  (a)  There 
can  be  no  real  knowing  of  history  where  there  is  a  "low  power  of  or- 
ganization.'  To  know  history  is  to  know  relationships,  and  to  know 
relationships  is  the  very  essence  of  organization.  The  trouble  is  not 
that  too  much  history  is  known;  it  is  that  too  little  is  known,  (b)  If, 
however,  it  were  true  that  so  much  more  history  was  known  than  it 
was  possible  to  organize,  the  remedy  would  not  be  a  good  one,  accord- 
ing to  my  view,  for  its  application  would  take  the  wrong  direction.  In- 
stead of  advising  a  decrease  of  knowledge  in  order  to  improve  teaching- 
power,  there  ought  to  be  an  increase  in  the  capacity  to  organize.  This 
is  the  law  of  true  growth  and  improvement,  as  I  regard  it. 

I  wish  to  be  perfectly  fair  with  Prof.  Walker,  however,  and  when  he 
says,  later  on,  that  "it  is  quite  possible  for  a  teacher  to  have  a  body  of 
facts  greater  than  his  power  of  organization  can  use  effectively,"  and 
that  it  is  "better"  to  increase  "power  of  organization"  than  to  "lessen 
the  body  of  facts,"  I  can  wholly  agree  with  him.  The  point  that  I  wish 
to  make  and  to  impress  deeply,  is  that  knowing  history  is  a  thing  dia- 
metrically opposed  to  knowing  a  body  of  facts  that  are  unorganized. 

I  am  inclined  to  believe  also  that  this  is  Prof.  Walker's  real  view  of 
the  matter,  for  he  says,  still  further  on  that  "History  is  essentially  a 
study  of  associations  and  comparisons."  If  this  is  the  case,  I  am  sorry 


176  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

that  he  has  allowed  himself  to  be  so  inconsistent  in  his  statements  in 
various  places. 

2.  Another  point  of  difference  exists,— this  time  in  connection  with 
the  second  part  of  the  question,  where  he  says  that  organization  "should 
not  be  attempted  by  the  academic  classes.     One  cannot  organize  a  topic 
nor  make  a  lesson-plan  in  a  subject  he  is  studying  in  progress."    With- 
out stopping  now  to  discuss  this,  I  will  try  to  show  later  on  and  at 
length  how  organization  may  thus  be  effected. 

3.  Another  point  of  difference  also  is  found  in  his  position  regard- 
ing the  value  of  intensive  study.     This  I  will  take  up  and  consider 
presently. 

Except  for  these  main  points  of  difference  and  some  minor  ones 
which  I  omit,  I  think  that,  so  far  as  I  may  be  able  to  judge  from  my 
study  of  the  paper,  Prof.  Walker  and  I  find  ourselves  in  substantial 
agreement,  and  I  wish  to  express  my  personal  appreciation  of  the  many 
good  things  he  has  set  forth  in  his  paper. 

His  treatment  of  the  subject,  however,  is  not  after  the  pattern  that 
I  would  have  followed,  but  that  of  course  is  natural.  While  I  have  not 
had  the  opportunity  to  give  as  much  thought  to  the  subject  as  I  would 
like,  yet  I  have  tried  to  go  about  it  systematically,  and  will  therefore 
present  the  matter  as  it  appears  to  me,  and  in  the  following  aspects: 

I.  Interpretation  of  the  topic; 

II.  Questions  involved  according  to  this  interpretation; 

III.  Discussion  of  questions  involved. 

I.  Interpretation  of  the  Topic.    Although  at  least  six  different  mean- 
ings may  be  gotten  out  of  the  topic  as  stated,  yet  I  believe  that  the 
broadest  view  possible  will  result  most  beneficially.     Consequently  my 
interpretation  of  the  topic  may  be  stated  as  follows:     Should  teachers 
of  history  in  the  Normal  schools  show  students  the  necessity  and  value 
of  organization  in  history  work  and  make  them  skillful  in  organizing 
historical  materials?     If  so  how  can  these  things  be  done  best? 

Interpreted  in  this  sense,  and  I  believe  this  is  also  Prof.  Walker's  in- 
terpretation, the  first  part  of  the  question  admits  of  only  one  an- 
swer; for  I  doubt  if  any  one  will  deny  the  desirability  of,  nay,  even 
the  necessity  for,  both  thorough  organization,  and  also  skill  in  organiz- 
ing. 

II.  Questions  Involved.    According  to  this  interpretation,  discussion 
would   most  profitably   center   around   the   following   questions:      (1) 
What  is  meant  by  organization,  (2)   What  principles  must  be  followed 
in  making  a  good  and  thorough  organization,  and   (3)   How  may  the 
pupil  best  be  made  to  apply  those  principles  now  as  a  student  and  later 
as  a  teacher? 

III.  Discussion  of  Questions  Involved.     (1)  What  is  meant  by  or- 
ganization?    Rather  than  quote  a  definition  from  the  dictionary,  two 
illustrations   will    serve   to    indicate   the    meaning.     I    may    carry    in 
my  pocket  a  metal  case  containing  all  the  wheels,  pinions,  springs, 
jewels,  hands,  and  other  component  parts  of  a  complete  watch,  packed 
side  by  side,  associated,  but  lacking  arrangement,  each  piece  in  its 
proper  relation  with  other  pieces,  that  is  not  being  organized,  I  cer- 
tainly would  not  be  possessed  of  a  watch.     Thus  it  is  with  historical 
materials  and  data.     These  are  all  constituent  or  interdependent  parts 
of  some   organic  whole,  and  unless  they  are  arranged   according  to 
their  constituent  and   interdependent  relations  there   is  no  organiza- 
tion, it  is  simply  association.     Take  another  illustration  more  closely 


DISCUSSION. 


ITT 


-connected  with  history.  Let  an  untrained,  or  uneducated  person  under- 
take to  narrate  a  story.  In  most  cases,  he  will  place  as  much  emphasis 
upon  "unimportant"  details,  as  upon  the  important  features.  Why? 
Simply  because  all  the  incidents  are  closely  "associated"  in  his  mind, 
and  they  tumble  out  as  they  went  in.  This  is  association.  What,  then, 
would  organization  be?  If  this  mind  had  been  trained,  so  that  it  had 
the  power  to  select  and  arrange  the  details  according  to  their  inter- 
dependent relationships,  in  other  words,  to  organize,  then  undue  prom- 
inence would  not  be  given  to  unimportant  matters,  but  these  would 
illumine  the  important  ones. 

The  distinction  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  way:  There  may 
be  association  without  organization,  but  there  cannot  be  organization 
without  association. 

In  history  work  one  condition  at  least  is  essential  to  organization, 
viz:  Ability  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  student  to  discern 
or  perceive  and  handle  facts  as  real  things.  Unless  the  pupil  has  an 
.ability  to  handle  mentally  facts  that  are  contained  in  the  printed 
statements  of  books,  in  the  spoken  words  of  conversation,  or  the  lecture, 
and  in  the  events  or  occurrences  going  on  around  him  all  the  time, 
picking  them  up,  sorting  them  out,  and  arranging  them  by  putting 
them  here  or  there  according  to  a  purpose,  just  as  a  farmer  will  pick 
Tiis  apples,  and  gather  his  grains,  and  put  one  kind  here,  and  an- 
other kind  there,  he  is  not  yet  in  a  condition  to  organize  facts  into 
knowledge  by  sorting  them  and  putting  all  of  a  kind  together  to 
suit  whatever  purposes  he  may  have.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher, 
therefore,  first  of  all,  to  get  him  into  this  condition. 

(2)  What  principles  must  be  followed  in  making  a  good  and  thorough 
organization?     These  I  will  simply  name,  although  if  time  permitted 
explanation  might  set  them  forth  completely.     They  are:      (a)   Organi- 
zation must  be  a  correlation,  and  not  a  mere  aggregation.     Materials 
must  be  integrated,  not  simply  collected,     (b)   Organization  must  be 
based  upon  the  psychological  laws  of  the  "association  of  ideas."     (cj 
Organization  must  recognize  and  follow  pedagogical  principles  in  order 
to  secure  proper  assimilation  of  materials,     (d)   Organization  should 
liave  reference  to  the  future  needs  or  work  of  the  pupil  as  teacher,  in. 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

(3)  How  may  the  pupil  best  be  made  to  apply  these  principles  now 
as  a  student,  and  later  as  a  teacher?     Organization  must  take  place  in 
the  pupil's  mind,  and  the  problem  of  the  teacher  is,  How  to  produce  it 
there.     With  teachers  and  with  mature  people  organization  is  a  self- 
process,  but  with  young  people  it  is  not  yet  likely  to  be  a  process,  at 
least  not  habitually  so;   and  it  is  the  business  of  the  teacher    (a)   to 
develop  a  tendency  (where  none  exists)  or  to  further  increase  it  (where 
existing),  and    (b)   to  induce  a  habit  of  organization,  so  that  event- 
ually it  becomes  a  self-process.     The  practical  question  then   is  how 
best  to  induce  this   habit  of  organization.     My  own  experience  tells 
me  that  the  best  way  is  by  working  with  the  pupils  daily  in  recitation, 
and  helping  them  to  organize  materials  or  facts  that  are  in  their  minds. 
Facts  have  come  into  their  minds  through  one  or  more  of  the  following 
ways:   (a)  Through  reading  the  topics  or  pages  assigned  in  the  text,  (b) 
Through  reading  references  in  the  library,     (c)   Through  other  or  pre- 
Tious    studies,     (d)   Through    conversation,    or    hearing    lectures,    etc. 

(e)   Through  observation,  and   (f)   Through  experience.     By  realizing 

12 


178  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

these  sources  of  information,  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  draw  out 
everything  in  the  pupil  bearing  upon  the  subject  in  hand  and  to  help 
him  put  his  body  of  facts  into  their  proper  relations.  When  this  oc- 
curs day  after  day  and  for  some  time,  a  habit  is  induced,  and  the  process 
in  the  end  becomes  a  self-process,  which  is  the  object  sought. 

This  brings  me  to  the  second  and  third  points  of  difference  with 
Prof.  Walker's  views,  viz:  That  "organization  should  not  be  attempted 
by  the  academic  classes"  and  the  question  of  the  value  of  intensive 
study.  From  the  comments  and  elucidation  of  his  paper,  as  just  given, 
I  am  led  to  believe  that  the  issue  is  not  so  sharp  as  I  at  first  supposed,, 
for  unless  I  am  mistaken,  Prof.  Walker  practices  considerable  or- 
ganization in  his  "academic  classes."  But  however  this  may  be,  I  will 
suggest  some  of  the  different  modes  of  working  with  pupils  so  as  to 
induce  the  habit  of  organization.  They  are: 

(1)  Skillful  oral  questioning  in  recitation.     By  this  I  do  not  mean 
mere  memory,  or  reproduction,  or  rehearsal  questions  except  rarely, 
and  chiefly  for  purposes  of  drilling,  but  questions  of  interpretation,  of 
import,  of  significance,  thought  questions,  whose  answers  disclose  the 
real  status  of  the  facts  in  the  pupil's  mind. 

(2)  Written  answers  to  special  questions  or  to  special  topics,  com- 
pelling the  putting  together  of  facts  already  known,  or  to  be  found  in 
the  work  assigned,  in  a  new  way,  or  in  a  different  relationship.     The 
questions  or  topics  from  being  simple  at  first,  and  confined  as  far  as 
materials  go,  to  a  few  pages  of  the  text,  may  become  more  inclusive 
and  extend  to  materials  collected  from  every  possible  source. 

(3)  The  use  of  outlines,  syllibi,  charts,  maps,  etc.     These  may  be 
made  by  the  teacher  alone,  or  by  the  pupils  alone,  or  by  both  working 
together.     They  may  be  placed  upon  the  blackboard  or  they  may  be 
printed  and  used  supplementary  to,  or  in  place  of,  a  text.     But  in  what- 
ever way  they  may  be  made,  both  teacher  and  pupil  must  constantly 
remember  what  an  outline  or  syllabus  is  for.     First,  it  is  a  guide  for  the 
use  of  materials  in  their  organization  into  knowledge;  or,  second,  it  is 
a   cast   representing  the   form   which   organization   has  taken   in  the 
mind.     If  it  is  made  at  the  beginning  of  a  study,  it  is  a  guide;   if  at 
the  end  of  a  study,  it  is  a  cast.     But  whether  a  guide  or  a  cast,  it  is  not 
itself  organization,  but  merely  an   aid  for   organization   in  the  first 
place,  and  for  memory  in  the  second  place. 

(4)  Intensive  study,  and  here  I  mean  the  most  intensive  study  pos- 
sible of  a  limited,  perhaps  a  very  limited  field,  after  a  general  view 
has  been  secured.     I  have  put  the  matter  in  this  specific  and  circum- 
scribed way  because  I  believe  that  much  of  our  so-called  "intensive 
study"  is  more  extensive  than  intensive.     It  is  in  the  field  of  intensive 
study,  where,  it  seems  to  me,  there  is  one  of  the  very  best  opportunities 
for  inducing  the  habit  of  thorough  organization;    for  it  is  here  that 
the   process   of   organization    for   the   whole   unit   extends   over   more 
time  in   its  completion,  the   materials  for  organization   can  be   more 
carefully   and   more  thoroughly   scrutinized   and   studied   in  all  their 
bearings,  and  they  can  be  brought  in  from  more  numerous  and  wide- 
spread sources,  thus  a  more  thorough  interpretation  and  organization 
of  parts  as  well  as  of  wholes  can  be  secured. 

Now  all  of  this  work  that  I  have  been  describing  (and  more  might 
be  indicated)  may  be  done  by  the  teachers  of  academic  history  in 
their  academic  classes,  and  it  is  commonly  called  academic  work.  So 
it  is,  but  it  is  also  a  good  deal  more.  According  to  my  view  it  is  pro- 


KNOWLEDGE  OF  GERMAN  GRAMMAR.         -j^O 

fessional  work  of  a  high  order,  just  as  much  professional  as  is  the 
work  which  is  ordinarily  called  professional.  Academic  work  may  be 
non-professional  in  both  character  and  results;  but  academic  work  done 
in  the  way  in  which  I  have  described  is  certainly  as  fundamental  in 
the  art  and  practice  of  teaching  as  is  anything  that  may  be  done  in 
technical  methods  work. 

In  what  I  have  just  said,  however,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  misunder- 
stood. I  have  said  it  chiefly  for  two  reasons,  first,  in  explanation  of 
what  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  organizing  a  topic  in  "academic 
classes,"  as  opposed  to  the  view  of  Prof.  Walker  in  his  paper;  ana 
second,  to  indicate  the  truly  professional  character  of  such  work. 

While,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  principles  governing  the  organization  of 
historical  materials  are  the  same,  whether  one  is  studying  history 
simply  to  know  it  for  its  general  ^value,  or  whether  he  is  studying 
it  with  special  reference  to  teaching  it,  yet,  I  also  believe  it  to  be 
equally  true  that  there  may  be  different  forms  or  kinds  of  organization 
for  different  purposes  or  for  different  degrees  of  capacity  and  attain- 
ment on  the  part  of  pupils.  And  it  is  here  that  we  find  not  only  the 
warrant,  but  also  the  necessity  for  strictly  professional  work  wholly 
or  partly  separate  from  academic  work,  in  which  the  principles  of  or- 
ganization, and  the  habit  of  organization,  learned  thoroughly  and 
properly  in  the  academic  work,  are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  selection 
of  special  materials,  either  old  or  new,  or  both,  and  their  special 
arrangement  for  special  purposes.  Therefore,  I  have  set  down  above 
as  one  of  the  principles  of  organization,  this  one,  "It  should  have 
reference  to  the  future  needs  or  work  of  the  pupil  as  teacher,  In 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so."  The  teacher  of  academic  classes 
should  constantly  have  this  in  mind,  but  this  end  cannot  be  effectually 
secured  without  special  courses  in  organization,  which  would  be  pur- 
sued wholly  for  professional  purposes."  My  thought  here  is  not  centered 
upon  the  so-called  "professional  reviews",  but  upon  special  courses 
in  organization  where  the  work  in  the  district  schools,  and  the  grades, 
and  the  high  schools  shall  be  studied,  and  materials  selected  and  or- 
ganized with  special  reference  to  each  line  of  work,  so  that  when  the 
pupil  has  finished  them  he  will  have  his  academic  work  organized  so 
as  to  enable  him  to  accomplish  a  specific  professional  purpose.  My 
recommendation,  if  called  for,  would  be  the  establishment  of  such 
courses. 


LATIN  AND  GERMAJN  SECTION. 
Leader,  J.  W.  LIVINGSTON,  Stevens  Point. 


WHAT  KNOWLEDGE  OF  GERMAN  GRAMMAR  SHOULD  STUDENTS 
IN  GERMAN  BE  REQUIRED  TO  MASTER? 

B.  M.  DRESDEN,  Oshkosh. 

Grammar  deals  with  what  can  be  brought  under  general  laws  in 
language.  That  part  of  grammar  which  concerns  itself  simply  with 
forms  and  ignores  the  meanings  of  the  grammatical  forms  as  far  as 
possible,  is  called  accidence  (Formen-lehre) ;  that  which  concentrates 
its  attention  on  the  meanings  of  grammatical  forms  is  called  syntax. 


ISO  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTI1 

Accidence  deals,  e.  g..  with  the  endings  of  declension  and  conjugation. 
As  the  form  of  a  sentence  depends  largely  on  the  order  of  its  words. 
word-order  is  an  important  part  of  syntax.  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  a  grammatical  rule  without  an  example  is  of  no  practical  use:  it 
is  an  abstraction  which  is  incapable  of  entering  into  any  direct  asso- 
ciations with  anything  in  the  language  itself.  The  example,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  concrete:  it  can  be  impressed  on  the  mind  by  mere  me- 
chanical association,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  logically  associated 
with  the  rule,  which  it  explains,  illustrates  and  justifies.  The  example 
serves  also  as  a  standard  or  pattern  by  which  the  learner  can  recognize 
other  examples  of  the  rule  as  they  occur  in  his  reading. 

In  choosing  our  text-book  in  grammar,  therefore,  we  need  to  re- 
member that  the  first  object  of  grammatical  study  is  not  the  acquisition 
of  rules,  but  a  practical  command  of  the  language  itself;  rules  are 
mere  stepping  stones  to  the  understanding  of  the  examples:  so  when 
the  latter  are  once  thoroughly  understood,  the  rules  become  superfluous 
and  may  well  be  forgotten. 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  says:  "To  ask  a  learner  to 
upset  into  alleged  German  such  sentences  as:  'The  pupils'  coats  and 
shoes  are  in  the  maids*  hands/  or  'I  give  warm  clothes  and  red  apples 
to  poor  little  children/  is,  to  say  the  least,  inexpedient.  Instead  of  a 
help,  it  is  a  hindrance  to  the  acquisition  of  a  sensitive  feeling  for  the 
language.  Rather  than  exercise  his  wits  upon  the  translation  of  such 
English  into  such  German  it  were  much  better  that  the  learner  should 
do  no  English-German  translation  whatever,  but  simply  read  real 
German  and  learn  the  grammar  by  observation  and  appropriate  drill." 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  some  rules  require  hardly  any  example, 
they  are  practically  of  universal  application  or  self-evident,  or  of 
no  intrinsic  value  and  only  added  to  give  completeness.  But  it  is  a 
safe  principle  never  to  take  it  for  granted  that  a  rule  does  not  require 
an  example.  Dr.  Hy.  Sweet.  President  of  the  Philological  Society. 
says:  "A  good  example  must  fulfill  two  conditions:  (1)  It  must  il- 
lustrate and  confirm  the  rule  unambiguously.  (2)  The  example  must 
oe  intelligible  as  it  stands,  without  further  context"  And  I  may  add 
a  third  quality:  "It  must  contain  sense." 

I  have  dwelt  thus  fully  on  this  topic,  not  because  it  has  any  direct 
connection  with  my  subject,  but  rather  because  it  follows  as  a  result 
of  the  query:     "Is  there  in  existence  a  grammar  which  teaches  the 
amount  of  German  grammar  required,  neither  more,  nor  less?      To 
my  mind,  such  a  grammar  is  yet  to  be  written,  all  those  in  existence 
today  contain  too  many  bushels  of  chaff  to  the  very  few  grains  of  wheat. 
A  good  deal  of  that  chaff  is  the  low  quality  of  illustrative  material 
given.    Another  trouble  with  nearly  all  grammars  today  is  the  elevation 
of  the  paradigm  into  too  high  a  place.    The  paradigm  ought  to  b 
garded  mainly  as  a  summing  up.     It  must  be  remembered  that  "gram 
mar  is  there  for  the  sake  of  the  language  and  not  the  language  for  the 
sake  of  grammar.    The  recitation  of  paradigms,  rules  and  exceptions 
is  always  in  danger  of  degenerating  into  a  facile  routine  in  which  there 
is  but  little  profit    The  important  thing  is  not  that  the  learner  should 
acquire   facility   in   reciting   paradigms,   quoting   statements   and 
plaining  principles  according  to  the  book,  but  that  he  should  acquire 
facility  in  understanding  and  using  the  language.     It  is  of  small  use  t 
be  able  to  state  correctly  the  principle  of  adjective  declension,  so  long 
as  the  pupil  in  attempting  to  apply  the  principle  in  a  simple  case    is 


KNOWLEDGE  OF  GERMAN  GRAMMAR. 

obliged  to  stop  and  think,  to  recall  his  grammar,  and  perhaps  to  guess 
after  all.  The  right  forms  must  be  so  bred  into  the  blood  that  they 
come  naturally  from  tongue  and  pen."  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood 
that  I  am  opposed  to  the  learning  of  paradigms  and  rules, — I  am  thor- 
oroughly  in  favor  of  it,  but  only  as  a  subsidiary  measure, — the  pupils 
must  not  be  led  to  think  that  these  dry,  old  bones  are  grammar. 

Perhaps  it  might  be  well  to  urge  another  caution.  While  philology 
may  be  made  an  important  aid  in  teaching  grammar,  it  should  not 
be  overused.  Cognate  forms  may  be  just  far  enough  removed  from 
one  another  to  make  it  doubtful  if  the  pupil  will  discover  the  similarity. 
Grimm's  Law  in  homeopathic  doses  may  be  well  enough,  but  by  the 
barrelful  it  is  sickening. 

We  are  now  ready  to  see  how  much  grammar  should  be  taught  to 
Normal  school  students. 

The  formal  study  of  grammar  cannot  be  wholly  eliminated,  but  it 
should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  studying  a  new  language,  three 
enemies  present  themselves  to  the  novice:  pronunciation,  vocabulary 
and  grammar.  The  first  can  be  conquered  only  by  eternal  vigilance, 
beginning  the  first  day  of  the  study  of  the  language,  and  ending  only 
with  life.  The  same  may  almost  be  said  of  the  acquisition  of  vocabu- 
lary. This  might  be  a  good  place  to  urge  the  use  of  German  script, 
but  as  this  would  lead  me  too  far  from  my  subject,  I  only  wish  to 
refer  you  to  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  on  this  subject.  It 
is  good  medicine  both  for  those  who  favor  and  those  who  oppose  German 
script. 

The  first  difficulty  of  practical  importance  in  teaching  German 
grammar  is  the  gender  and  declension  of  nouns.  If  the  teacher  at- 
tempts to  lay  down  complete  laws,  he  will  compel  his  pupils  to  do  what 
German  children  do, — work  15  or  20  years  to  learn  the  noun.  It  is 
quite  enough  if  a  student  can  after  two  years'  work  tell  gender  and 
declension  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  nouns  instinctively;  for  the 
rest  dictionary  will  do.  As  to  rules  of  genders,  it  is  enough  if  the 
pupil  knows  that  days  of  the  week  and  months  are  masculines,  words 
in  chen  and  lein  and  infinitive  substantives  are  neuters,  and  words 
in  el,  neit.  keit.  schaft,  and  ung  are  feminine.  There  is  danger  that  too 
much  time  will  be  given  to  unimportant  details,  such  as  rules  of 
genders,  declensions  of  foreign  nouns,  lists  of  irregular  verbs,  etc. 

Next  in  order  of  difficulty  comes  the  declension  of  adjectives,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  drill  too  much  upon  that. 

The  conjugation  of  verbs,  both  weak  and  strong,  presents  but  few 
difficulties.  Careful  comparison  with  English  grammar  will  show  that 
there  is  no  essential  difference  between  English  and  German  conjuga- 
tion. As  to  learning  all  of  the  276  simple  German  strong  and  mixed 
verbs,  to  my  mind  it  is  all  nonsense.  About  50  of  the  most  common 
of  these  should  be  known,  and  that  thoroughly,  then  use  the  dictionary 
for  the  rest.  If  they  use  their  German  after  graduation,  use  will  teach 
them  to  the  pupils,  if  not,  they  will  not  need  them.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  prepositions, — teach  them  by  use,  not  by  rule. 

The  order  of  words  in  a  sentence  is  very  difficult.  I  have  devised 
a  diagram  which  I  find  very  helpful  in  teaching  this  topic,  but  after  all 
is  said  and  done,  practice,  practice,  practice,  every  day  will  teach 
the  right  order  to  a  pupil  as  nothing  else  will. 

I  am  thoroughly  in  favor  of  colloquial  exercises  preceding  the 
study  of  formal  grammar.  Give  the  student  something  to  work  upon 


182  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

before  you  give  him  the  work.  In  my  own  work,  I  do  not  touch 
grammar  for  six  or  seven  weeks,  reading,  dictation  and  conversation 
are  used  to  build  a  foundation,  then  the  grammatical  structure  can 
be  reared.  Long  before  the  student  has  commenced  the  study  of  con- 
jugation he  will  be  able  to  distinguish  the  tenses,  will  have  gained  the 
"grammatical  sense,"  the  sense  which  you  and  I  possess  by  which  in 
our  mother-tongue  we  recognize  intuitively  and  without  recourse  to  any 
grammar  whether  we  speak  correctly  or  not. 

A  most  effective  drill  for  grammar  can  be  had  in  the  reading 
lesson.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  reading  lesson  be  not 
made  a  reading  lesson  in  name  only  and  a  grammar  lesson  in  fact.  An 
occasional  grammatical  question  will  help  to  fix  in  mind  important 
grammatical  points,  but  the  reading  lesson  must  not  be  lost  sight  of. 
Much  reading  should  be  done  for  the  sake  of  reading,  that  the  pupil 
may  get  the  "feeling"  of  the  language;  and  some  reading  should  be 
done  for  the  sake  of  grammar,  that  the  pupil  may  get  the  "grammatical 
sense." 

I  can  do  no  better  than  to  offer  two  short  paragraphs  from  the 
Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  as  a  summing  up  of  what  I  have  said. 

Requirements  for  Elementary  German: 

"Familiarity  with  the  rudiments  of  grammar  and  especially  with 
these  topics:  the  declension  of  articles,  adjectives,  pronouns  and  such 
nouns  as  are  readily  classified;  the  conjugation  of  the  weak  and  of 
the  more  usual  strong  verbs,  the  commoner  prepositions,  the  simpler 
uses  of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  the  elementary  rules  of  syntax  and  word 
order." 

Requirements  for  Advanced  German: 

"In  addition  to  a  thorough  knowledge  of  accidence,  of  the  elements 
of  word  formation  and  of  the  principal  values  of  propositions  and 
conjunctions,  the  scholars  must  be  familiar  with  the  essentials  of 
German  syntax,  and  particularly  with  the  uses  of  modal  auxiliaries 
and  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive  modes." 

This,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  least  a  Normal  graduate  should  know  in 
German  grammar. 


SHOULD  ANY  ATTEMPT  BE  MADE  TO  ACQUIRE  A  SPEAKING 
KNOWLEDGE  OF  GERMAN?  IF  SO,  UNDER  WHAT  CONDI- 
TIONS AND  TO  WHAT  EXTENT? 

CLARA   SCHUSTER,   Platteville. 

Believing  that  the  leading  objects  in  studying  a  living  language 
are: 

1.  To  become  familiar  with  the  life  and  best  thought  of  a  foreign 
people,  and, 

2.  To  acquire  a  practical  use  of  their  language,  I  would  answer  the 
first  question  of  my  subject  briefly  and  decidedly,  "yes." 

"Under  what  conditions  and  to  what  extent?" 

It  seems  evident  that  the  time  when  a  language  is  most  easily 
learned  is  in  infancy  and  early  childhood,  when  the  powers  to  imitate 
and  to  memorize  are  keener  than  at  a  later  period;  when  habits  are 
readily  formed;  when  new  ideas  are  learned  with  new  expressions. 


A   SPEAKING   KNOWLEDGE    OF   GERMAN.  ^33 

The  little  child  learns  to  speak  a  language  naturally  from  its  parents 
without  study  and  without  apparent  effort.  It  learns  to  speak  with 
some  degree  of  grammatical  exactness,  provided  the  parents  speak 
grammatically,  without  ever  being  bothered  with  the  declensions 
of  nouns  and  pronouns,  or  with  the  conjugation  of  the  verbs.  Here, 
then,  we  should  find  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  acquiring  a 
speaking  knowledge  of  German. 

Very  few,  however,  have  the  opportunity  of  learning  a  language  in 
this  way,  and  few  have  the  opportunity  of  beginning  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  before  the  age  of  15  or  17. 

Unfortunately  for  themselves  and  their  teachers,  many  who  study 
German  cannot  begin  even  so  early  as  the  age  of  17. 

In  discussing  the  question  before  us,  it  is  my  purpose  to  explain  so 
much  of  my  method  as  to  show  how  under  the  existing  conditions,  I 
endeavor  to  teach  some  speaking  knowledge  of  German. 

The  plan  which  we  adopt  for  teaching  a  foreign  language  must  depend 
upon  the  time  in  the  student's  life  at  which  we  teach,  upon  the  number 
of  years  to  be  devoted  to  the  study,  upon  the  purposes  for  which  we 
teach,  and  upon  the  results  which  we  expect  to  attain. 

When  German  is  to  be  taught  to  children  who  have  not  yet  studied 
formal  German,  perhaps  to  children  below  the  eighth  grade,  I  be- 
lieve the  natural  or  imitative  method  will  accomplish  most,  that  is 
the  method  through  which  we  can  teach  the  most  conversational  Ger- 
man to  pupils  of  this  age. 

But  for  students  wno  have  reached  the  junior  year  in  the  high 
school  and  the  second  year  in  the  Normal  school,  a  plan  which  will 
call  into  play  the  reasoning  powers  as  well  as  the  memory,  will  surely 
bring  better  results. 

A  noted  teacher  of  modern  languages  once  said,  "The  way  to  study  a 
language  is  to  take  it  in  at  every  pore." 

The  students  in  my  German  classes  are  all  the  way  from  15  to  28 
years  of  age,  and  we  have  two  and  one  half  or  three  years  to  devote 
to  the  study. 

Keeping  in  mind  that  we  purpose  to  give  our  students  a'  practical 
knowledge  of  the  language,  a  reading  and  speaking  knowledge  of 
German,  the  question  confronts  us,  "How  shall  we  accomplish  our  aim 
under  these  conditions?" 

From  observation  and  experience  in  teaching  German,  I  have  con- 
cluded that  the  method  best  adapted  for  presenting  this  subject  to  the 
mature  students,  to  the  few  who  go  to  college  or  university  and  to  the 
many  who  go  to  no  higher  institution  of  learning,  for  all  these  the 
method  which  will  secure  the  most  intelligent  reading  and  the  greatest 
amount  of  conversational  German,  is  a  combination  of  the  natural 
and  grammatical  method. 

That  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding,  I  will  state  that  I  thor- 
oughly believe  in  the  disciplinary  value  of  German.  Indeed,  I  be- 
lieve that  for  those  students  who  study  no  other  foreign  language, 
either  ancient  or  modern,  the  disciplinary  value  is  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  justify  the  study  for  that  end. 

We  want  the  systematic,  accurate  knowledge  that  the  grammatical 
method  affords,  but  we  must  also  make  the  language  itself  of  use  to 
the  student. 

We  cannot  hope  to  make  fluent  conversationalists  of  our  students 
by  the  close  of  a  one  hundred  weeks'  course  or  even  a  three  years'  course 


184  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

but  we  can  give  them  such  a  foundation  that  by  advanced  study  or 
by  contact  with  Germans  or  by  self-improvement,  many  may  become  so. 

It  would  seem  that  a  two  or  three  years'  course  in  German  ought  to 
give  the  average  student  the  ability  not  only  to  read  German  under- 
standingly,  but  also  the  ability  to  speak  in  German  concerning  the  af- 
fairs of  his  everyday  life. 

Should  a  young  man  who  has  taken  two  or  three  years  of  German  be 
in  the  employ  of  a  merchant,  he  ought  to  be  able  to.  speak  enough  to 
make  himself  thoroughly  understood  to  a  German  customer  as  well 
as  to  understand  the  customer. 

Should  he  hold  a  position  in  a  bank,  I  would  expect  him  to  have 
enough  German  at  his  command  to  deal  with  German  customers  in 
their  language,  and  that  practice  would  strengthen  and  increase  his 
power  to  speak. 

To  give  even  this  command  of  the  language,  patience  and  untiring 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  are  necessary. 

As  the  first  requisite  in  securing  the  ability  to  speak  German  I 
would  emphasize  care  in  teaching  exact  pronunciation  at  the  very 
outset  and  the  necessity  of  continuing  to  drill  pronunciation  until 
the  student  can  with  ease  pronounce  and  read  correctly. 

2.  That  the  vocabularies  memorized  contain  only  such  words  as  the 
student  will  use  in  speaking  of  the  objects  about  him  or  of  common 
daily  affairs. 

3.  That  colloquial  German  be  introduced  with  the  first  lesson  and 
that  the  conversational  work  be  continued  through  the  entire  course. 

Usually  I  have  begun  this  part  of  my  work  by  asking  easy  questions 
based  upon  a  sentence  previously  memorized  by  the  class.  The  question 
furnishes  the  vocabulary  .and  form  for  the  answer. 

Then  as  the  vocabulary  widens,  I  introduce  exercises  that  will 
give  a  chance  for  greater  independence  in  the  use  of  sentences. 

When  we  have  five  or  ten  minutes  to  devote  to  such  an  exercise,  we 
occasionally  imagine  that  we  are  in  a  store.  One  person  acts  as  mer- 
chant and  the  rest  as  customers.  Or  we  imagine  we  are  at  dinner  and 
the  pupils  ask  to  nave  the  various  articles  of  food  passed. 

Occasionally  when  we  have  but  a  few  moments  to  spare  for  this 
kind  of  work,  the  pupils  ask  questions  of  each  other,  anything  they 
please  and  of  anyone  in  the  class. 

When  we  begin  to  read  texts,  we  still  continue  the  conversation. 
First  by  asking  questions  to  bring  out  the  story  and  requiring  complete 
answers  from  the  pupils,  and  then  by  requiring  them  to  tell  the 
story  or  a  part  of  it,  in  their  own  words.  Quite  frequently  I  read  some 
simple  story  like  "Dornroschen,"  or  "Hans  in  Gluck,"  to  the  advanced 
classes  and  ask  them  to  reproduce  it,  orally  or  as  a  written  exercise. 

Sometimes  when  a  story  has  been  given  orally,  it  is  written  out  and 
handed  in  for  close  criticism.  Letter  writing  and  brief  compositions 
on  easy  topics  are  other  devices  to  which  I  resort  to  accomplish  my 
purpose. 

In  summing  up  I  would  say  the  earlier  in  a  child's  life  we  begin  to 
teach,  the  more  favorable  are  the  conditions  for  learning  to  speak 
German;  that  our  Normal  school  students  should,  in  two  and  one-half 
or  three  years,  acquire  enough  of  the  language  to  converse  upon  the 
more  simple  topics  in  which  they  are  interested;  and  that  to  accomplish 
this  we  must  thoroughly  drill  pronunciation  and  persistently  teach 
conversation. 


READING  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION  OF  LATIN  AUTHOR.  155. 


IN  THE  STUDY  OF  LATIN,  MAY  THE  READING  OF  AN  ENGLISH 

TRANSLATION  OF  A  LATIN  AUTHOR,  BEFORE 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  LATIN  AUTHOR 

BEGINS,  BE  OF  VALUE? 

C.  W.  SMITH,  West  Superior. 

As  I  see  them,  the  general  and  ultimate  purposes  in  the  study  of 
Latin,  in  Normal  schools  or  elsewhere,  are  two:  first,  to  gain  the  power 
of  exact  expression  of  thought  in  idiomatic  English;  and  second,  to- 
gain  an  insight  into  the  literature,  the  thought  and  feeling  of  a  great 
people,  which  has  had  more  to  do  in  making  existing  civilization  what 
it  is  than  has  any  other  nation.  To  attain  the  latter  purpose  several 
things  must  be  accomplished.  The  reading  must  be  widely  varied, 
must  be  done,  of  course,  in  the  original  if  the  thought  and  feeling  are 
to  be  reached;  and  this  can  be  done  only  by  an  acquaintance  with  the 
language  wnich  amounts  at  least  to  understanding  the  Latin  itself,  or 
better,  to  an  ability  to  think  in  Latin.  So  far  as  the  short  course  in 
Normal  schools  is  concerned,  this  second  purpose  cannot  be  attained; 
but  the  work  may  tend  toward  that  as  an  ideal,  nevertheless. 

Our  general  purpose,  then,  is  the  first  of  the  two  I  have  mentioned, — - 
to  gain  the  power  of  exact  expression  of  thought  in  idiomatic  English. 
The  progress  toward  both  purposes  must  be  through  getting  the  exact 
thought  of  the  Latin  author.  The  legitimate  tools  for  doing  this  are: 
1,  knowledge  of  forms;  2,  of  vocabulary;  3,  of  syntax,  which  is  the  key 
to  the  meaning;  4,  of  the  Latin  order,  and  5,  reading  the  Latin.  Not 
one  of  these  is  a  worthy  end  in  itself,  but  a  means  to  an  end, — that  of 
getting  the  thought. 

However,  the  proper  use  of  these  tools  realizes  a  secondary  purpose, — 
secondary,  not  in  importance,  but  simply  not  one  of  the  general  pur- 
poses; that  is,  a  thorough  and  rigid  training  in  patience,  discrimina- 
tion, thoroughness  and  accuracy.  The  student  can  receive  this  train- 
ing only  through  his  own  careful,  painstaking  and  accurate  work.  I 
believe  that  an  intensive  study  of  some  one  classic  will  do  more  to  make 
a  Latin  scholar,  conduce  more  to  habits  of  clear  and  sound  thinking, 
than  a  more  extended  course  of  reasoning  covering  more  time. 

Such  being  my  view  of  the  purposes  of  the  study  of  Latin,  and  of 
the  ways  of  realizing  those  purposes,  the  question  given  me  as  a  topic 
has  appeared  to  me  as  one  of  small  importance,  at  least  after  it  has 
been  answered  emphatically  in  the  negative. 

I  can  see  a  possibility  of  value  in  such  a  reading  of  a  translation  in 
furnishing  an  apperceiving  basis  for  the  work  that  follows.  That  is, 
the  student  might  get  an  idea  of  the  general  purpose  and  spirit  of  the 
author,  of  his  individuality,  of  the  general  line  of  argument  or  of  the 
story  that  might  render  his  subsequent  work  in  that  author  easier  and 
more  rapid.  Any  farther  value  I  cannot  see.  Of  course  the  setting  of 
the  author,  the  place  of  his  work  in  the  literature  or  history  of  Rome 
cannot  be  obtained  from  reading  his  work. 

So  far  as  the  first  value  is  concerned, — getting  an  idea  of  the  general 
purpose  of  the  author, — if  the  teacher  be  unwilling  to  permit  the  stu- 
dent to  discover  it  for  himself,  it  can  be  given  with  less  loss  of  time 
and  more  force,  by  a  few  pointed  sentences  by  the  teacher,  or  by  a 
paragraph  of  the  introduction  which  is  inseparable  from  a  modern 


186  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

school  text.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  second  point,  getting  an  idea 
of  the  line  of  argument  or  the  story.  If  the  teacher  desires  the  student 
to  know  either  before  he  comes  to  it  in  reading  the  Latin  text,  he  can 
get  the  matter  before  him  by  means  of  a  synopsis. 

And,  finally,  as  to  the  supposed  result  of  such  translation  reading, 
that  is,  making  subsequent  work  in  that  author  easier  and  more  rapid 
— either  facility  or  celerity  reached  in  that  way  surely  defeats  the  very 
purpose  of  the  study  of  Latin.  The  whole  matter  can  be  made  easiest 
fay  discarding  the  Latin  altogether  and  reading  all  in  English. 

The  chief  value  that  the  student  gets  from  the  study  of  Latin,  aside 
from  its  bearing  on  his  English,  is  the  power  of  close  and  prolonged 
application,  of  persistent  effort,  of  accurate  reasoning, — and  the  ade- 
quate reward  of  this  effort  is  to  see  the  meaning  of  the  author  unfold 
itself,  slowly  perhaps,  but  clearly.  If  there  is  any  value  in  studying 
Latin,  it  is  the  digging  that  brings  it  out. 

Therefore,  the  possible  values  of  a  previous  reading  of  a  translation 
are  at  best  negative,  and,  since  the  desirable  results  sought  (if  they  be 
desirable)  can  better  be  reached  by  an  outline  or  a  synopsis,  which 
takes  much  less  time  and  effort,  the  concluison  is  inevitable  that  trans- 
lation reading  is  a  waste  of  time  and  energy.  Moreover,  such  a  read- 
ing is  not  only  negative  in  value,  but  I  believe  it  has  in  it  positive  evils 
as  well. 

In  every  class  there  are  two  kinds  of  students, — those  who  are  al- 
ways leaning  on  someone  or  something,  always  in  search  of  a  prop,  and 
those  who  have  a  real  interest  in  the  subject,  and  face  its  difficulties 
and  conquer  them.  For  the  former  class  I  see  a  prop  in  this  transla- 
tion reading.  It  would  be  grasped  at  like  the  proverbial  straw.  They 
would  remember  it,  copy  it,  do  anything  to  get  help  through  the  difficul- 
ties to  follow.  I  don't  mean  to  say  that  such  students  might  not  avail 
themselves  of  a  similar  aid  in  any  case,  but  such  a  putting  of  tempta- 
tion in  their  way  would  aggravate  their  tendency  to  avoid  the  very 
difficulties  which  make  them  strong,  and  which  give  Latin  its  value  as 
a  discipline.  Indeed,  any  aid  but  the  legitimate  one  of  grammar  and 
vocabulary  would  just  as  surely  cheat  every  purpose  of  the  study  of 
Latin,  as  the  use  of  a  graduated  arc  would  cheat  the  purpose  of  a  prob- 
lem in  pure  Geometry. 

But  the  effect  on  these  weak  ones  is  not  the  chief  evil.  That  is  its 
effect  on  the  strong,  for  it  would  cheat  them  out  of  part  of  their  re- 
ward for  diligent  work, — getting  the  thought  through  their  own  efforts. 
Further,  it  would  certainly  tend  to  dull  their  interest,  because  the  text 
read  would  not  be  new.  That  fact  alone,  it  seems  to  me,  is  an  all- 
sufficient  objection  to  a  previous  reading  of  a  translation. 

Another  thing  is  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  translation  in  idiomatic 
English.  The  translation  ordinarily  to  be  obtained  is  abominable,  and 
would  be  extremely  effective  in  destroying  the  student's  hard-earned 
power  of  translating  into  English,  instead  of  into  Latin-English.  The 
respect  given  to  words  in  print  would  intensify  this  result.  And,  on 
the  otner  hand,  the  better  the  translation  read,  the  less  of  the  spirit 
and  individuality  of  the  author  the  student  would  get.  Therefore,  even 
if  the  evil  be  lessened  by  reading  a  good  translation,  more  and  more 
will  the  good  to  come  from  it  be  restricted  to  what,  in  my  opinion,  can 
better  be  given,  if  given  at  all,  by  an  outline  or  synopsis. 

Further,  if  the  purpose  of  studying  Latin  is  to  get  a  mere  superficial 
knowledge  of  the  work  of  an  author,  a  knowledge  that  doesn't  reach 


GERMAN  AND  LATIN  AS  AIDS  TO  ENGLISH.  3^7 

•down  into  his  feelings,  his  style,  his  individuality,  then  by  all  means 
read  the  Latin  classics  in  translation.  It  surely  isn't  worth  while  to 
spend  years  of  plodding,  hard  work  for  such  a  purpose  as  that.  What 
other  purpose  translation  reading  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
Latin  can  serve,  I  cannot  see.  Its  possible  utility  as  an  apperceptive 
"basis  is  somewhat  shadowy.  Surely  a  better  basis  is  furnished  by  an 
.accurate  knowledge  01  inflections,  vocabulary  and  syntax. 

In  conclusion,  I  can  see  no  desirable  result  in  a  previous  reading  of  a 
translation  which  cannot  be  reached  more  briefly  and  effectively  in 
.some  other  way,  to  say  nothing  of  the  undesirable  results. 


IN  WHAT  WAY  MAY  THE  WORK  IN  BOTH  LATIN  AND  GERMAN 
BE  MADE  TO  CONTRIBUTE  MOST  TO  THE  STUDENTS'  COM- 
MAND OF  ENGLISH? 

W.  S.  WATSON,  Whitewater. 

I  want  to  say  before  beginning  the  discussion  of  this  subject  that  the 
writer  has  never  taught  Latin  and  does  not  feel  competent  to  discuss 
the  methods  and  aims  of  Latin  teachers.  So  far  as  the  lines  of  work 
in  Latin  and  German  run  parallel  they  can  be  considered  in  a  single 
paper,  but  it  would  seem  that  in  a  number  of  respects  the  aims  of  the 
two  departments  are  not,  and  ought  not  to  be,  identical. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  students  in  our  secondary  schools  have 
a  poor  command  of  the  English  language.  There  is  no  complaint  so 
common,  the  justice  of  which  is  so  unquestioned,  as  that  which  issues 
from  the  colleges  that  their  students  cannot  speak  and  write  correct, 
forceful  English.  This  condition  is  so  universally  recognized  that  it  is 
needless  to  dwell  upon  it  here. 

The  question  for  us  to  consider  is  rather,  how  the  students'  command 
of  English  can  be  most  helped  by  the  study  of  Latin  or  German.  The 
ability  of  students  to  use  good,  clear  English  depends  upon  several 
things.  First,  they  must  know  the  correct  forms.  Although  English 
is  said  to  be  a  grammarless  tongue,  yet  our  students  hear  so  many  in- 
correct forms,  they  are  so  completely  surrounded  with  slang  and  street 
idioms  that  a  knowledge  of  pure,  correct  English  cannot  be  obtained 
by  imitation  alone.  There  must  be  some  accurate  knowledge  of  gram- 
mar. Secondly,  they  must  be  on  friendly  terms  with  words.  Their 
vocabulary  must  be  complete  enough  to  allow  them  to  express  their 
thoughts  with  force  and  variety.  Lastly,  they  must  have  acquired  skill 
in  expression — gained  largely  by  practice  under  criticism — self-criticism 
or  criticism  by  another.  The  value  of  hearing  pure,  correct  English  is 
an  important  factor  that  must  not  be  omitted. 

The  study  of  a  foreign  language  ought,  under  favorable  conditions, 
to  give  assistance  along  these  lines.  The  amount  of  this  assistance  will 
depend  to  a  considerable  degree  upon  the  general  method  followed  by 
the  teacher.  The  so-called  natural  method  can  do  but  little  for  the  stu- 
dents' English  as  the  work  is  carried  on  wholly  in  the  foreign  tongue. 
If  the  aim  of  the  teacher  is  to  have  the  pupils  obtain  a  speaking  knowl- 
edge of  the  language,  then  emphasis  will  be  placed  on  that  phase  of  the 
work  and  training  in  English  will  be  practically  nil.  In  fact,  the 
structure  of  the  Latin  or  German  sentence  is  so  unlike  the  English  that 
an  imitation  of  that  model  may  do  positive  harm  to  the  pupils'  habits 


188  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

of  sentence  building.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  primary  object  before 
the  teacher  is  mental  discipline  acquired  by  a  study  of  the  principles- 
of  grammar  and  by  translation  of  the  literature  into  idiomatic  English, 
then  the  incidental  training  in  English  will  amount  to  almost  as  mucb, 
as  the  training  in  the  foreign  tongue.  Between  these  extreme  methods- 
are  many  which  partake  in  part  of  features  of  each. 

Many  students  have  testified  that  their  first  clear  understanding  of 
English  grammar  came  only  after  an  acquaintance  with  that  of  an  in- 
flected language.  In  a  language  like  ours  where  •  relations  are  largely 
expressed  by  the  use  of  prepositions,  case  for  example  has  but  little- 
significance.  But  after  an  acquaintance  with  the  declensions  of  either 
German  or  Latin  such  relations  take  on  a  new  meaning.  Here  is  cer- 
tainly one  way  in  which  the  study  of  a  foreign  tongue  helps  to  a  more 
exact  knowledge  of  one's  own.  On  the  other  hand  I  have  noticed  that 
those  students  who  bring  to  the  study  of  German  grammar  a  fair 
knowledge  of  English  grammar  are  the  ones  who  find  the  work  easy 
and  who  really  master  it  most  successfully,  thus  showing  that  such.' 
knowledge  acts  reciprocally.  Again,  it  is  exceptional  to  find  students- 
who  are  familiar  with  even  the  English  verb  forms.  You  car  ask  a; 
class  of  thirty  members  for  the  present  passive  infinitive  of  a  verb, 
or  the  present  active  participle  and  not  more  than  three  or  four  will  be- 
ready  with  a  correct  reply.  You  may  say  that  the  study  of  English 
grammar  ought  to  have  taught  these  forms.  I  can  only  answer  from 
my  experience  that,  while,  theoretically,  it  should  teach  such  common 
verb  forms,  yet  practically  it  does  not,  and  it  is  a  condition  and  not  a* 
theory  that  we  must  deal  with.  Those  students  who  take  up  the  study 
of  German  after  having  had  Latin,  invariably  show  a  knowledge  of 
English  grammar  superior  to  that  which  any  of  the  students  bring  to 
the  work  who  have  never  studied  any  language  but  their  own,  thus 
showing  that  an  acquaintance  with  an  exact,  highly  inflected  language- 
has  helped  to  a  better  knowledge  of  their  mother-tongue. 

Translation  from  a  foreign  language  should  help  pupils'  English.  In 
the  first  place  it  increases  their  command  of  words,  not  only  by  adding 
new  words  but  it  forces  the  students  to  discover  new  uses  for  old  words, 
to  discriminate  shades  of  meaning  that  were  before  wholly  outside  of 
their  ken.  Next  it  gives  facility  in  expression,  affords  practice  in  the' 
use  of  equivalent  and  alternative  expressions,  and  gives  a  flexibility  and 
variety  to  language  that  is  so  desirable.  This  is  especially  true  when 
rapid  review  work  and  easy  sight  reading  are  part  of  the  requirements. 
It  also  causes  the  pupils  to  appreciate  the  idioms  of  their  own  language 
and  gives  them  opportunity  to  compare  these  idioms  with  those  used  by 
another  people.  Finally,  but  not  least  in  importance,  it  develops  the 
habit  of  self-criticism.  This  leads  to  accuracy,  clearness,  and  precision 
of  expression  which  is  so  rare  and  yet  so  desirable.  The  literal  trans- 
lation in  which  the  idiom  of  a  foreign  language  is  not  expressed  by  the 
English  idiom  may  be  desirable  and  necessary  to  reveal  to  the  teacher 
pupils'  knowledge  of  construction  but  it  has  no  value  for  training  in 
English.  If  pupils  are  permitted  to  simply  render  their  German  or 
Latin  literally  without  being  required  to  also  translate  the  passage 
into  smooth,  idiomatic  English,  then  they  are  receiving  only  a  part  of 
the  training  to  which  they  are  entitled.  There  is  also  danger  of  stu- 
dents introducing  some  of  the  foreign  idioms  into  their  English  unless- 
the  teacher  is  constantly  on  the  watch.  This  work  does  not  help  with 
English  sentence  building.  Latin  and  German  sentences  are  not  con- 


ORGANIZING  WORK  IN  LATIN  AND  GERMAN. 

rstructed  on  the  same  principles  as  English  sentences,  and  so  serve  as 
poor  models  for  imitation.  One  prominent  defect  in  the  English  used 
by  our  pupils  is  in  the  line  of  imperfect  sentence  structure.  Loose, 
rambling,  disjointed,  sprawling  sentences  are  characteristic  of  much 
work.  Again,  translation  from  another  language  will  not  teach  para- 
graphing. True  composition  consists  in  clothing  ideas  that  have 
shaped  themselves  in  our  own  minds.  Translation,  then,  is  only  an 
aid  preparatory  to  the  actual  work. 

It  is  said  that  about  two  thirds  of  the  words  in  Webster's  Interna- 
tional Dictionary  are  classically  derived,  most  of  them  coming  from 
the  Latin.  It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  opportunity  in  the  Latin  class 
for  our  students  to  learn  much  in  regard  to  roots,  suffixes  and  prefixes 
if  the  teacher  takes  especial  care  to  present  these  facts  grouped  in  such 
a  way  that  the  students  can  use  them  in  all  their  work.  One  of  the 
most  useful  influences  resulting  from  a  study  of  Latin  is  the  help  to 
the  students  in  all  later  work  in  understanding  the  meaning  of  Eng- 
lish words  without  constant  reference  to  the  dictionary.  My  own  ex- 
perience as  a  student  of  Latin  teaches  me  that  the  best  results  will 
never  be  obtained  if  the  pupils  are  left  to  ascertain  these  facts  by  them- 
selves, unaided  by  special  help  from  the  teacher.  If  more  work  in 
philology  and  etymology  were  done  in  the  German  and  Latin  classes,  it 
would  enable  the  students  to  master  new  words  for  themselves.  Courses 
in  word  analysis  would  then  be  unnecessary. 

So  few  of  our  students  will  ever  use  their  knowledge  of  Latin  or 
German  in  a  practical  way  that  the  training  side  ought  to  stand  out 
prominently  in  all  our  courses  as  the  side  to  receive  the  particular 
emphasis  of  the  teacher.  The  rendering  of  English  into  German  or 
Latin  will  not  help  the  student's  command  of  his  native  tongue;  but  all 
the  grammatical  work  and  all  the  translation  can  be  made  to  bear  on 
this  weak  spot  in  the  training  of  our  students.  I  am  not  ready  to  say 
that  this  is  a  panacea  that  will  cure  all  bad  cases,  or  even  when  applied 
"by  itself  alone,  any  case;  but  for  the  average  student,  translation  into 
smooth,  idiomatic  English  of  the  thoughts  of  another,  will  give  power 
when  he  wishes  to  express  thoughts  of  his  own.  The  translation  is,  if 
you  please,  a  kind  of  mental  gymnastics  which  gives  strength  when 
the  student  has  ideas  of  his  own  to  express. 

A  teacher  of  a  foreign  language  said  a  few  days  ago:  "The  teachers 
of  foreign  languages  in  our  Normal  schools  are  today  teaching  English 
by  means  of  the  foreign  languages,  in  place  of  merely  the  foreign  lan- 
guages." Was  this  censure  or  praise? 


€AN  THE  LATIN  AND  GERMAN  WORK  IN  NORMAL  CLASSES  BE 
SO  ORGANIZED  AS  TO  GIVE  FULL  SCOPE  TO  INDIVIDUAL 
PREPARATION,  CAPACITY  AND  OPPORTUNITY? 

PAULINE  E.  WEIS,  Milwaukee. 

The  necessity  for  such  organization  of  the  work  as  to  give  full  scope 
to  individual  capacity,  preparation  and  opportunity,  is  far  less  im- 
perative for  Latin  than  for  German.  There  has  long  been  a  fixed  stand- 
ard of  Latin  requirement  for  college  entrance  set  for  the  high  schools; 
few  schools  have  other  than  college  trained  Latin  teachers  of  sound 


190  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

and  liberal  culture;  and  in  the  high  school  course,  there  has  been  more 
or  less  weeding  out  of  hopelessly  bad  material,  so  that  students  enter- 
ing the  Latin  course  at  college  or  at  the  Normal  usually  have  uniform 
preparation.  Yet  there  may  be  those  who  have  not  studied  Latin  for 
some  years,  taken  no  pains  to  review  before  entering,  or  those  who 
show  great  deficiency  in  preliminary  training.  Since  the  aim  in  the 
Normal  school  is  to  give  two  years  of  work  in  Latin  beyond  high  school 
requirements  and  such  work  in  methods  as  will  enable  the  student  to« 
teach  Latin,  no  teacher  in  such  a  school  can  afford  to  spend  time  help- 
ing those  deficient  in  academic  Latin.  All  who  are  thus  deficient 
should  be  dropped  from  the  course  so  that  the  teacher  may  devote  her 
whole  attention  and  resources  to  the  task  of  training  those  who  give 
reasonable  promise  of  pursuing  the  work  successfully.  Such  procedure 
in  college  classes  would  be  a  crime,  but  it  is  not  the  province  of  the 
Normal  school  to  give  collegiate  training  and  the  question  is  not 
whether  a  mastery  of  Latin  might  not  ue  interesting  and  profitable  to^ 
all,  whether  with  considerable  individual  attention  they  might  not  suc- 
ceed in  making  up  deficiencies,  but  whether  their  preliminary  training. 
and  ability  will  enable  them  to  pursue  more  advanced  work  two  years 
and  become  a  creditable  teacher  of  Latin.  The  past  two  years,  hav- 
ing dropped  the  preparatory  work  and  adopted  a  purely  advanced 
course,  it  has  been  necessary  to  do  considerable  individual  work,  bridg- 
ing over,  as  it  were,  but  under  the  new  curriculum  it  seems  best  to  drop1 
all  who  are  in  any  wise  below  the  standard,  for  with  the  very  best  ma- 
terial two  years  is  a  lamentably  short  time  to  prepare  for  Latin  teach- 
ing. 

Given,  then,  a  class  conforming  to  the  fixed  standard  of  attainment 
in  Latin  set  for  high  school  graduates,  there  is  abundant  scope  within 
these  limits  for  individual  work.  Without  changing  the  class  plan  or 
organization,  or  with  but  slight  modification,  the  teacher  can  study  the 
individual  needs  of  each  student.  One  may  fail  in  appreciation  of  some 
point  of  syntax,  another  be  lacking  in  knowledge  of  mythology  or 
Roman  history,  another  find  difficulty  in  understanding  the  thought  or 
logical  connection  of  a  passage.  Special  work  designed  to  help  the 
student  overcome  any  weakness  may  be  assigned  and  reports  made  in 
private.  If  several  members  of  the  class  require  the  same  work  it  is 
often  possible  to  meet  them  at  sometime  other  than  regular  recitation 
time.  Those  who  have  mastered  the  assigned  work  may  be  held  to 
read  at  sight,  while  the  others  are  dismissed  to  master  the  regular 
work,  and  again  the  former  be  excused  to  perform  some  set  task  while 
the  others  receive  additional  help,  review  or  drill.  The  baneful  influ- 
ence of  the  use  of  translations  can  only  be  overcome  by  teaching 
methods  of  independent  work,  by  taking  the  regular  class  period  for 
the  preparation  of  the  new  lesson.  Much  profit  is  also  derived  from 
mastering  a  topic  on  Roman  life  or  some  Latin  author  and  presenting 
it  clearly,  forcibly  and  attractively,  each  student  having  a  different 
topic,  the  teacher  sometimes  furnishing  references.  Criticism  may  be 
offered  in  private  as  to  content,  literary  form  and  manner  of  present- 
ing it. 

This  question  is  a  far  more  difficult  one  for  German.  There  is  little 
uniformity  of  attainment  in  German  among  students  from  various  high 
schools,  outside  of  the  larger  cities,  due  first  to  lack  of  a  fixed  standard 
of  what  the  aim  of  German  teaching  in  high  school  should  be,  second 
to  inability  of  teachers,  and  to  the  fact  that  often  German  speaking  stu- 


ORGANIZING  WORK  IN  LATIN  AND  GERMAN.  jgj. 

dents  are  credited  by  an  American  teacher  with  German  of  the  high 
school  course.  Consequently,  many  of  all  grades  of  ability  present 
themselves,  some  having  no  standard  of  pronunciation,  unable  to  dis- 
tinguisn  an  adverb  from  a  preposition,  unable  to  spell  or  punctuate  or 
write  a  correct  sentence,  and,  in  fact,  those  of  German  parentage  hav- 
ing a  speaking  knowledge  more  or  less  free  from  dialect  and  corrup- 
tion, are  most  often  more  deficient  than  American  students.  To  drop 
these  students  from  the  course,  however,  would  be  impossible  and  un- 
just, for  the  crying  need  of  our  schools  and  colleges  is  for  teachers  ot 
German  able  to  speak  and  write  the  language,  of  liberal  education  and 
especial  training  for  teaching.  Native  German  teachers  fill  many  posi- 
tions in  this  country  but  often  fail  of  the  largest  success  because  ot 
their  insufficient  command  of  English,  and  their  lack  of  tact  and  un- 
derstanding of  American  conditions  of  life.  Many  English  teachers 
have  in  more  or  less  residence  abroad  acquired  some  speaking  knowl- 
edge of  the  language,  but  the  ideal  German  teacher  is  one  of  the  same 
nationality  as  his  pupils,  who,  bilingual  from  childhood,  has  a  liberal 
education  and  special  training  for  teaching.  Too  long  have  the  Ger- 
mans in  America  been  blind  to  their  great  advantage  and  oppor- 
tunities open  in  this  field,  so  that  any  German  speaking  students, 
though  deficient  in  preparation,  are  welcomed  with  delight  to  the  Nor- 
mal course  and  it  is  the  teacher's  privilege  to  study  their  individual 
needs  and  meet  them  by  especially  adapted  assignments  of  work;  to 
seek  to  inspire  in  them  not  only  such  a  love  for  the  German  and  the 
German  literature,  that  they  will  feel  constrained  to  seek  higher  op- 
portunities for  study  than  those  here  afforded,  but  also  gratitude  that 
it  has  been  their  fortune  to  attain  without  conscious  effort  a  speaking 
knowledge  of  two  languages,  and  to  show  them  the  possibilities  open  to 
a  properly  equipped  German  teacher. 

There  will  always  be  English  speaking  and  German  speaking  stu- 
dents in  the  same  class  and  to  divide  the  class  permanently  on  this 
basis  would  be  an  obvious  disadvantage,  as  some  lines  of  work  may 
very  profitably  be  pursued  by  both.  The  German  students  thereby 
learn  more  and  more  the  needs  of  the  English  student  and  gain  ability 
and  the  method  of  presenting  their  language  to  Americans  intelligibly, 
while  the  English  student  naturally  also  gains  much  from  hearing  the 
language  spoken  by  various  members  of  the  class. 

In  the  present  crowded  curriculum,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  deviate 
much  from  class  organization,  but  it  is  possible  to  meet  the  individual 
needs  of  the  class  in  several  ways.  By  different  assignments  of  work, 
by  giving  to  groups  of  threes  or  fours  work  that  will  meet  their  need. 
One  of  the  best  students  in  the  class  may  be  asked  to  take  a  group  to 
another  room  and  drill  them  while  the  teacher  devotes  herself  to  the 
others,  giving  another  group  blackboard  or  written  work,  while  she 
helps  others  and  in  turn  gives  these  a  written  task,  while  she  points 
out  errors  to  others.  Within  a  class  of  sixteen  juniors  last  year  there 
were  four  groups  doing  different  work  and  sometimes  the  regular  reci- 
tation time  for  two  days  was  divided  into  ten  or  fifteen  minute  periods 
for  private  interview,  and  those  not  seen  in  this  time  were  met  before 
school  or  at  some  other  appointed  time. 

Yet  rarely  is  it  possible  for  any  student,  however  devoted,  to  find  time 
for  much  work  beyond  the  regular  prescribed  course.  Twice  the  time 
might  profitably  be  spent  on  preparation.  Another  difficulty  is  the 
want  of  advanced  Latin  authors  in  text-book  or  reference  library  and 


192  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

by  far  the  greatest  obstacle  to  scholarly  attainment  lies  in  the  habit 
which  seems  prevalent,  that  the  student  takes  from  text-book  library  a 
certain  author,  then  another,  reads  the  assigned  work,  obtains  his 
credits  on  the  register,  returns  the  book,  finishes  the  course,  often 
without  having  in  his  possession  a  single  printed  page  of  Latin. 

Commendable,  excellent  and  generous  as  is  the  system  of  free  text- 
books, yet  students  of  languages  should  above  all  else  own  a  working 
library.  Well  and  with  excellent  results  might  we  follow  the  system  in 
vogue  in  Germany  of  reading  the  same  author  again  after  six  months 
and  again  after  a  year. 


REPORT  OF  THE  LEADER. 

The  following  are  the  points  upon  which  the  members  of  this  section 
agreed: — 

I. 

The  minimum  of  German  Grammar  in  the  shorter  course. 

1.  Declension  of  articles,  adjectives,  and  such  nouns  as  are  readily 
classified.     (About  250.) 

2.  The  conjugation  of  the  weak  and  the  more  usual  strong  verbs. 
(About  50.) 

3.  The  common  prepositions. 

4.  The  simpler  uses  of  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  the  subjunctive  and 
infinitive  modes. 

II. 

Shall  any  attempt  be  made  to  secure  a  speaking  knowledge  of  Ger- 
man? 

1.  Conversation  should  be  made  secondary  to  a  good  reading  knowl- 
eldge,  but  conversational  work  in  the  German  classes  is  a  very  effec- 
tive means  of  fixing  the  German  idioms. 

2.  The  German  students  should  be  put  in  a  position  to  help  them- 
selves later  to  the  power  of  speaking  German. 

III. 

An  emphatic  "No"  was  the  answer  to  the  question  of  reading  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  a  Latin  author  before  the  study  of  the  Latin  author 
begins. 

It  was  agreed  that  help  similar  to  this  should  be  given  orally  by  the 
teacher.  That  this  help  should  be  sufficient  to  arouse  interest  in  the 
author  and  to  give  the  student  a  general  idea  of  the  author's  purpose  in 
the  work,  was  agreed  to  very  heartily. 

IV. 

How  study  of  Latin  and  German  may  be  made  to  contribute  more  to 
the  student's  command  Of  English. 

1.  The  Grammar  should  be  compared  closely  with  corresponding  por- 
tion of  the  English  grammar. 

2.  English  derivatives  from  the  Latin  should  be  noted  closely  to  help 
fix  the  Latin  word  and  to  get  a  clear  meaning  of  the  English  derivatives. 

3.  More  attention  should  be  paid  to  translating  into  idiomatic  Eng- 
lish and  such  careful  attention  paid  to  choice  of  words  that  the  student 


INSTRUCTING   STUDENTS   IN  LIBRARY   METHODS.       193 

shall  acquire  a  sort  of  word-sense  that  leads  to  the  selection  of  the  most 
fitting  word. 

4.  Sight  translation  should  be  made  to  contribute  to  facility  in  the 
use  of  good  English. 

V. 

1.  Miss  Wies's  plan  of  sectioning  her  class  for  individual  work  and 
calling  upon  the  more  competent  pupils  to  help  in  certain  sections,  met 
with  hearty  favor.     It  was  agreed  that  such  work  gives  fuller  scope  to 
individual  capacity,  preparation,  and  opportunity. 

2.  It  was  agreed  that  under  existing  conditions  no  attempt  should  be 
made  to  prepare  any  except  the  very  best  students  for  teaching  Latin 
or  German. 

3.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  section  that  students  from  the  high 
schools  come  better  prepared  in  Latin  than  in  German. 

J.  .W.  LIVINGSTON. 


LIBRARY  SECTION. 

LIZZIE  P.  SWAN,  Leader. 


SHOULD  THE  LIBRARIAN  INSTRUCT  STUDENTS  IN  LIBRARY 
METHODS?  IP  SO,  FOR  WHAT  PURPOSE,  AND  TO  WHAT  EX- 
TENT? 

AXXE  H.  MCNEIL,  Milwaukee. 

That  there  should  be  instruction  in  library  methods  is  becoming  more 
evident  each  year.  There  is  an  increasing  number  of  calls  for  teachers 
who  are  fitted  to  go  out  into  the  high  schools  of  the  state  and  organize 
the  high  school  libraries  and  the  present  haphazard  manner  of  individ- 
ual instruction  to  meet  occasional  needs  is  not  sufficient. 

The  question  has  been  asked  by  some — "Why  catalog  the  libraries? 
The  teachers  in  charge  know  the  books  and  can  refer  their  pupils  to 
needed  material."  The  teachers  may  know  all  about  the  books  and  pos- 
sibly can  answer  any  question  asked  them,  but  it  is  unwise  to  depend 
upon  the  memory  of  any  one  person,  however  competent. 

The  school  library  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  school's  furnishing  as  any 
other  necessary  apparatus  and  to  make  the  best  possible  use  of  books, 
there  must  be  careful  organization.  A  small  number  of  books  well 
organized  and  in  charge  of  a  teacher  trained  to  get  from  them  all  the 
information  they  contain,  is  of  more  value  than  a  much  larger  number 
of  books  not  properly  used. 

A  dictionary  catalog  calls  attention  to  many  important  articles  which 
otherwise  might  be  overlooked.  It  makes  the  resources  of  the  library 
more  available  and  saves  a  vast  amount  of  the  teachers'  and  pupils' 
time. 

Our  teachers  can  do  nothing  for  a  child  which  will  be  of  more  value 
to  him  in  after  life  than  to  train  him  in  such  a  manner  that  he  will 
leave  school  with  a  knowledge  of  how  to  use  books  and  a  desire  for 
good  books.  Children  should  De  made  so  familiar  with  the  use  of  the 

13 


194  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

library  that  it  will  become  an  actual  need  to  them  in  their  future 
studies  and  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  show  them  the  use  of  cata- 
logs, indexes  and  all  sorts  of  reference  books.  They  will  soon  become- 
familiar  with  them  and  handle  them  as  well  as  older  students. 

In  order  to  so  train  the  children,  our  teachers  must  first  be  trained, 
and  there  is  no  better  opportunity  for  teaching  the  use  of  books  than 
in  a  Normal  school. 

The  students  are  here  given  a  chance  to  become  familiar  with  books 
and  libraries.  Nearly  all  of  the  studies  in  the  course  are  so  taught  as 
to  require  much  reference  work.  Normal  schools  create  an  interest  in 
good  literature  in  their  students  through  library  reading.  They  also 
train  their  students  to  use  much  supplementary  material  in  preparing 
their  lesson-plans  in  history,  geography  and  other  studies. 

There  are  two  special  lines  of  work  which  I  think  it  important  to 
include  in  a  course  in  library  methods, — the  use  of  reference  books  and 
the  organization  of  the  school  library. 

The  time  for  this  work  is  so  limited  that  both  of  these  subjects  can- 
not be  treated  thoroughly,  and  if  one  must  be  neglected,  I  think  it 
should  be  the  first.  I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  I  do  not  consider  the 
course  in  reference  books  as  valuable  as  the  course  in  organization,  but 
if  the  time  is  lacking  for  both,  special  work  in  the  latter  is  most  needed. 

The  lectures  given  to  the  school  as  a  whole  deal  entirely  with  points 
in  the  first  topic,  hence  all  get  a  little  of  the  theory  and,  if  they  are  so 
disposed,  can  work  out  problems  which  will  fix  this  knowledge. 

Then,  too,  as  I  before  stated,  nearly  all  studies  in  the  Normal  school 
require  more  or  less  reference  work,  so  that  students  necessarily  will 
get  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  use  of  reference  books  before  completing 
their  course  without  special  training. 

The  course  in  organization  I  have  given  in  our  school  is  a  very  lim- 
ited one;  but  it  has  enabled  a  number  of  those  taking  it  to  put  the 
small  libraries  to  which  they  have  gone,  into  a  more  usable  form. 

The  mere  listening  to  lectures  on  library  subjects  cannot  be  called 
training.  What  the  students  need  is  practical  work  to  supplement  the 
theory.  A  definite  amount  of  work  should  be  planned  and  much  drill 
should  be  given  to  aid  in  developing  the  principles  and  applying  them 
to  special  problems  set  for  the  student  to  solve. 

This  work  should  be  carefully  looked  over  and  corrected  and  con- 
tinued drill  given  until  it  is  plain  that  he  has  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  subject  and  has  reached  a  definite  standard  in  his  work. 

The  main  points  which  we  have  touched  upon  are  the  mechanical 
preparation,  accessioning,  shelf  listing,  classification,  and  cataloging  of 
the  school  library;  the  preparation  and  use  of  pictures;  making  of  read- 
ing lists  for  special  days  and  subjects;  the  history  of  the  township  li- 
brary movement  and  the  use  of  the  township  and  high  school  lists. 

For  a  small  library,  the  simplest  forms  sufficient  for  the  easy  identi- 
fication of  a  book  are  all  that  is  necessary.  The  students  classify  the 
books  on  the  township  list  for  practice  in  classification.  We  use  the 
condensed  accession  sheet  and  on  the  shelf  list,  author,  and  title  cards 
put  only  the  most  important  points.  I  take  up  the  main  entry  cards 
first  and  in  class  give  the  students  all  the  forms  of  author  cards  which 
they  will  need  in  cataloging  the  books  on  the  township  and  high 
school  lists. 

Following  this,  each  student  does  individual  work  in  the  library, 
making  the  main  entry  cards  for  several  books  under  each  special  form. 


LISTS  AND  REFERENCES   MADE  VALUABLE. 

When  they  have  sufficient  practice  in  this,  we  take  up  the  title  and  gen- 
eral subject  cards.  The  new  element  in  the  making  of  a  general  sub- 
ject card  is  the  choice  of  a  subject. 

The  principal  point  in  the  choice  of  subject  headings  is  the  exact 
designation  of  the  subject  and  the  absolutely  consistent  use  of  the  same 
hea'ding  for  the  same  subject  with  references  from  synonomous  terms 
and  related  subjects. 

The  most  valuable  work  and  that  which  takes  the  most  drill  is  the 
work  of  making  subjects  analytical.  Here  again  they  have  had  prac- 
tice in  choosing  general  subjects  and  this  will  aid  them  in  the  analytical 
work.  The  new  point  will  be  which  topics  in  a  book  are  important 
enough  to  bring  out.  Only  good  judgment  and  long  practice  will  make 
perfect  in  this  work.  I  believe  in  close  analytical  work  and  in  a  school 
library  all  subjects  should  be  brought  out  which  will  be  apt  to  be  of 
value  in  any  line  of  school  work. 

We  follow  the  A.  L.  A.  list  of  subject  headings  and  all  students  are 
advised  to  get  a  copy  of  this,  as  well  as  of  all  other  simple  aids,  before 
doing  practical  work  in  their  schools. 

If  time  is  given  in  the  course  for  further  work,  I  should  advocate 
giving  a  special  course  in  reference  books  in  connection  with  the  above 
work,  making  a  special  study  of  each  class  of  reference  books  and 
working  out  special  problems. 

The  following  is  a  short  outline  of  the  work  which  will  be  most  val- 
uable on  reference  books:  — 

1.  A  short  history  of  the  book — how  made,  its  binding  and  care.    A 
visit  to  some  bindery  should  be  made  while  studying  this  topic. 

2.  Aids  in  the  selection  of  books. 

3.  Encyclopedias,   general   and   special  characteristics:     Time,  scope, 
maps,  illustrations,  portraits,  special  features,  strong  and  weak  points 
including  whether  strong  in  history,   biography,   geography,   politics, 
sciences,  fine  arts. 

4.  Dictionaries,   scheme  of  criticism:     Spelling,  pronunciation,   der- 
initions,  special  features.     Compare  differences  as  to  quality  and  scope. 

5.  Hand-books    of    general    information.     Important    thing    to  know 
of  these  is  index. 

6.  Atlases  and  gazeteers.     Important  points:     Accuracy,  scale,  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  matter,  engraving. 

7.  Indexes  to  periodical  literature. 

8.  Other  indexes  and  theory  of  indexing. 

9.  Bibliographies. 

10.  Almanacs  and  other  statistical  manuals  as  Statesman's  Year  Book. 


TO  WHAT  EXTENT  AND  IN  WHAT  WAY  CAN  PRINTED  LISTS  OP 
BOOKS  AND  REFERENCES  BE  MADE  MOST  VALUABLE.  NOT 
ONLY  IN  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOLS  BUT  BY  A  SYSTEM  OF  EX- 
CHANGE IN  ALL  THE  SCHOOLS? 

CAROLINE  E.  SILLIMAN,  River  Falls. 

In  former  times,  even  after  the  days  when  the  Bible  was  chained 
to  the  desk,  books  were  put  behind  bars  and  the  ideal  of  the  librarian 
was  that  he  was  a  book-guard,  whose  duty  it  was  to  collect  and  pre- 
serve books  from  dust,  vermin,  and  people.  But  in  these  days  when 


196  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

books  abound  and  superabound,  the  librarian,  keeping  in  mind  that 
books  are  to  be  read,  feels  that  he  is  a  book-guide  and  studies  all 
methods  whereby  books  may  be  gotten  off  the  shelves  and  into  the  hands 
of  the  readers. 

One  of  these  methods  is  the  use  of  reference  lists  which  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  classes: 

''  1.  Suggestive  lists  of  books  for  purchase,  with  publisher  and  price, 
such  as  the  Bulletin  of  the  Wisconsin  Free  Library  Commission,  con- 
taining the  new  book  list,  and  the  Township  and  High  School  Library 
Lists.  The  latter  are  much  more  serviceable  to  us  as  they  deal  with 
books  which  are  better  adapted  to  our  needs. 

2.  Reference   lists   of  material  suitable   for  Arbor   Day,   Christmas, 
special  birthdays,  such  as  were  sent  out  last  year  by  the  Wisconsin' 
Free  Library  Commission. 

3.  Bulletins   from   the  large   public   libraries,   which   are   published 
either  in  the  daily  papers  or  issued  monthly  in  pamphlet  form.     These 
often  contain  reading  lists  on  topics  of  the  day  and  may  be  very  useful 
as  basis  for  class  lists,  or  for  topics  to  work  over  for  debaters. 

4.  Reference   lists   for   use   in    specific    classes    as   general   history, 
science,  art,  and  many  others. 

All  of  these  except  the  last  mentioned  are  recieved  by  the  Normal 
schools  of  the  state,  and  may  be  used  in  awakening  and  fostering 
interest  in  a  subject  which  would  otherwise  remain  unread. 

The  Township  and  High  school  lists,  by  their  careful  annotations, 
greatly  aid  in  the  selection  of  books  for  purchase,  and  when  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  student-teacher,  enable  him  to  choose  more  wisely  his 
reading,  thus  raising  the  standard  throughout  the  schools.  They  also 
enable  him  more  wisely  to  direct  the  reading  of  pupils  in  the  schools 
in  which  he  shall  teach. 

These  lists,  which  are  general  in  their  nature,  aid  us  in  many  ways, 
but  It  is  the  lists  belonging  especially  to  Normal  school  work,  arranged 
for  the  use  of  classes  and  for  the  individual  student,  to  which  we  should 
give  attention. 

The  purpose  of  these  lists  is  to  give  aid  in  a  subject  at  a  specific 
time  and  to  a  specific  student.  Should  he  be  obliged  to  look  through 
the  catalog,  Poole's  index  and  the  Cumulative  index,  he  would  probably 
choose  the  first  reference  which  bore  upon  his  topic.  This  might  be 
already  in  use  or  might  not  be  best  suited  to  his  need  and  even  after 
he  had  found  an  article  his  time  for  reading  would  have  been  con- 
sumed. With  a  carefully  compiled  reference  list  in  his  hand,  he  will 
obtain  in  the  shortest  possible  time  the  article  which  exactly  meets  his 
requirements.  This  timeliness  in  meeting  needs  as  they  arise  lies  at 
the  foundation  of  this  method  of  assistance.  As  a  time-saving  device 
these  lists  are  valuable  to  the  student,  teacher  and  librarian. 

As  the  reference  list  contains  not  only  a  list  of  books  and  all  the 
references  to  the  periodicals  which  are  bound  in  the  library,  but  also 
references  which  are  too  short  to  be  brought  out  in  the  catalog,  (see 
the  list  of  library  references  for  General  History,  compiled  by  Miss 
Carrie  J.  Smith),  it  supplements  the  work  of  the  catalog  and  df 
Poole's  and  the  Cumulative  indexes,  occupying  a  niche  all  its  own. 

The  catalog  can  be  used  by  but  one,  or  at  the  most,  two,  at  a  time, 
but  since  the  lists  are  shorter  they  may  be  printed  enabling  many 
to  select  their  material  at  the  same  time.  They  should  be  printed 
though  with  space  allowed  for  additions,  for,  as  the  needs  of  sue- 


LISTS  AND  REFERENCES  MADE  VALUABLE. 

cessive  classes  in  the  same  subject  vary  from  term  to  term,  these 
lists  must  grow  to  meet  the  new  demands  made  upon  them.  Not  only 
may  they  be  used  in  successive  classes  in  the  same  subject,  but  also  for 
classes  in  widely  different  subjects. 

Last  spring  I  compiled  a  reading  list  on  birds  for  Arbor  day,  using 
the  list  sent  out  by  the  State  Library  Commission  as  a  basis.  It  was 
used  so  little  that  I  wondered  if  it  paid  for  the  trouble,  but  a  few 
months  later  the  science  teacher  wished  to  know  what  material  we 
had  on  birds  and  I  brough  forth  my  bulletin,  saving  her  time  and 
mine  in  looking  up  the  subject.  She  had  no  sooner  finished  with  it 
than  the  teacher  in  English  wished  for  some  material  upon  birds  in 
her  class  in  English  composition  and  again  my  list  was  used.  For 
each  I  added  a  few  references  which  were  not  in  the  library  at  first  and 
which  were  demanded  by  the  different  points  of  view  of  the  two 
teachers. 

"If  then  as  the  different  points  of  view  which  are  continually  pre- 
senting themselves  a  library's  resources  in  these  particular  directions, 
be  enumerated,  and  if,  moreover,  these  successive  and  minute  reference 
lists  be  filed  and  indexed,  something  will  have  been  done  analogous  to- 
the  'placer'  work  to  which  a  miner  resorts  to  exhaust,  if  possible,  all 
the  ways  in  which  the  particles  of  gold  might  succeed  in  escaping 
his  search,"  says  W.  E.  Foster  in  "Papers  prepared  for  the  World's 
library  congress." 

If  with  close  cataloging  and  the  great  amout  of  analytical  work, 
there  is  a  wider  employemnt  of  the  reference  list  on  the  part  of  our 
libraries,  much  will  be  done  to  give  force  to  Mr.  Adams'  suggestion 
that  a  collection  of  books  repeatedly  and  minutely  recataloged  is 
worth  more  to  its  readers  than  one  of  twice  its  numbers  with  no  sifting 
processes  and  with  infrequent  cataloging  or  none  at  all. 

A  strong  objection,  and  one  the  force  of  which  we  can  all  feel,  is  the 
lack  of  time  to  compile  these  lists.  For  each  library  to  laboriously 
compile  all  its  own  lists  is  a  duplication  of  labor  which  might  better 
be  expended  in  other  directions.  Reference  lists  should  all  be  co- 
operative; for  although  primarily  intended  for  the  use  of  the  schools 
issuing  them,  their  general  circulation  as  exchanges  and  adoption  by 
sister  institutions,  considerably  lesssens  the  necessity  for  others  work- 
ing out  these  problems  for  themselves. 

Two  objections  might  be  raised  to  this  plan  of  exchange,  one,  very 
unworthy  of  the  "missionary  of  the  book,"  is  that  he  did  not  wish 
anyone  else  to  make  use  of  the  list  which  had  been  compiled  with  FO- 
much  toil  and  effort  on  his  part;  the  other  is,  "My  list  is  not  com- 
plete. If  I  had  the  time  I  would  work  it  out  more  fully  and  should 
be  willing  to  have  it  go  as  my  work."  A  reference  list  can  never  be- 
complete.  Books  and  articles  are  continually  being  published.  Articles; 
are  found  in  unexpected  places  so  that  if  a  compiler  waits  for  perfection 
in  his  list  he  will  wait  in  vain. 


198  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


METHODS    OF    UTILIZING    PERIODICAL    LITERATURE    TO    THE 
BEST  ADVANTAGE. 

MARY  F.  CARPENTER,  West  Superior. 

Periodical  literature  in  its  widest  sense  includes  all  publications 
-which  appear  at  regular  intervals  and  have  no  natural  termination. 
Thus  the  term  embraces  not  only  our  common  quarterlies,  monthlies, 
weeklies  and  dailies,  but  such  publications  as  Appleton's  Annual 
Cyclopedias,  the  Annual  Register,  the  World's  Almanac  and  the  States- 
man's Year  Book,  besides  a  vast  number  of  pamphlets  published  by 
the  government  and  various  societies  and  institutions.  It  is  not  my 
purpose  in  this  paper  to  cover  all  of  these,  but  rather  to  confine  myself 
to  the  periodical  literature  found  in  the  reading  rooms  of  our  Normal 
schools,  merely  touching  the  subect  of  pamphlets  and  government  docu- 
ments. Periodicals  are,  generally  speaking,  classed  according  to  their 
intervals  of  publication,  and  as  technical  or  popular,  special  or  general, 
according  as  they  deal  with  one  or  many  subjects. 

To  the  casual  reader  it  is  inconceivable  how  much  literature  of  real 
and  permanent  value  appears  in  the  current  magazines  and  reviews. 
Of  its  importance  to  the  student  hardly  enough  can  be  said.  Without 
doubt  it  is  of  more  value  in  reference  work  than  any  other  kind  of 
literature.  In  our  periodicals  are  represented  the  ablest  thinkers  and 
statesmen,  the  wisest  scholars  and  scientists,  the  subtlest  critics  and 
philosophers,  making  them  a  library  of  permanent  value.  By  reading 
them  we  come  in  contact  with  the  finest  spirits  of  the  time.  Here 
we  may  feel  the  pulse  of  society,  follow  the  chief  movements  of  the 
people,  study  the  history  of  the  time.  Many  works  which  have  be- 
come permanent  authorities  in  science,  religion,  politics,  education  and 
state-craft  have  first  appeared  in  the  magazines.  It  is  here  that  we  may 
catch  the  spirit  of  ancient  and  modern  art,  observe  the  birth  and  follow 
the  growth  of  economic  and  religious  institutions  and  become  acquaint- 
ed with  the  great  problems  of  nature  and  humanity  as  viewed  by 
experts.  Periodical  literature  becomes  more  valuable  each  year.  It  has 
been  urged  by  some  that  a  surfeit  of  such  literature,  both  juvenile  and 
adult,  is  operating  against  the  reading  of  books  and  formation  of  li- 
braries, that  the  magazine  has  its  place,  but  it  also  has  its  limitations. 
Undoubtedly  there  is  much  truth  in  this  statement.  Too  much  read- 
Ing  of  magazines  does  form  a  taste  for  the  short  story  and  for  the 
superficial  sort  of  literature  found  in  many  of  our  current  periodicals, 
but  while  this  is  true  of  our  lighter  and  more  superficial  magazines, 
it  is  not  the  case  with  the  mass  of  periodical  literature  of  which  the 
student  makes  use. 

Should  we  not  furnish  as  much  of  this  material  as  is  possible  to 
the  Normal  school  students?  Every  teacher  must  keep  up  with  her 
age,  and  in  order  to  do  this  there  must  be  a  generous  supply  of  current 
periodical  literature.  Just  how  much  each  school  can  furnish  must 
"be  determined  by  the  income  it  receives  for  this  purpose.  A  college 
librarian  who  has  given  the  subject  considerable  thought  and  study 
reaches  certain  conclusions  which  it  seems  to  me  are  equally  applicable 
to  a  Normal  school  library.  In  his  opinipn  the  money  spent  for  current 
periodicals  should  be  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  the  entire  amount 
devoted  to  the  purchase  of  books  and  periodicals.  In  libraries  with 


BEST  USE  OF  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE.  199 

small  incomes  the  proportion  of  the  income  spent  for  periodicals 
should  be  greater  than  in  libraries  having  large  incomes.  They  will 
find  that  a  given  sum  of  money  invested  in  current  periodicals  will 
give  more  stimulus  to  advanced,  independent  work  than  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  same  amount  for  books. 

The  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  discuss  the  methods  of  utilizing  peri- 
odical literature  to  the  best  advantage.  In  order  to  realize  this  aim, 
we  must  consider  two  important  phases  of  the  subject,  the  selection 
and  the  care  of  such  literature.  Owing  to  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  periodicals  during  the  past  few  years,  the  matter  of  selection  is  not 
an  easy  one.  How  can  we  give  to  the  student  the  most  useful  material 
which  will  also  furnish  any  adequate  representation  of  the  work  being 
•done  in  all  lines  of  investigation,  is  worthy  of  much  thought  and 
consideration.  There  are  few  decisions  in  the  management  of  a  li- 
brary which  are  more  important  ia  their  immediate  results  or  more 
far-reaching  in  their  ultimate  consequences.  Right  here  the  knowledge 
which  the  librarian  has  of  the  courses  of  study  and  the  methods  of 
work  will  be  of  the  greatest  service.  It  is  her  duty  to  see  that  the 
choice  of  serials  is  such  that  it  will  meet  the  demands  of  the  institution 
of  which  she  is  librarian.  That  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  possible 
good  to  the  students  both  for  reference  work  and  as  a  means  of  mental 
recreation  and  pleasure.  A  choice  once  made  is  not  a  final  one.  Some 
periodicals  die  and  new  ones  come  into  existence.  Conditions  arise 
necessitating  a  new  selection  along  certain  lines.  At  all  times  the  li- 
brarian should  be  ready  to  meet  these  changes.  Time  will  not  permit 
me  to  take  up  separate  periodicals  and  discuss  their  merits  and  de- 
merits. Suffice  it  to  say  that  we  should  be  unceasing  in  our  efforts 
to,  in  every  way,  keep  up  with  this  kind  of  literature,  so  that  we  may 
t>e  able  to  make  the  most  advantageous  selection. 

Having  made  the  best  possible  selection,  the  next  step  is  their  care. 
In  this  particular  phase  of  the  subject  I  may  touch  upon  certain 
points,  which  to  some  of  you  may  seem  of  little  importance.  In  my  opin- 
ion they  are  worthy  of  and  need  special  emphasis.  It  is  the  detail  part 
of  the  library  work,  often-times  tiresome  and  monotonous,  which  in 
the  end  brings  the  greatest  results.  In  no  other  work  is  system  more 
necessary.  As  soon  as  a  periodical  comes  into  the  library  it  should 
"be  carefully  collated  and  a  record  of  receipt  made  either  on  cards  or 
serial  blanks.  The  A.  L.  A.  serial  blanks  I  find  very  convenient.  These 
should  show  aside  from  the  title  and  date  of  receipt  of  each  number, 
the  call  number  and  state  of  completeness  of  library  set,  frequency, 
and  in  case  of  weeklies,  day  of  issue,  number  of  issues  per  volume, 
and  of  volumes  per  year,  address  of  publisher,  name  of  agent  through 
whom  ordered,  regular  price,  cost,  where  the  title  page  and  index 
are  to  be  found  and  date  when  volume  was  sent  to  the  binders.  The 
latter  may  be  kept  only  in  the  binder's  book.  From  such  a  record  can 
he  answered  at  a  glance  every  question  which  is  likely  to  be  asked  con- 
cerning the  publication  or  receipt  of  any  periodical  on  the  list.  Sub- 
scriptions should,  if  possible,  commence  with  the  fiscal  year.  Unbound 
periodicals  should  be  kept  in  some  kind  of  a  case  or  on  a  sloping 
table  and  newspapers  on  a  rack.  Manila  or  some  other  kind  of  covers 
preserve  the  attractive  outsides,  so  useful  for  bulletins  and  posters, 
and  keep  the  magazine  itself  in  better  condition.  From  time  to  time 
periodicals  in  daily  use  should  be  looked  over  and  the  back  numbers 
put  away  in  a  case  of  drawers.  A  very  good  method  is  to  put  them 


200  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

in  pamphlet  boxes,  label  the  boxes  and  arrange  them  on  the  shelves  in 
alphabetical  order.  Whenever  a  volume  is  complete  see  that  its  title 
page  and  index  are  with  it  and  then  send  it  to  the  binder.  If  this 
sort  of  care  is  given  to  periodicals  the  result  will  be  most  satisfactory. 
There  will  be  upon  our  shelves  no  incomplete  volumes,  with  title  page 
or  index  missing,  so  annoying  to  the  searcher  for  information,  but 
every  volume  will  be  so  arranged  that  its  material  may  be  easily  and 
quickly  found.  As  to  the  binding  of  periodical  literature,  the  librarian 
must  again  decide  according  to  the  means  at  her  disposal  and  the 
special  needs  of  her  library.  A  good  rule  for  us  to  follow  is  that  "any 
magazine  worthy  the  attention  of  a  student  in  the  Normal  schools  is 
worthy  of  preservation  in  permanent  form."  I  should  say:  Have  as 
many  bound  as  possible  and  those  that  cannot  be  bound  keep  in  some 
way  such  as  pamphlet  cases,  so  that  they  may  be  gotten  at.  At  least 
one  local  newspaper  and  one  of  the  best  state  papers  should  be  kept 
on  file.  In  cases  of  imperfect  sets,  these  should  be  filled  in  at  some 
time.  The  librarian  has  little  time  to  spend  in  looking  up  the  best 
places  to  obtain  these  odd  numbers  and  we  Wisconsin  librarians  may 
rejoice  at  the  establishment  of  a  "clearing  house  for  magazines"  by 
the  Free  Library  Commission,  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  us  in 
the  future. 

A  question  which  arises  in  the  use  of  periodical  literature  is  how 
shall  it  be  circulated?  No  definite  rule  can  be  established  regarding 
this.  Each  library  must  answer  the  question  for  itself.  We  allow 
our  unbound  periodicals  to  be  taken  out  over  night,  while  the  bound 
ones  and  unbound  pamphlets,  reports  and  works  of  a  similar  nature  are 
circulated  with  the  same  rules  as  the  books  in  the  library. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  that  the  vast  mine  of  in- 
formation found  in  periodical  literature  has  been  opened  up  to  the 
public.  For  more  than  a  century  men  have  been  giving  to  the  world, 
in  periodicals,  the  result  of  their  investigations,  to  be  read  and  en- 
joyed by  their  contemporaries,  but  practically  lost  to  subsequent  genera- 
tions. All  of  this  was  changed  and  the  treasures  of  the  most  im- 
portant edition  and  magazines  unlocked,  when  in  1881,  the  third  and 
enlarged  edition  of  Poole's  index  was  published.  After  the  appearance 
of  Poole,  kindred  publications  by  this  and  other  countries  followed, 
until  at  the  present  time  we  have  indexes  to  almost  all  literature  of 
this  character.  The  first  edition  of  Poole  was  supplemented  by  three 
volumes  covering  five  years  each,  ending  respectively  1886,  1891  and 
1896.  Since  then  the  Annual  Literary  Index  gives  a  yearly  index  of 
subjects  and  authors  and  serves  as  a  supplement  to  the  Poole  sup- 
plement. The  American  Library  Association  Index,  an  index  to  general 
literature,  biographical,  historical  and  literary  essays  and  sketches, 
reports,  publications  of  boards  and  societies,  dealing  with  education, 
health,  labor,  charities,  correction,  etc.,  brought  down  to  date  by  the 
Annual  Literary  index,  supplements  Poole  by  referring  to  publications 
not  strictly  classed  as  periodicals.  A  form  of  Poole  which  will  be  of 
great  value,  especially  to  the  small  library,  which  has  comparatively 
few  of  the  volumes  indexed  in  this  publication,  is  the  abridgement  of 
Poole's  index  in  one  volume,  recently  published  by  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.,  which  contains  a  complete  index  to  all  of  the  leading  popular 
magazines.  It  gives  all  the  information  that  is  of  value  in  the  com- 
plete sets,  costs  not  more  than  one  third  as  much  and  can  be  more  eas- 
ily handled. 


BEST  USE  OF  PERIODICAL  LITERATURE.  £0! 

The  most  useful  index  is  the  Cumulative,  issued  monthly  by  the 
Cleveland  public  library.  While  not  indexing  as  large  a  number  of 
periodicals  as  Poole,  it  is  more  convenient  on  account  of  the  frequency 
of  its  issue  and  from  its  form,  which  is  a  complete  dictionary  catalog. 
The  Review  of  Reviews  has  a  useful  monthly  index  to  current  periodi- 
cal literature,  while  the  Dial's  subject  index  will  be  found  valuable. 
For  juvenile  literature  we  have  such  indexes  as  Griswold's  index  to  the 
first  twenty-one  volumes  of  the  St.  Nicholas,  Sargent's  Reading  for  the 
Young  and  its  supplement,  containing  indexes  to  the  sets  of  St.  Nicholas, 
Harper's  Young  People,  and  Wide  Awake.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot 
be  laid  on  the  value  of  such  books  as  Matson's  References  for  Liter- 
ary Workers,  and  Brooking  &  Ringwalt's  Briefs  for  Debate,  both  of 
which  furnish  references  to  periodicals.  Every  library  should  possess 
these  indexes  if  it  would  make  its  periodical  literature  most  available.. 
It  is  the  general  opinion  of  librarians  that  more  reference  work  can 
be  done  with  a  complete  set  of  the  Century  or  Harper's  with  Pooled 
index,  than  with  twice  the  number  of  reference  books  not  periodicals. 
These  indexes  will,  however  be  of  little  value  unless  the  librarian 
is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  them  and  is  able  to  explain  the  use  of 
them  to  the  students.  In  a  Normal  school  a  very  small  per  cent, 
of  the  students  know  how  to  use  these  indexes,  and  not  only  are 
general  talks  necessary  but  much  individual  work  must  be  done.  I 
know  that  I  am  voicing  the  opinion  of  all  of  the  librarians  of  our 
Normal  schools  when  I  say  that  at  least  a  small  part  of  the  regular 
school  hours  is  due  us  for  library  instruction  and  that  it  should  not 
be  in  the  form  of  a  general  talk  to  the  student  body  or  by  asking 
them  to  stay  after  school.  Our  work  should  be  as  much  a  part  of  the 
required  work  as  that  of  any  teacher.  Only  when  this  is  brought 
about  can  the  results  we  wish  to  see  be  accomplished.  One  lesson, 
if  not  more,  in  the  course  of  library  instruction,  should  certainly 
be  on  the  uses  of  index-books,  as  periodical  and  newspaper  indexes, 
A.  L.  A.  index  and  supplements,  indexes  of  government  publications 
and  catalogs  of  large  libraries.  An  explanation  6*f  such  books  as 
Matson's  References  for  Literary  Workers  and  Brooking  &  Ring- 
wait's  Briefs  for  Debate,  where  the  pros  and  cons  of  different  subjects 
are  brought  out,  should  be  required.  Out  of  such  lessons  would  grow 
an  appreciation  of  the  library  and  a  desire  to  use  to  the  full  the 
facilities  which  it  offers. 

Time  will  be  saved  and  help  given  to  the  reader  if  a  list  is  posted 
near  the  indexes,  giving  your  sets  in  one  alphabet,  the  abbreviation 
followed  by  the  fuil  title  and  the  volumes  in  the  library.  If  other 
libraries  are  near,  there  should  be  a  list  of  their  periodicals  at  hand, 
that  use  may  be  made  of  them. 

The  indexes  unlock  this  storehouse  of  wealth,  yet  students  often  feel 
that  it  would  be  an  advantage  if  the  subject  catalog  included  magazine 
articles.  At  any  rate  it  would  be  profitable  to  have  some  of  those 
periodicals  not  included  in  the  indexes  cataloged  either  in  a  separate 
catalog  or  filed  in  the  main  one.  Much  of  this  work  is  already  being 
done  by  student  help  in  some  of  our  Normal  schools.  It  is  an  admir- 
able plan,  one  to  be  encouraged,  which  I  hope  in  time  will  be  adopted 
by  us  all.  Not  only  is  it  of  benefit  to  the  student  in  showing  him  how 
to  make  more  effective  research  and  how  to  bring  out  subject-matter 
by  topics,  but  it  also  makes  him  an  efficient  helper  in  the  library. 

A  means  of  great  help  in  encouraging  the  reading  of  magazines  and: 


202  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

newspapers  and  in  bringing  to  the  notice  of  the  students  various 
topics  of  interest  is  the  bulletin  board  for  current  topics.  Here  should 
be  posted  a  weekly  list  of  the  best  articles  in  the  newspapers  and 
magazines,  lists  on  points  of  special  interest  to  the  teacher  and  pictures 
taken  from  Harper's  Weekly  and  other  magazines  to  illustrate  topics 
of  current  interest.  This  will  be  a  source  of  comfort  to  the  hurried 
teacher  and  to  the  boys  and  girls. 

If  time  permits  an  excellent  idea  is  to  have  systematic  courses  in 
newspaper  reviewing  and  selection. 

Often  in  popular  magazines  or  papers  which  it  does  not  seem  worth 
while  to  bind,  or  in  stray  numbers,  there  appear  articles  worthy  of 
preservation.  Here  again  much  can  be  done  by  student  help.  Clip- 
pings may  be  made  and  put  into  a  scrap  book  or  pasted  on  sheets 
and  after  being  classified  may  be  placed  in  the  pamphlet  boxes  holding 
articles  on  that  subject.  Magazines  may  be  taken  apart,  and  whole 
articles  taken  out,  bound  with  others  on  the  same  subject,  or  placed 
in  pamphlet  boxes.  Pictures  may  also  be  utilized  in  a  number  of  ways. 
Many  are  the  means  which  a  careful  and  enthusiastic  librarian  will 
find  to  utilize  the  odd  and  stray  numbers  which  are  to  be  found  in 
every  library. 

In  addition  to  the  serial  publications  which  properly  belong  in  the 
reading  room  for  periodicals,  every  library  has  a  large  number  of 
unbound  reports,  bulletins  and  other  publications  of  societies  or  ot 
governmental  offices,  which  unless  properly  indexed  are  a  constant 
source  of  annoyance.  Many  theories  and  suggestions  have  been  ad- 
vanced as  to  the  best  methods  for  the  care  and  use  of  these  pamphlets. 
It  would  require  as  much  if  not  more  time  than  I  have  already  taken 
to  give  any  adequate  discussion  of  tne  subject.  I  will  close  my 
paper  by  giving  you  briefly  the  method  we  have  employed  at  Superior 
and  trust  that  it  may  at  least  be  suggestive  to  you. 

All  pamphlets  are  accessioned  not  in  the  main  accession  book,  but 
in  a  separate  one,  then  classified  broadly  according  to  subject.  For 
instance,  everything  dealing  with  any  phase  of  sociology  we  put  in 
300,  giving  in  place  of  the  author  number  "pamp."  They  are  then  put 
into  tne  A.  L.  A.  pamphlet  boxes,  labeled  as  the  books  are  and  placed 
on  the  shelves  according  to  classification  and  author  number.  Every 
article  of  any  importance  is  cataloged  on  cards  under  subject,  title, 
if  a  catch  one,  and  author,  if  at  all  well  known.  These  cards  are 
filed  in  the  dictionary  catalog,  where  they  are  at  the  service  of  all.  We 
have  found  it  in  every  way  a  very  satisfactory  method. 


LEADER'S  REPORT. 

FIRST   MEETING. 

The  Library  Section  was  called  to  order  by  the  chairman,  Miss  Swan, 
\vho  called  attention  to  the  directions  to  Leaders  of  Sections,  emphasiz- 
ing the  fact  that  they  must  hold  to  the  questions  before  them  in  all 
discussions  until  the  matter  is  decided.  She  proposed  that  any  ques- 
tions on  which  discussion  was  desired  should  be  given  to  the  li- 
brarians at  the  close  of  the  meeting,  in  order  that  there  might  be 
time  for  consideration.  Also,  librarians  should  be  ready  to  discuss 
their  own  methods,  especially  in  those  matters  that  differ  in  the  va~ 


LEADER'S  REPORT  ON  LIBRARY  WORK.  203 

rious  schools.  It  was  suggested  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to 
draw  up  a  resolution  and  decide  what  we  consider  the  scope  of  the 
librarian's  work. 

Miss  Swan  read  a  paper  on  "Scope  of  librarian's  work  in  the  Nor- 
mal school." 

It  was  agreed  by  all  present  that  Miss  Swan  had  covered  by  her 
five  points  all  that  should  be  included  in  the  scope  of  a  librarian's 
work  in  a  Normal  school. 

Miss  Simpson  called  attention  to  the  statement  that  the  repeated 
calls  for  help  that  are  occurring  every  day  in  the  library  may  become 
so  burdensome  that  the  librarian  cannot  undertake  them.  "Shall  she 
give  up  her  cataloging  to  help  students?  Do  I  understand  that  you 
would  consider  the  help  to  the  student  the  stronger  point." 

Miss  Swan  replied  that  conditions  would  limit  it.  If  it  is  a  new 
student  who  has  not  had  any  opportunity  to  do  anything  in  the  library 
for  himself,  "I  should,  if  possible,  leave  my  work  and  help  him;  but 
if  it  is  a  student  that  I  can  merely  by  a  word  help  out,  I  would  tell 
him  a  word,  but  I  would  train  my  students  so  that  they  would  not 
come  to  me  for  things  that  they  could  do  for  themselves." 

Miss  Simpson  asked  if  "members  of  the  faculty  depend  on  you  for 
the  use  of  books?  If  you  spend  a  good  bit  of  time  on  cataloging 
each  book  as  it  comes  to  the  library  and  bring  it  out  in  all  different 
headings,  why  cannot  the  members  of  the  faculty  who  are  going  to 
prepare  lessons  come  in  and  use  the  catalog?" 

Miss  Swan  replied  that  they  could. 

Miss  Simpson  asked  if  she  preferred  to  have  them  come  to  her, 
to  consulting  the  catalog? 

Miss  Swan  replied  that  she  must  know  how  many  books  are  to  be 
used,  and  what  the  books  are.  "The  teacher  cannot  depend  on  me 
for  his  class  to  get  the  recitation  for  the  next  day  if  there  are  but 
two  books  in  the  library  and  without  saying  anything  to  me  those 
two  books  are  drawn.  I  must  know  what  material  there  is  in  the 
library  myself.  It  would  seem  to  me  that  the  librarian  was  the  one 
to  come  to  for  that  material  rather  than  to  use  the  catalog.  She 
must  know  how  much  material  there  is  in.  the  library  in  order  to 
guard  against  books  going  out  that  should  not  go  out  until  night." 

Miss  Carpenter  asked  how  she  provided  for  that.  "If  it  was  gen- 
erally understood  that  they  are  to  come  to  you  and  give  you  a  list 
of  the  books  that  they  want,  or  do  they  let  it  go?" 

Miss  Swan  replied  that  teachers  differed  about  it."  Many  of  the 
teachers  come  in  and  pick  out  the  books  themeslves,  and  being  on 
the  reserve  shelf,  she  knew  the  books  were  to  be  reserved. 

Most  of  those  present  admitted  that  they  had  more  or  less  dif- 
ficulty in  securing  the  cooperation  of  teachers  in  this  particular. 

Question  was  asked  as  to  how  many  of  the  librarians,  if  those 
books  were  taken  out  without  their  knowledge  of  the  teacher's  refer- 
ence to  them,  found  out  who  had  them.  All  agreed  that  they  found 
the  books.  Effort  should  be  made  to  have  that  happen  just  as  few 
times  as  possible. 

Miss  Parmele  and  others  had  found  in  their  work  that  frequently 
students  come  to  them  saying  that  such  a  teacher  has  referred  us  to 
such  a  book,  and  ask  if  that  book  ought  not  to  be  reserved.  She  and 
others  reported  that  they  have  less  trouble  than  formerly  in  that 
respect. 


204  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Miss  McNeil  called  attention  to  the  statement  made  that  students; 
frequently  leave  or  complete  their  course  without  having  acquired 
the  habit  of  book  research,  and  asked  if  there  were  many  who  failed 
to  acquire  that  habit  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

It  was  answered  that  many  persons  and  teachers  go  through  life 
•without  that  critical  analysis  of  that  which  comes  before  them;  not 
seeing  things  vividly,  not  understanding  accurately  nor  clearly  many 
things  that  come  to  them  in  their  reading;  that  it  is  natural  inclina- 
tion which  has  much  to  do'  with  it.  "Of  course  we  do  not  send  out 
many  students  that  have  not  improved  in  that  respect.  The  school 
course  and  the  librarians  together  do  much  for  them,  but  all  have 
not  an  equal  desire.  There  are  some  people  who  go  out  from  the 
school  who  are  not  as  proficient,  or  do  not  enjoy  book  research  as 
much  as  some  others  do  when  they  come  there.  Some  do  not  have 
the  Kindly  attitude  toward  book  research  that  we  could  wish." 

Miss  Simpson  suggested  that  Miss  Swan  should  be  made  chair- 
man of  the  committee  to  formulate  the  resolutions  to  be  adopted,  and 
that  all  should  help.  The  meeting  was  appointed  for  Wednesday  night. 
Miss  Parmele  then  read  a  paper  entitled,  "What  assistance  can  the 
librarians  give  to  the  heads  of  departments  to  facilitate  use  of  ref- 
erence library  by  students  in  the  special  work  of  each  department?" 

Miss  Swan  agreed  heartily  with  what  Miss  Parmele  said  in  regard 
to  cataloging  and  subject  headings.  Miss  Carpenter  asked  if  there 
was  not  an  advantage  in  following  as  far  as  possible  some  system  of 
headings,  e.  g.,  the  A.  L.  A.  headings.  Of  course  many  changes  have 
to  be  made  in  a  Normal  school  library,  but  why  not  fit  students  when 
they  go  out  from  the  Normal  schools  to  be  accustomed  to  these  head- 
ings rather  than  for  each  librarian  to  make  up  a  system  of  her  own. 
It  saves  time  on  "see  also  references." 

Miss  Parmele  replied  that  she  uses  "see  references"  extensively 
from  all  possible  headings  which  are  suggested.  "I  am  guided  in  my 
choice  of  main  headings  by  the  text-books  and  by  the  various  printed 
syllabi,  some  of  which  have  been  used  in  the  school  for  years.  I 
try  to  get  the  point  of  view  and  to  put  myself  in  the  teacher's  place 
as  far  as  possible." 

It  was  not  thought  possible  to  make  a  well-rounded  catalog  with- 
out something  to  guide. 

Miss  Swan  remarked  that  the  A.  L.  A.  headings  were  made  for  the 
general  library,  but  were  specific  enough  along  some  lines  for  use  in 
a  Normal  school  library. 

Others  were  of  the  opinion  that  if  you  change  for  one  teacher 
another  may  want  different  changes.  You  have  got  to  go  by  that 
once  in  mind. 

It  was  thought  by  all  that  many  headings  must  be  added  to  those 
given  in  the  A.  L.  A.  but  that  it  served  as  a  good  basis. 

Miss  McNeil  was  not  in  favor  of  using  the  headings  the  teachers 
use.  She  had  found  in  her  experience  that  every  teacher  uses  a  lit- 
tle different  mode  of  expression,  and  when  one  teacher  leaves  a 
school  and  a  new  one  comes  to  take  up  the  work,  he  will  not  use 
the  same  headings  and  the  work  will  have  to  be  done  over. 

Miss  Parmele  said  that  she  followed  not  so  much  the  teacher's 
wording  as  that  of  the  text-book.  She  tried  to  use  a  heading  that 
the  text-book  itself  would  suggest,  or  the  teacher  would  suggest, 
where  it  was  possible,  and  just  as  well  as  to  use  the  A.  L.  A. 


LEADER'S  REPORT  ON  LIBRARY  WORK. 


Miss  McNeil  thought  the  librarian  should  decide  the  heading,  and 
anodify  the  heading  the  teacher  may  suggest,  because  she  is  trained 
to  it,  and  her  judgment  would  be  better  than  the  teacher's. 

Miss  Swan  said  her  practice  is  to  put  in  "see  references"  for  the 
^teacher's  headings,  and  then  use  the  headings  that  seem  to  her  best, 
and  most  fitting.  She  never  asks  a  teacher  for  the  heading,  but  for 
the  subjects  that  teacher  wants  brought  out,  and  if  she  gives  dif- 
.ferent  names  than  Miss  Swan  wants,  she  is  very  careful  to  give 
the  "see  references"  and  then  put  in  her  subject  heading. 

Many  of  the  pedagogical  terms  used  are  not  found  in  the  A.  L.  A. 

Miss  Simpson  asked  if  others  have  any  experience  with  students 
using  the  catalog,  and  then  saying  that  they  cannot  find  any  book 
on  such  a  subject.  If  a  student  bas  looked  under  a  simple  heading, 
would  it  be  advisable  to  make  a  subject  heading  under  that  heading, 
or  make  a  "see  reference"  card,  which  would  relieve  the  difficulty. 

Miss  Parmele's  plan  of  classifying  the  book  according  to  the  teach- 
er's wish  was  again  referred  to. 

Miss  Simpson  stated  her  practice  to  be  to  consult  the  teacher, 
if  she  knew  he  wished  the  book  in  a  different  place,  and  if  she  found 
the  book  was  going  to  be  more  useful,  and  she  had  no  good  reason 
for  not  putting  it  there,  she  classified  it  where  the  teacher  wanted  it. 

A  discussion  then  arose  as  to  the  disposition  of  books  on  education 
in  the  various  libraries.  In  some,  all  works  on  psychology  were  put 
with  the  books  on  education,  no  distinction  being  made  between 
those  that  would  go  under  philosophy  and  those  that  would  go  under 
education.  In  others,  a  closer  classification  was  made,  it  being  con- 
sidered better  to  keep  them  apart. 

The  attitude  of  teachers  toward  the  library  was  discussed.  Some 
indifference  and  lack  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  teachers  has  been 
met  with,  and  suggestions  as  to  how'  to  meet  this,  and  to  what 
length  the  librarian  should  go  in  such  cases,  were  offered.  It  was 
suggested  that  some  teachers  had  not  reached  the  point  where  they 
were  in  sympathy  with  library  methods  of  study,  but  were  still  fol- 
lowing text-books  instead  of  doing  reference  work. 

Another  librarian  suggested  that  the  feeling  among  science  teach- 
ers that  students  were  using  books  to  the  exclusion  of  the  facts  they 
ought  to  discover  for  themselves  led  them  to  oppose  the  using  of 
books;  but  that  teachers  of  geography,  history,  and  literature  should 
have  only  the  friendliest  attitude  toward  the  library. 

It  was  also  thought  the  point  Mr.  Harvey  is  urging,  that  the  teacher 
should  teach  more  and  lecture  less,  will  help  this  difficulty,  and  will 
do  away  with  a  great  deal  of  the  lack  of  use  of  books  with  some 
teachers. 

Miss  Gardner  followed  this  discussion  with  her  paper  on  "What 
work  can  librarians  do  in  assisting  students  to  use  the  reference 
library  economically  and  intelligently?" 

The  points  brought  up  for  discussion  were  the  methods  followed 
by  the  different  librarians,  in  order  to  make  themselves  closely  ac- 
quainted with  the  work  of  the  various  teachers;  the  amount  of  time 
it  was  advisable  for  the  librarian  to  give  to  each  individual  teacher; 
how1  much  assistance  she  should  render  the  teacher  in  making  read- 
ing li,sts  for  students. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  majority  that  if  they  wished  to  encourage 


206  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

the  teachers  to  cooperate  with  them,  and  make  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  library,  it  should  be  the  librarian's  work  to  get  the  reading 
lists  in  shape  for  use.  If  she  has  any  students  able  to  assist  her  in 
this  work,  she  could,  if  crowded,  let  them  do  some  of  this  work. 

Part  of  the  work  given  in  one  of  the  Normal  schools  is  to  train 
students  in  the  use  of  the  library. 

The  advisability  of  reserve  shelves  for  books  was  next  discussed. 
It  seemed  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  the  plan  was  a  drawback, 
to  students  learning  to  find  books  where  they  belonged.  Also  that 
students  confined  their  reading  to  the  books  reserved,  thought  there 
was  nothing  except  those  books  on  the  subject,  and  that  it  hindered 
the  use  of  the  library. 

At  this  point  Supt.  Harvey  came  into  the  meeting.  He  asked  how 
many  of  the  librarians  had  opportunity  to  give  specific  instructions 
to  incoming  students  on  the  use  of  the  library.  Five  answered  in  the 
affirmative. 

He  said,  "Why  not  give  a  specific  recommendation  to  the  proper 
authorities  that  this  should  be  done?  If  we  are  to  have  libraries,  and 
pay  librarians,  and  then  refuse  an  opportunity  to  teach  the  people 
how  to  use  the  tools,  it  seems  perfectly  absurd." 

To  those  who  had  no  time  set  apart,  he  suggested  taking  one  class 
period  per  week  to  teach  students  the  library,  which  he  did  not  think 
would  seriously  harm  the  other  work. 

Miss  Simpson  outlined  the  plan  followed  at  Stevens  Point  last  year, 
of  taking  20  or  30  students  at  their  vacant  period,  and  instructing 
them  in  the  use  of  the  library.  The  drawback  to  this  plan  was  the 
inequality  of  the  students  thus  brought  together,  some  of  whom 
might  be  preparatory  students,  and  others  seniors,  who  already  un- 
derstood the  use  of  the  catalog. 

Supt.  Harvey  said  that  there  was  no  reason  why  this  work  should 
not  be  organized  and  systematized  the  same  as  other  work,  and 
whenever  a  class  of  students  come  into  school,  the  librarians  ought 
to  have  the  opportunity  to  train  them  until  they  can  use  the  library. 

Miss  Swan  stated  her  former  plan  of  announcing  that  Wednesday 
was  the  day  that  she  devoted  to  teaching  any  students  who  wanted 
to  know  how  to  use  the  catalog  or  to  find  anything  in  the  library.. 
For  two  years  past  tnis  has  not  been  done.  It  is  not  needed  since  all 
students  do  systematic  library  work. 

Mr.  Harvey  thought  it  a  wasteful  way,  because  she  gave  40  days 
in  the  year  to  what  she  ought  to  do  in  10. 

He  said  his  only  contention  was  that  this  work  ought  to  be  recog- 
nized, and  some  provision  ought  to  be  made  so  that  librarians  have 
time  to  give  specific  instructions  to  students  on  the  use  of  the  libra- 
ries in  their  schools 

Miss  McNeil  was  then  called  on  for  her  paper  "Should  the  librarian 
instruct  students  in  library  methods?  If  so,  for  what  purpose,  and  to 
what  extent?" 

Between  25  and  30  of  the  students  in  the  Milwaukee  school  last 
year  chose  the  course  in  library  instruction  outlined  by  Miss  McNeil,, 
in  lieu  of  library  readings.  Those  students  chose  it  who  felt  that 
they  needed  it, — those  going  out  into  high  schools,  or  into  district 
schools,  and  the  work  was  limited  to  the  books  in  the  township  li- 
brary list. 


LEADER'S  REPORT  ON  LIBRARY  WORK.  207 

In  Whitewater  the  work  is  compulsory  with  the  senior  class.  They 
do  classifying  and  catloging  of  books,  each  student  giving  one  hour 
each  quarter  to  this  work  from  the  time  he  enters  school  until  he 
leaves. 

Discussion  followed  as  to  practicability  of  giving  this  work  to  all 
students;  the  attitude  of  the  students  toward  the  work;  and  the 
methods  adopted  as  to  returning  books  to  the  shelves.  There  was 
quite  a  difference  of  opinion  regrading  the  last  matter,  some  libra- 
rians reporting  their  students  to  be  very  accurate  in  this  work,  while 
others  found  them  very  careless. 

Questions  of  interest  were  asked  for. 

Miss  Parmele  inquired  as  to  the  hours  taken  by  librarians  who  give 
lectures;  whether  students  were  compelled  to  go;  whether  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  work  recommended  by  the  Board  is  required  of  the 
students  in  all  the  schools.  The  students  in  the  Oshkosh  school  are 
doing  the  maximum  work,  and  the  feeling  is  that  we  have  no  right 
to  compel  students  to  come  after  school  hours,  when  we  are  already 
requiring  the  maximum.  The  attendance  was  not  full  at  the  lectures 
when  the  plan  was  tried.  Question  could  not  be  answered  until  Presi- 
dents were  consulted  as  to  amount  of  work.  Report  would  be  made 
the  next  day. 

A  copy  of  Miss  McNeil's  paper  was  asked  for  by  each  librarian. 

SECOND    MEETING. 

Meeting  called  to  order  and  Miss  Carpenter's  paper  on  "Methods  of 
utilizing  periodical  literature  to  the  best  advantage"  was  read. 

Their  method  of  treatment  of  pamphlets  was  described  by  the  other 
librarians.  The  principal  point  of"  difference  brought  out  was  in  the 
method  of  classifying.  A  majority  favored  a  close  classification,  such 
as  would  be  used  for  books. 

The  matter  of  cooperative  work  in  the  several  schools  in  indexing 
periodicals  not  now  indexed,  was  discussed  at  length.  Some  were 
heartily  in  favor,  others  thought  that  if  the  work  were  done  for  the 
needs  of  their  own  schools,  it  might  be  of  little  value  to  some  other 
schools.  Reached  conclusion  to  each  choose  some  periodical  she  would 
be  willing  to  undertake  to  index,  and  name  choice  to  Miss  Swan, 
naming  second  choice  in  case  that  one  were  taken.  Then  questions 
as  to  character  of  subject  headings  came  up.  Some  wanted  specific 
headings,  some  general  headings.  It  was  suggested  that  a  committee 
be  appointed  to  make  out  list  of  subject  headings  for  general  agree- 
ment as  to  what  should  be  used.  It  was  thought  that  might  be  a  good 
plan,  but  it  was  also  thought  that  one  teacher  could  adapt  the  head- 
ings made  by  another  to  her  own  catalog. 

Miss  Simpson  followed  with  her  paper  on  "Preparation  and  use  of 
pictures." 

This  was  followed  by  an  account  of  the  handling  of  pictures  in 
other  schools.  In  Milwaukee  the  collection  was  large,  well  mounted, 
classified  and  cataloged,  and  was  found  of  much  use  and  value  in  the 
work. 

Oshkosh  has  a  large  collection,  but  it  is  under  the  charge  of  the 
supervisor  of  practice,  and  is  entirely  independent  of  the  librarian's 
charge.  It  is  at  the  librarian's  disposal  for  library  use  and  it  may 
be  used  by  teachers  not  in  the  model  school.  The  librarian  con- 


;208  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

tributes  a  considerable  amount  of  material.  The  library  has  a  fair 
collection  of  portraits. 

River  Falls  had  a  collection  with  which  they  made  bulletins  for 
special  days,  and  had  found  them  very  useful  in  the  grades,  and  also 
of  interest  to  Normal  students. 

The  saving  of  reading  material  and  mounting  of  same  on  the  back 
of  pictures  was  approved  by  all. 

The  librarians  were  invited  to  look  over  the  Oshkosh  collection  and 
examine  the  case. 

Miss  Silliman's  paper  on  the  subject,  "To  what  extent  and  in  what 
way  can  printed  lists  of  books  and  references  be  made  most  valu- 
able, not  only  in  individual  schools  but  by  a  system  of  exchange  in 
all  the  schools?"  was  read. 

She  exhibited  two  lists  of  references  prepared  by  teachers  in  the 
River  Falls  school,  one  on  history  and  one  on  art. 

Miss  Carpenter  and  others  expressed  themselves  in  favor  of  the 
exchange  of  reference  lists,  on  any  subject.  Of  course  lists  prepared 
by  some  teachers  would  be  more  valuable  than  others.  It  was  thought 
these  lists  could  be  prepared  by  each  librarian  as  extensively  as  she 
desired,  with  reference  to  what  is  needed  in  her  school,  and  then  if  it 
is  of  any  use  to  others,  to  pass  it  on.  It  was  thought  unlikely  that 
many  lists  would  come  that  had  not  valuable  material. 

A  teacher  could  take  these  lists  and  select  just  what  he  wanted, 
could  check  in  some  way  the  books  that  are  now  in  the  library,  and 
mark  the  best  in  the  list. 

Another  point  was  made  that  some  bibliographies  were  so  complete 
they  were  not  practical.  The  short  selected  list  was  thought  by  some 
better  to  put  in  the  hands  of  students  than  the  list  from  which  he 
does  not  know'  what  to  select.  That  the  list  he  needed  was  a  com- 
pact one  of  the  best  references  so  that  he  need  not  waste  time  in 
looking  up  matter. 

Also  that  the  best  references  ought  to  be  in  the  catalog. 

In  the  Oshkosh  school  these  reading  lists  are  mostly  compiled  by 
members  of  the  faculty  and  printed  in  the  syllabi  furnished  to  the 
students.  The  demand  is  mostly  for  short  reading  lists  wanted  at 
once  for  essays,  etc. 

It  was  thought  a  good  plan  for  the  two  schools  which  have  this 
printed  matter  (Milwaukee  and  Oshkosh)  to  send  to  each  of  the  other 
schools  copies  of  these  printed  lists  and  syllabi,  if  possible  to  do  so. 

Report  was  made  in  answer  to  Miss  Parmele's  question  of  Tues- 
day, as  to  amount  of  work  required  in  the  various  schools.  Miss 
Swan  had  consulted  her  President  and  learned  that  the  maximum 
amount  of  work  was  practically  required.  Library  lectures  were 
not  given  at  Whitewater,  except  to  the  student  body.  The  first  day 
of  school  she  has  new  students  come  into  the  library  and  she  gives 
them  instructions. 

At  Platteville  the  work  is  done  during  school  hours  in  the  pupils' 
free  periods,  except  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  when  the  new  stu- 
dents come. 

At  Superior  the  maximum  amount  of  work  is  required.  There  is 
no  time  during  the  day  for  lectures.  They  are  given  after  school, 
ure  about  half  an  hour  in  length,  and  students  respond  very  well  in- 
deed to  the  call. 


LEADER'S  REPORT  ON  LIBRARY  WORK.  209 

At  River  Falls  the  new  students  as  they  come  in  are  given  a  half 
hour  talk  after  school,  outside  the  library,  and  then  are  taken  to  the 
library  to  be  shown  the  location. 

Miss  Silliman  thought  Mr.  Harvey's  plan  of  devoting  a  class  period 
to  a  lecture  in  the  library  would  be  better. 

At  Milwaukee  the  juniors  are  excused  from  8  o'clock  classes  to  be 
instructed  in  use  of  library.  Then  as  new  students  come  in,  and  the 
librarian  has  opportunity,  she  takes  them  together  or  individually 
later  on  in  the  year. 

Reference  was  made  to  Miss  Gardner's  paper,  and  the  order  in 
which  she  took  up  the  various  steps  of  the  instruction  was  discussed. 

The  following  order  suggested  by  Miss  Simpson, — 

Classification  and  arrangement  of  library J 

Explanation  of  the  catalog; 

Periodical  literature  and  use  of  indexes;  met  the  approval  of  Misses 
Carpenter  and  Parmele. 

At  Superior,  River  Falls,  and  Whitewater  general  talks  to  the 
school  are  given  two  or  three  times  a  year. 

It  was  not  thought  necessary  to  say  anything  about  the  exhibits, 
as  each  one  had  an  opportunity  to  examine  them  thoroughly. 

Miss  McNeil  asked  for  an  expression  of  opinion  from  others  of  the 
work  in  cutting  up  pamphlets  and  periodicals  practiced  in  Milwaukee. 

It  was  not  thought  that  it  worked  well  at  Whitweater  to  cut  up  ma- 
terial in  magazines  indexed  by  Poole  and  Cumulative  Index,  because 
they  were  used  so  much. 

At  Oshkosh  duplicate  magazines  are  furnished  several  departments 
which  they  are  at  liberty  to  clip. 

It  was  not  thought  it  could  be  done  at  Stevens  Point,  or  River 
Falls,  or  Superior  now. 

At  Milwaukee  some  of  this  work  is  done  by  students  who  have 
taken  the  library  Work  with  librarian. 

The  cost  of  binding  these  clippings  separately  is  about  %  cent 
•each. 

SUMMARY. 

The  seven  Wisconsin  Normal  school  librarians  agree  concerning 
the  following: 

A.  Purpose. 

1.  To  give  to  every  person  connected  with  the  institution  such  judi- 
cious aid  as  will  tend  towards  his  advancement. 

2.  To  help  fit  the  student  of  the 'Normal  department  for  his  work  in 
Wisconsin  schools. 

B.  Scope. 

For  the  individual  w'e  may  do  three  distinct  things: 

1.  We  may    give  direct  help  by    putting  into  the  hands  of  the  in- 
quirer the  material  he  needs. 

2.  We  may  teach  him  how  to  know  for  himself  what  book  he  wants, 
how  to  find  it  easily  and  quickly,  how  to  get  at  once  the  right  page 
and  how  to  see  at  a  glance  the  very  lines  wanted. 

3.  We  may  assist  in  fixing  those    habits  and    in  cultivating    those 
tastes  that  will  insure  growth  in  culture,  in  ability  and  in  usefulness. 

For  the  coming  teacher  we  may  do  two  distinct  things: 

14 


210  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

1.  Help,  with,  others,  to  foster  his  professional  spirit. 

2.  Train   him   tor  utilizing  his  school  and   other  libraries,  that  he 
may    lead  his  pupils  to  use  and  to  enjoy  good  books. 

C.  Conclusions. 

1.  A  spirit    of  cordial  cooperation    and  mutual    helpfulness  should 
exist  between  teachers  and   librarians,   inasmuch   as   such   united   ef- 
fort alone  can  make  the  library  of  the  greatest  possible  good  to  all 
connected  with  the  school. 

2.  The  methods  of  cataloging  and  classifying  in  a  Normal  school 
library  differ  from  those  employed  in  a  general  library  owing  to  the 
necessarily  one-sided  growth  of  a  library    strongly    pedagogical    and 
to  the  special  demands  made  upon  it;  so  it  must  be  somewhat  adapted 
to  the  general  outline  of  work  done  in  the  classes. 

3.  Under  present  conditions  we  can  so  assist  the   future  teachers, 
of  the  state  that    they  may  appreciate  the    value    of  a    library,    be 
familiar  with  the  best  reference  books  and  periodicals  and  know  how 
to  use  school  library  to  some  advantage. 

4.  As    periodical  literature    is  of  great  value    in  reference  work,  a 
large  number  of  judiciously  selected  periodicals  should    be    secured 
for  this  purpose  as  many  as  possible  should  be  kept  in  some  perma- 
nent form.       Students  should  be  taught    to  use  indexes  to  this  liter- 
ature. 

We  also  adopted  the  following  resolutions: 

1.  Believing  that  the  various  reference  lists  and  syllabi  which  have 
been  compiled  by  the   teachers  or  the    librarian  of    any  one    Normal 
school  would  be    of    material    benefit    to  librarian,  teachers  and  stu- 
dents of  each    of  the  sister    schools,    we  most  earnestly    recommend 
that  a  strong  effort  be  made  to  secure  all  such  lists  and  syllabi,  have 
them  printed  and  distributed  among  the  schools. 

Believing  that  through  cooperation  greater  results  are  always 
reached,  we  further  recommend  that  each  librarian  making  out  brief 
reference  sheets  or  reading  lists,  send  copies  of  them  to  other  schools. 

2.  As  a  course  in  library  methods  is  necessary  to  the  complete  equip- 
ment of  the  trained  teacher  and  as  the  present  course  of  study  allows, 
the  librarian  no  time  in  which  to  give  that  instruction; 

Therefore  we  earnestly  request  that  such  instruction  be  made  a 
part  of  the  school  course  and  a  requirement  for  graduation. 

L.  P.  SWAN. 


LITERATURE,  INCLUDING  LIBRARY. 

Leader,  H.  A.  ADRIAN,  River  Falls. 


WHAT  SHOULD  BE  DONE  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  TO  MAKE 
TEACHERS  ACQUAINTED  WITH  THE  LITERATURE  OF  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES— WITH  METHODS  OF  USING- 
THIS  LITERATURE  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL? 

ELLEN  F.  P.  PEAKE,  Oshkosh. 

In  this  paper  I  have  interpreted  "literature  of  the  public  school 
libraries"  to  mean  those  books  in  school  libraries  which  are  gen- 
erally used  for  collateral  and  supplementary  reading. 


USE   OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES.  211 

I  have  also  limited  the  discussion  to  books  and  methods,  eliminat- 
ing the  questions  of  general  culture,  and  psychological  adaptability, 
both  of  which  are  potent  factors  in  the  use  of  school  libraries. 

Last  spring  a  Supt.  of  Schools  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  re- 
marked that  the  capital  expended  in  the  purchase  of  books  for  an 
unusually  fine  library  in  connection  with  the  high  school  in  his  city,, 
was  bearing  no  interest  for  lack  of  a  teacher  with  the  time  and  equip- 
ment necessary  to  use  the  books  to  advantage. 

His  literature  teacher,  though  successful  in  her  special  line,  had 
not  that  general  knowledge  of  books  required  for  an  economical  and 
extensive  use  of  a  school  library. 

What  is  true  of  one  high  school  is  no  doubt  true  of  more,  and  per- 
haps equally  true  of  the  lower  grades,  as  well  as  of  the  ungraded 
schools  in  the  country. 

In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  state  demands  that  a  special 
portion  of  the  state  school  fund  income  shall  be  used  in  each  school 
district  for  the  maintenance  of  a  school  library,  it  seems  only  just 
that  the  districts  should  demand  that  at  the  state  institutions  where 
their  teachers  are  trained,  such  equipment  should  be  given  as  shall 
insure  to  the  districts  a  wise  use  of  the  books  placed  in  these  li- 
braries. 

The  question  before  us  is — Of  what  shall  this  equipment  consist 
and  how  shall  it  be  secured? 

In  regard  to  equipment,  I  think  the  state  has  a  right  to  expect 
the  graduates  from  her  Normal  schools  should  be  able  to  use  wisely 
a  majority  of  the  books  likely  to  be  found  in  the  school  libraries. 

In  addition  to  a  general  knowledge  of  a  majority  of  these  books, 
he  should  have  an  accurate,  particular  knowledge  of  a  smaller  num- 
ber of  books  suited  to  some  special  grade  or  to  some  special  line  of 
work. 

Further,  he  should  have  acquired  such  discrimination  in  the  choice 
of  reading  matter  for  children  that  he  can  direct  or  assist  officers 
in  selecting  from  the  State  Superintendent's  list  books  best  suited 
to  the  needs  of  the  particular  school  of  which  he  has  charge. 

In  regard  to  the  method  by  which  he  shall  acquire  this  knowledge, 
I  should  like  to  outline  the  plan  now  in  operation  in  this  school,  that 
it  may  serve  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  found  further  discussion. 

Collateral  and  supplementary  reading  is  considered  under  seven 
heads:  1.  Geography  and  Travel;  2.  History  and  Biography;  3.  Na- 
ture Reading;  4.  Mythology;  5.  Fiction;  6.  Poetry;  7.  Essays. 

Of  these,  the  first  three  are  collateral,  the  last  four  supplementary. 
Each  of  these  departments  holds  weekly  sessions,  and  all  are  in  oper- 
ation every  quarter. 

Elementary  students,  unless  excused  upon  examination,  are  required 
to  do  work  in  each  of  these  departments.  With  the  exception  of 
an  occasional  irregular  program,  no  student  is  supposed  to  take  work 
in  more  than  one  department  in  any  one  quarter.  Thus  it  takes  the 
average  student  seven  quarters  to  complete  the  course. 

To  illustrate:  A  student  entering  the  first  year,  unless  a  better 
correlation  could  be  made,  would  be  scheduled  for  the  first  quar- 
ter's work, — Geography  and  Travel.  With  the  assistance  of  the  di- 
rector he  will  select  from  a  prepared  list  books  for  the  quarter's 
reading.  At  the  weekly  meetings  these  books  will  be  reported  on 


212  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

before  the  class,  and  discussed  in  respect  to  interest,  subject-matter, 
and  general  value. 

Each  quarter,  in  addition  to  the  books  read  and  reported,  the  stu- 
dent examines  and  selects  from  the  library  ten  books  which  in  »his 
estimation  are  fitted  to  the  use  of  some  special  grade.  For  example, 
in  the  first  quarter  he  might  be  asked  to  select  ten  books  for  use 
in  the  Upper  Form  in  connection  with  the  geography  of  North 
America. 

If  time  allow,  these  lists  are  discussed  in  class,  otherwise  they 
are  submitted  to  the  director  who,  when  necessary,  talks  them  over 
with  the  individual  student. 

In  the  four  departments  of  supplementary  reading  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent method  is  pursued.  The  first  two  or  three  sessions  are  de- 
voted to  an  informal  discussion  of  some  one  masterpiece  that  has 
been  read  by  all  the  class.  The  rest  of  the  quarter  is  given  to  indi- 
vidual reports  in  which  the  student  is  expected  to  note  the  essen- 
tials emphasized  in  the  class  discussion. 

Hence,  by  the  time  the  elementary  student  has  completed  the 
course  he  has  read  and  reported  at  least  fourteen  books,  he  has  heard 
reported,  and  has  helped  discuss  two  hundred  more,  and  has  per- 
sonally examined  and  selected  seventy  books  suited  to  the  grade  he 
expects  to  teach,  giving  him  a  total  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-four 
books. 

High  school  graduates  are  required  to  take  work  in  not  more  than 
three  departments  which  are  determined  by  the  equipment  received 
in  the  high  school. 

In  the  senior  class,  one  tenth  of  the  time  assigned  to  literature 
is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  supplementary  reading. 

With  the  exception  of  daily  sessions,  which  afford  more  time  for 
class  discussion,  the  method  is  similar  to  that  of  the  library  read- 
ing classes.  The  lists  made  in  the  elementary  classes  are  supple- 
mented and  questions  of  method  are  more  fully  discussed. 

In  discussing  methods  to  be  employed  in  the  public  schools,  the 
plan  in  use  in  the  Normal  school  is  examined  and  the  student  is 
required  to  suggest  such  modifications  of  the  plan  as  seem  to  him 
necessary  for  adaptation  in  rural  schools,  in  grade  schools,  in  high 
•schools. 

Discrimination  in  the  assignment  of  books  and  the  uses  and  dan- 
gers of  correlation  are  considered. 

The  influence  of  a  book  depends  largely  upon  the  spirit  in  which 
it  is  read,  and  the  relation  it  bears  to  the  interests  and  ideals  of  the 
reader. 

The  subject  matter  of  supplementary  reading  may  be  utilized  in 
language  work  throughout  the  grades,  from  the  oral  reproduction 
of  the  first  primary  to  the  finished  composition  of  the  high  school. 

Stories  of  travel,  of  natural  history,  of  children  and  people  of  other 
lands,  naturally  group  themselves  about  geography,  as  do  biographies 
and  historical  novels  about  history. 

Four  recitations  a  week  from  the  text-book  and  the  fifth  period 
devoted  to  a  spirited  discussion  of  a  book  in  close  connection  with 
the  subject,  may  be  more  fruitful  of  good  results  than  five  formal 
recitations  a  week. 

The  report  may  be  oral  or  written  as  may  seem  best  in  the  teacher's 


READING  HABIT  AND  LOVE   OF  LITERATURE.         213 

discretion.  If  the  latter,  its  preparation  might  be  substituted  for  part 
of  the  week's  regular  requirement  in  written  work. 

In  all  the  classes  this  fact  is  emphasized,  that  from  the  beginning 
only  great  and  noble  ideals  are  to  be  set  before  the  child. 

The  childlike  is  always  ennobling,  the  childish  never. 


SHOULD  THE  WORK  IN  LITERATURE  IN  THE  NORMAL 
SCHOOLS  AIM  TO  DEVELOP  THE  READING  HABIT  AND  A 
LOVE  FOR  GOOD  LITERATURE,  AS  WELL  AS  A  METHOD  OF 
STUDYING  AND  TEACHING  LITERATURE;  AND  IF  SO,  WHAT 
EFFECT  WILL  THIS  REQUIREMENT  HAVE  UPON  THE  PLAN 
AND  METHOD  OF  WORK  IN  LITERATURE  ADOPTED  BY  THE 
TEACHER  OF  THAT  SUBJECT  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL? 

ALBERT  HARDY,  Platteville. 

The  question  implies  that  there  may  be  two  aims  in  teaching  lit- 
erature and  consequently  two  methods.  One  aim,  the  first  and  most 
important,  is  "to  develop  the  reading  habit  and  a  love  for  good  lit- 
erature;" the  second  aim  is  to  teach  a  "method  of  studying  and 
teaching  literature." 

I  think  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  right  method  of  studying  and 
teaching  literature  will  tend  "to  develop  the  reading  habit  and  a  love 
for  good  literature;"  that,  while  there  may  be  two  aims  in  teaching 
literature,  viz.:  1.  To  appreciate  and  enjoy;  2.  To  estimate  and  judge; 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  there  can  be  two  distinct  methods, 
but  rather  two  phases  of  one  method. 

To  develop  a  love  for  good  literature  and  the  reading  habit  is  the 
highest  and  most  important  service  a  teacher  of  literature  can  ren- 
der his  pupil;  for  the  highest  function  of  literature  is  an  appeal  to 
the  highest  in  man,  an  appeal  to  his  spiritual  nature,  which  includes 
"the  whole  dominion  of  the  emotional,  the  susceptible  or  impressi- 
ble, the  sympathetic,  the  intuitive;  in  short,  the  absolute  in  man, — • 
that  by  and  through  which  man  holds  relationship  with  the  essential 
spirit  of  things."  It  also  aims  toward  knowledge, — "A  knowledge 
which  is  matter  of  spiritual  consciousness  and  which  the  intellect 
cannot  translate  into  a  judgment." 

If,  then,  the  highest  aim  of  literature  is  to  appeal  to  the  emotional, 
the  sense  of  beauty,  the  sympathetic,  the  ideal,  a  method  of  study 
that  shall  absorb  all  the  attention  and  soul-power  in  matters  purely 
linguistic,  textual,  in  questions  of  grammar  and  rhetorc,  etc.,  will 
prevent  the  appreciation  of  the  work  as  literature;  consequently  there 
can  be  no  enjoyment  and  love  of  the  work.  As  Professor  Carson  says: 
The  assimilation  of  a  piece  of  literature  is  a  spiritual  process  and 
"induces  soul-states  or  conditions,'  soul-attitudes  to  attune  the  mind- 
forces  to  idealized  forms  of  nature  and  human  life  produced  by  art." 
These  things  are  discovered  by  spiritual  insight  through  the  aid  of 
the  interpretative  and  associative  imagination,  not  through  the  dis- 
cursive understanding. 

The  first  duty,  then,  of  the  teacher  of  literature  is  to  lead  the  pu- 
pils to  feel,  to  enjoy,  or  better  perhaps  to  permit  them  to  feel,  to  en- 
joy; the  second  function  of  the  teacher  is  to  teach  them  to  estimate, 
to  judge. 


214  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

To  feel,  to  enjoy  good  literature  is  a  synthetic  process;  to  es- 
timate, to  judge,  is  an  analytic  process.  The  first  reading  of  a  mas- 
terpiece will  be  quite  rapid,  giving  only  enough  attention  to  textual 
explanation  to  enable  the  pupils  to  interpret  the  meaning  and  to  grasp 
the  purpose  and  unity  of  the  piece.  The  teacher  does  not  imperti- 
nently intrude  himself  between  the  soul-content  of  the  piece  and  the 
soul  of  the  pupil;  but  so  far  as  possible  leaves  them  face  to  face, 
giving  questions,  suggestions  only  when  needed  to  grasp  the  larger 
meanings. 

These  principles  should  guide  in  the  plan  and  method  of  teaching 
literature  to  develop  a  love  for  good  literature  and  a  habit  of  read- 
ing. 

The  best  literature  must  itself  be  read  and  read  more  abundantly, 
not  books  about  literature.  The  greatest,  the  best,  the  most  vital 
books  must  be  selected,  and  those  at  first  that  are  near  the  interests 
of  the  pupils  and  are  most  easily  comprehended  by  them.  Individual 
tastes  are  to  be  consulted  as  far  as  possible. 

There  should  be  as  much  reading  aloud  in  class  as  possible  by 
the  best  readers.  Voice  interpretation  will  be  the  best  possible  test 
of  the  pupil's  understanding  and  appreciation.  The  teacher  must 
read  much.  It  goes  without  saying  that  he  can  read  so  as  to  inter- 
pret and  give  force  and  beauty  to  the  thought.  While  the  reading 
in  class  is  going  on,  especially  as  the  pupils  gain  insight  and  power 
of  interpretation  with  practice,  there  should  be  much  individual  read- 
ing by  the  members  of  the  class  outside  of  regular  class-work.  The 
tastes  and  interests  of  individuals  should  be  consulted,  and  the  pu- 
pils should  have  great  freedom  in  selecting  books  to  read.  At  first, 
oral  reports  only  should  be  made  on  the  books  read,  the  reports 
covering  only  a  few  vital  points;  as,  the  general  purpose  and  mean- 
ing of  the  work,  the  characters  and  the  motives  and  forces  moving 
them  to  action,  the  development  of  the  plot,  the  truth  and  beauty 
of  the  work,  the  pupils'  enjoyment  and  the  reasons  of  the  enjoyment. 

The  oral  reports  on  books  read  outside  of  class  will  be  a  partial 
preparation  for  the  second  aim  in  the  study  of  literature,  to  esti- 
mate, to  judge;  in  other  words,  this  aim  will  show  to  some  extent 
what  main'  qualities  to  look  for  and  admire  in  works  accepted  as 
part  of  the  literary  heritage  of  mankind,  and  to  look  for  in  new 
works.  This  requires  a  more  intensive,  or  critical  reading  and  ana- 
lytic method  of  study. 

The  analytic  or  critical  method  will  put  the  pupils  in  possession  of 
the  fundamental  qualities  of  all  good  literature.  One  critic  calls  these 
truth,  symmetry  and  idealization.  Another  critic  names  them  as 
follows:  The  Intellectual  Element,  the  Emotional  Element,  Imagina- 
tion, and  the  Formative  Element. 

All  great  literature  must  possess  the  intellectual  element,  the  ele- 
ment of  truth,  that  which  is  eternal  and  universal,  truth  to  nature  and 
to  man.  Another  fundamental  quality  of  literature  is  that  it  shall  ap- 
peal to  the  emotions.  This  quality  especially  makes  it  enjoyable. 
Dr.  Henry  Van  Dyke  says,  "Poetry  is,  in  truth,  the  prophetic  art.  It 
is  an  art  because  its  first  object  is  to  give  pleasure  through  the  per- 
fection of  form.  Without  delight  it  is  a  vain  thing.  The  world  will 
never  really  care  for  it.  It  is  the  prophetic  art,  because  its  highest 
object  is  lo  convey  to  the  mind  of  man  a  message  that  shall  lift  him 
above  himself  and  make  him  not  only  happier  but  better.  After  all, 


READING  HABIT  AND  LOVE   OF   LITERATURE.         215 

the  most  perfect  pleasure  is  that  which  accompanies  the  purification 
of  the  heart  through  pity  and  fear  and  love."  It  must  have  imagina- 
tion, because  it  is  through  the  transforming  power  of  the  imagination 
that  its  truth  is  made  beautiful.  It  must  have  perfection  of  form, 
as  this  is  its  main  element  of  beauty.  It  is  form  that  adapts  it  to  its 
purpose. 

A  critical  analytical  method  of  the  study  of  literature  will  put  the 
pupil  in  possession  of  the  power  to  estimate,  to  judge,  to  discern  those 
qualities  of  literature  that  make  it  literature.  This  method  of  study 
is  laborious  and  slow;  it  is  intensive.  A  few  pieces,  the  highest  ana 
best,  or  parts  of  pieces,  must  be  studied  in  this  way,  if  the  pupil  is  put 
into  possession  of  the  power  to  estimate  what  is  good  literature.  But 
it  has  been  well  said  that  whatever  intellectual  analysis  is  applied,  it 
must  be  based  on  what  has  first  been  felt  to  be  the  molding  spirit. 
Through  this  final  analytic  process  "the  details  of  language  and  struct- 
ure must  be  shown  to  be  such  as  they  are  by  the  forming  idea  of  the 
whole.  The  details  of  analysis  must  again  through  synthesis  grow 
into  an  organic  life-like  whole.  In  other  words  it  is  the  life  giving 
purpose,  the  informing  spirit  of  the  work,  the  creatve  imagination,  that 
transforms  and  molds  the  diction,  the  structure,  the  figures  of  speech, 
all  the  rhetorical  qualities  of  a  great  work  of  literature,  and  these  de- 
tails can  be  understood  and  mastered,  can  only  be  seen  in  their  true 
relation  and  meaning,  after  the  work  has  been  read  and  enjoyed  as  a 
whole. 

One  point,  and  an  important  one,  in  planning  a  course  in  literature 
for  a  Normal  school,  (and  a  point  on  which  I  am  not  settled),  is? 
whether  one  should  follow  the  historical  order  in  selecting  works  for 
a  class  to  read,  or  to  begin  with  what  is  near  in  time  and  interest, 
with  the  literature  of  the  present,  and,  as  it  were,  work  backward  to 
the  earlier  literature. 

Each  plan  has  good  reasons  in  its  favor.  In  favor  of  the  former 
plan  is  the  fact  that  literature  is  an  evolution,  a  development,  a 
growth  from  certain  primitive  forces,  and  that  any  great  book  of  an 
epoch  can  be  fully  felt  and  known  only  in  the  light  of  the  hereditary 
forces  and"  influences  that  have  helped  to  shape  it.  Or,  as  one  writer 
well  puts  it: 

"Literature  is  the  brain  of  humanity.  Just  as  in  the  individual  tlie 
brain  preserves  a  record  of  his  previous  sensations,  of  his  experience 
and  of  his  acquired  knowledge,  and  it  is  the  light  of  this  record  that 
he  interprets  every  fresh  sensation  and  experience;  so  the  race  at 
large  has  a  record  of  its  past  in  literature,  and  it  is  in  the  light  of  this 
record  alone  that  its  present  conditions  and  circumstances  can  be  un- 
derstood." 

In  favor  of  the  latter  method  is  the  argument  that  the  young  should 
begin  the  study  of  the  easily  understood  and  with  that  which  has  for 
them  a  living  interest.  This  argument  certainly  holds  good  for  the 
quite  young.  Does  it  for  the  students  in  literature  in  our  Normal 
schools? 


216  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


DISCUSSION. 

ANNA  M.  COTTRELL,  Whitewater. 

The  paper  just  read  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  work  in  literature 
in  the  Normal  schools  should  aim  to  develop  the  reading  habit  and  a 
love  for  good  literature.  It  holds,  and  rightly,  that  the  highest  pur- 
pose of  this  study  has  to  do  with  general  literary  culture,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  literary  taste,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  power  to  read1 
good  books  intelligently  after  school  days  are  done;  also,  that  the 
method  employed  should  have  this  purpose  in  view. 

We  all  know  that  the  actual  amount  of  solid  learning  acquired  by 
even  the  best  pupils  in  our  schools,  in  a  twenty  weeks'  course  in  liter- 
ature, is  really  very  small;  and  that  to  attain  to  anything  in  anyway 
satisfactory  in  the  study,  it  must  be  expected  that  a  vast  amount  of 
work  will  be  subsequently  added.  It  is  evident  that  all  that  can  be 
done  in  so  short  a  course  is  to  lay  foundations. 

When,  year  after  year,  we  come  into  contact  with  large  numbers  of 
young  people  who  have  developed  little  or  no  appreciation  of  books,  it 
is  with  a  keen  sense  of  responsibility  that  we  inquire  how  this  culti- 
vation can  be  accomplished.  Morgan  says  in  his  psychology, — "What 
the  teacher  of  literature  has  to  do  is  to'  educate  the  appreciation,  lead- 
ing it  on  step  by  step  in  its  upward  development.  He  must  remem- 
ber, too,  that  his  aim  is  to  minister  to  all-round  mental  development." 
That  view,  then,  which  found  expression  in  the  paper  to  the  effect 
that  "the  teacher  should  permit  the  pupils  to  feel  and  to  enjoy,"  I 
think  would  better  be  should  lead  the  pupils  to  feel  and  to  enjoy. 

Right  here  I  wish  to  re-inforce  the  thought  set  forth  in  the  paper 
with  reference  to  intensive  work  in  judging  and  estimating  literature. 
But  should  intensive  work  be  omitted  in  leading  the  pupil  "to  feel  and 
to  enjoy?"  "This  ought  ye  to  have  done  and  not  to  have  left  the  other 
undone."  "He  who  would  understand  the  message  must  understand 
the  conventions  by  which  it  is  expressed."  The  need,  then,  of  interpre- 
tation of  thought  by  means  of  language  is  imperative.  Not  to  know 
the  meaning  of  words,  not  to  know  the  forms  of  construction,  and  not 
to  know  figures  of  speech,  result  in  careless  habits  of  reading,  self- 
deception,  and  false  conceptions  of  the  author's  meaning. 

I  can  see  how  it  is  possible  to  get  results  in  the  details  of  the  study 
and  still  find  that  the  pupil  has  mistaken  the  means  for  the  end  and 
has  failed  to  get  beyond  the  mechanism  to  the  soul,  to  that  which 
after  all  makes  it  of  value.  Here  is  great  need  of  careful  direction  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  He  must  ever  bear  in  mind  that  the  so- 
called  laboratory  work  in  the  study  of  literature  should  always  be 
kept  above  the  task-work  level.  In  studying  any  work  of  art  there  Is 
aways  danger  of  excessive  critical  analysis,  but  is  not  even  an  excess 
at  the  beginning  better  than  to  place  the  whole  subject  practically 
outside  of  the  modifying  influence  of  the  school,  relegating  it  to  eacn 
individual  punil? 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  that  what  is  read  must  be  enjoyed;  but 
before  a  great  literary  production  can  be  enjoyed,  before  its  spirit  can 
fill  the  spirit  of  the  reader,  it  must  be  understood.  So  the  teacher  of 
literature  makes  haste  slowly.  (In  this  discussion  I  do  not  include 
library  readings.)  Ruskin  says:  "If  you  read  ten  pages  of  a  good 
book  with  real  accuracy  you  are  forevermore  in  some  measure  an 


DISCUSSION.  217 

educated  person,"  and  Dowden,  that  in  teaching  a  great  work  of  a  great 
author,  he  would  approach  the  piece  from  every  side;  study  it  in  its 
language,  its  form,  its  style,  its  thought.  Another  aptly  says: — "All 
aids  are  only  instrumental  to  our  close  and  loving  companionship 
with  authors  who  will  make  our  lives  more  agreeable,  more  thought- 
ful and  more  sympathetic."  I  quote  again  from  Morgan: — "By  all 
means  let  us  render  assistance  in  the  apprehension  and  comprehen- 
sion of  that  which  another  has  written.  In  this  we  cannot  be  too 
thorough." 

This  leads  me  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  literature  has  a  lan- 
guage distinct  from  the  language  of  ordinary  daily  speech,  and  that 
if  one  is  to  enjoy  literature  he  must  know  its  language.  If  our  pupils 
are  rightly  helped  to  look  for  the  meaning  of  allusions,  for  the  value 
of  imagery;  to  look  beyond  the  suggestion  to  what  is  suggested;  to 
read  between  the  lines  and  find  what  is  implied  but  not  said,  in  time 
they  may  so  cultivate  "the  interpretative  and  associative  imagination" 
as  to  make  it  of  perpetual  service. 

Again,  that  the  learner  may  the  more  completely  feel  and  enjoy,  the 
teacher  should  help  him  to  an  appreciation  of  literary  excellence  in  all 
its  phases, — the  beautiful,  the  sublime,  the  pathetic,  the  tender,  the 
broadly  human, — to  all  these  the  attention  should  be  called  again  and 
again.  Through  such  study,  some  of  our  pupils  who  have  lived  narrow 
lives,  whose  pleasures  have  been  commonplace,  are  led  into  broader 
ways  of  thinking,  to  higher  interests,  and  more  ennobling  pleasures. 
It  is  when  a  teacher  has  so  guided  a  pupil  that  he  can  read  with  a 
mind  so  receptive  as  almost  to  be  creative,  that  he  can  trust  to  the  im- 
pressions made  on  his  heart  and  say  with  confidence:  "Now  let  it 
work.  Take  what  course  thou  wilt." 

Such  a  plan  means  much  more  than  the  mere  reading  of  books.  It 
tends  more  directly  toward  developing  an  appreciation  for  literature 
than  forming  the  reading  habit;  but  one  of  the  greatest  hindrances  In 
developing  the  reading  habit  in  our  limited  course  is  that,  as  a  rule, 
we  must  first  create  a  taste  for  good  literature.  While  doing  this, 
however,  there  must  come  many  opportunities  for  finding  new  fields  of 
literature  in  which  the  pupil  will  love  to  dwell,  and  in  which  he  will 
take  the  greater  delight  because  he  has  discovered  them  for  himself. 
After  all  is  it  not  in  indirect  ways  that  the  true  reading  habit  Is 
formed?  The  special  teacher  of  literature  cannot  possibly  bear  the 
sole  responsibility  for  the  development  of  the  reading  habit.  All  teach- 
ers in  all  departments  of  the  Normal  school  have  a  duty  in  this  very 
necessary  work.  A  literary  atmosphere  should  pervade  the  school; 
much  depends  on  this.  Much  may  be  done  through  the  constant  use 
of  library  books  and  the  better  periodicals  in  connection  with  other 
school  work.  The  habit  of  handling  books,  of  using  books,  needs  cul- 
tivation. Masterpieces  should  be  correlated  with  other  subjects. 
Through  this  means  pupils  are  often  awakened  to  the  fact  that  to  com- 
prehend some  masterpieces  it  is  necessary  to  know  a  great  many 
things.  Again,  more  satisfactory  results  are  brought  about  through 
enlisting  our  pupils  in  each  department  of  English  work,  thus  giving 
a  trend  to  the  mind  that  will  remain  through  life. 

The  paper  asks  whether  in  planning  a  course  in  literature  for  a  Nor- 
mal school,  one  should  follow  the  historical  order  in  selecting  works 
for  a  class  to  read,  or  begin  with  what  is  near  in  time,  and  interest, — 
with  the  literature  of  the  present  and  move  backward.  A  vital  aim  in- 


218  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

teaching  literature  should  be  chiefly  "to  inculcate  reverence  for  the 
great  writers  and  a  taste  that  should  choose  them  in  preference  to  the 
ephemeral  writings  of  the  day."  Today's  interests  are  sure  of  atten- 
tion. The  present  speaks  for  itself  all  too  loudly.  The  newest  booK 
insists  on  being  read.  The  literature  of  the  present,  then,  can  be 
neglected  in  the  literature  teaching.  Moreover,  it  should  be  till  our 
pupils  in  the  Normal  schools  are  able  in  a  measure  to  see  that  there 
is  no  influence  in  the  school  curriculum  more  directly  and  exactly 
fitted  to  uplift  young  souls  than  contact  with  old  literature. 

Again,  it  is  due  our  young  people  that  they  should  be  led  to  see  that 
in  the  old  masterpieces  are  "the  verdicts  upon  life  which  have  been 
most  generally  approved  by  the  wisest  men  who  have  lived;  they 
have  been  tested  not  by  the  experiences  of  one  generation  only,  but 
by  succeeding  generations."  It  is  from  them  they  learn  to  discrimi- 
nate the  essential  from  the  incidental.  Moreover,  if  the  course  in 
literature  begins  with  the  latest  and  moves  backward  in  time  the 
pupil  misses  the  childhood,  the  youth,  the  growth  of  literary  art. 

Again,  that  the  great  masters  may  be  the  better  appreciated,  it  is 
well  in  the  study  of  literature  to  make  constant  reference  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  national  life  and  spirit  as  recorded  in  history. 

The  paper  says: — "The  best  literature  must  itself  be  read  and  not 
books  about  literature."  All  admit  that  the  only  way  to  know  an  au- 
thor is  through  the  sympathetic  reading  of  his  works.  But  criticism 
which  is  the  sympathetic  relationship  and  consequent  insight  may 
serve  to  induce  in  the  reader  the  right  attitude  demanded  for  the  best 
response  to  him. 

Nor  is  it  well  to  neglect  altogether  the  life  of  the  author.  Hun- 
dreds of  lovers  of  literature  visit  the  lands  of  Scott  and  Wordsworth 
every  year,  and  love  their  writings  all  the  more  because  of  the 
broader  knowledge  of  the  vital  facts  in  the  lives  of  these  authors. 
Here  again  wise  direction  as  to  what  to  read  and  what  to  omit  is 
necessary. 

I  agree  with  the  paper  that  training  through  voice  interpretation  is 
excellent  training;  but  I  would  ask  if  this  training  should  be  limited  to 
the  best  readers.  Rather  let  all  be  judged  through  this  means,  both 
as  to  their  power  to  understand  and  to  appreciate.  There  should  be 
some  days  when  the  recitation  period  should  have  nothing  about  it  of 
the  nature  of  a  recitation,  days  when  all  read,  the  teacher  included. 
On  these  days  the  teacher  may  see  many  signs  of  the  growing  of  the 
seed  she  has  planted;  at  the  same  time  she  will  discover  where  there 
is  no  depth  of  earth,  and  where  the  seeds  need  to  be  worked  in  that 
they  may  take  root  and  grow. 

I  often  think  if  we  could  teach  literature  without  having  examina- 
tions more  could  be  accomplished;  for  precisely  that  for  which  we 
teach  literature  is  that  which  will  bear  no  examination.  The  true  test 
is  not  made  by  question  and  answer.  Beyond  and  above  the  intel- 
lectual development,  the  elevating  of  the  taste,  and  the  formation  of 
the  reading  habit,  lies  the  slow-coming  results  of  growth  of  character 
and  purity  of  heart. 

Finally,  if  the  study  of  literature  is  to  be  practical,  it  must,  seem- 
ingly, be  slow.  The  teacher  must  be  a  leader.  There  must  be  definite- 
ness  of  aim.  For  the  majority  of  pupils  in  our  Normal  schools  it  is  wis- 
dom to  read  a  few  authors,  comparatively  speaking,  read  the  best, 
read  their  great  things  and  dwell  upon  them.  In  this  way,  the  teacher 


RELATION  OF  LIBRARY  READING  TO  OTHER  WORK.     219 

may,  as  the  work  advances,  make  herself  less  and  less  necessary;  trie 
pupil  will  be  prepared  for  a  larger  realization  of  the  rapid  or  cursory 
method  of  reading,  and  the  extensive  method  will  more  safely  have 
the  major  place  in  subsequent  reading. 


LIBRARY  READING;  ITS  PLACE  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL;  ITS 
RELATION  TO  THE  REGULAR  WORK  IN  LITERATURE;  TO 
THE  WORK  IN  OTHER  BRANCHES.  ITS  PLACE  IN  THE 
MODEL  SCHOOL;  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

FAXXIE  J.  HOLCOMBE,  Milwaukee. 

"The  place  of  literature  in  our  common  school  education  is  in  spirit- 
ualizing life,  letting  light  into  the  mind,  inspiring  and  feeding  the 
higher  forces  of  human  nature." 

This  is  the  truth  which  those  who  believe  in  library  reading  are  try- 
ing to  make  prevail.  Prof.  James  says  we  should  as  early  as  possible 
fix  as  many  good  habits  as  possible,  for  in  youth  the  nervous  system  Is 
more  plastic  and  more  nutrition  is  supplied  than  there  is  waste.  Li- 
brary reading  has  one  distinct  aim,  viz.:  the  formation  of  the  habit  of 
reading  good  books.  In  this  is  implied  the  training  in  getting  the  con- 
tents readly  from  a  book,  a  knowledge  of  the  best  books,  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  library,  the  ability  to  judge  the  merits  of  a  booK 
according  to  fixed  standards  and  the  love  for  reading. 

The  aim  carries  with  it  the  method.  If  a  habit  of  reading  is  to  be 
formed,  then  many  books  must  be  read;  to  get  at  the  contents  of  a 
book  readily  the  student  must  have  practice  in  many  lines.  Before  he 
can  judge  the  merits  of  a  book  and  appreciate  the  clearness  of  state- 
ment, weight  of  argument,  vivid  description,  and  elegance  of  style,  he 
must  have  read  enough  so  that  the  criticism  may  come  from  his  own 
reading  and  ability  to  compare.  The  love  for  reading  comes  only 
with  reading  in  those  lines  in  which  there  is  a  present  interest  and 
then  "the  appetite  grows  with  that  on  which  it  feeds." 

In  the  re'gular  work  in  literature  classes  the  students  should  be 
taught  to  read  books  of  literary  value.  And  in  accord  with  our  aim  in 
library  reading  they  choose  for  themselves  from  the  lists  given  to  tnem 
in  Poetry,  Fiction,  and  Essays.  Since  literature  is  the  "interpretation 
of  life"  the  books  of  the  last  fifty  years  are  chosen  for  the  basis  of 
literature  training  lest  the  pupil  forget  that  literature  and  life  are  in- 
terdependent. The  study  of  the  earlier  English  literature  follows  the 
study  of  the  modern,  after  the  connection  between  literature  and  life 
has  been  established. 

We  have  too  long  turned  our  eyes  to  the  past  for  literature,  forget- 
ting that  in  tho  Elizabethan  age  Shakespeare  was  writing  modern 
literature,  that  when  Charles  Lamb  wrote  his  humorous  essays  of 
Elia  his  fellows  saw  little  hint  of  the  lasting  qualities  of  his  essays, 
that  at  one  time  even  Homer — one  man  of  many — sang  his  lays  for  the 
ears  of  his  contemporaries.  Too  long  in  our  schools  we  have  called 
only  that  literature  which  has  stood  the  test  of  years  and  have  ignored 
that  which  has  been  more  recently  written  which  thrills  with  the 
thought  and  enthusiasm  and  life  blood  of  the  age  in  which  we  live. 


220  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

As  a  consequence  of  this  the  literature  taught  in  school  has  often  taken, 
its  place  in  the  pupil's  mind  along  with  trigonometry,  algebra,  chem- 
istry as  a  study  which  has  a  knowledge  value  but  no  effect  upon  every- 
day life.  In  our  work  in  Milwaukee  we  believe  in  putting  modern 
literature  first  before  the  student  and  through  his  reading  and  discus- 
sion of  this,  teaching  him  to  recognize  the  good  in  literary  lines,  who 
the  best  writers  are,  what  they  have  written,  what  phases  of  life  they 
show,  etc.  In  these  classes  in  modern  literature  the  library  reading 
method  is  carried  on  insomuch  as  the  students  study  no  text-book  and 
read  the  poetry,  novels,  and  essays  drawn  from  the  library  shelves. 
Each  pupil  is  pursuing  a  course  of  study  different  from  that  of  any 
other  member  of  the  class.  They  are  kept  together  on  one  poem  un- 
til they  understand  the  essentials  of  good  poetry  and  can  appreciate 
their  application,  this  is  also  true  in  fiction  and  essays.  After  this 
they  carry  on  individual,  intensive  reading  where  their  interests  lead 
them,  reading  by  themselves  and  discussing  their  reading  to  add  to 
the  general  knowledge  of  the  class. 

When  the  students  are  not  pursuing  the  library  method  in  literary 
lines  in  the  literature  classes,  they  meet  in  groups  of  eight  or  ten 
members  once  a  week  to  discuss  the  books  read  by  them  since  the 
last  meeting.  Their  interests  are  consulted  in  the  choice  of  subjects 
to  determine  the  class  in  which  they  shall  report.  A  student  may  wish'. 
to  read  in  sociology,  art,  mythology,  biography,  travel,  history,  peda- 
gogy, literature,  and  within  his  chosen  subject  he  will  doubtless  want 
some  particular  phase  or  some  special  book  to  begin  with.  Wherever 
there  is  an  interest  he  is  helped  to  follow  that  in  his  reading  through 
books  suggested  by  the  teacher  and  classmates,  and  he  reads  many 
phases  of  the  subject  according  as  his  interest  develops.  The  subjects 
are  different  each  quarter  that  a  wide  range  of  interests  may  be  fol- 
lowed. 

In  these  classes  the  aim  is  to  cultivate  the  interest  first  and  in  that 
way  to  arouse  attention  and  the  desire  to  read  more.  The  reading 
must  be  rapid  yet  accurate  and  the  thought  given  out  in  clear,  pure 
English. 

The  connection  between  library  reading  and  other  branches  is  very- 
close.  Many  of  the  interests  which  start  the  student  in  reading  come 
from  suggestions  given  in  some  of  the  regular  classes.  Library  read- 
ing helps  to  give  a  broader  view  of  technical  subjects  and  from  the 
reading  classes  a  student  goes  to  other  work  with  a  greater  apper- 
ceptive  mass  to  draw  from.  In  English  training  both  in  the  use  of  oral 
and  written  speech  the  library  reading  classes  have  no  equal,  for  the 
student  has  something  to  talk  about  which  he  wishes  to  make  plain  and 
interesting  to  fellow-classmates,  and  to  me  this  seems  the  only  basis 
for  training  in  expression.  The  subjects  read  by  the  classes  indicate 
the  closeness  between  library  reading  and  other  studies.  In  sociol- 
ogy classes  they  read  of  all  phases  of  life  and  its  problems,  in  history 
they  have  a  chance  to  collect  material  around  a  period,  or  a  topic,  or 
some  great  name.  There  is  a  chance  for  general  professional  reading 
in  pedagogy  and  psychology,  and  its  helpmate, — fiction.  Current  arti- 
cles of  the  day  are  used  wherever  they  are  found  to  be  helpful.  Geog- 
raphy is  put  to  delightful  use  in  the  travel  classes,  drawing  in  the  art 
classes.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  classes  are  those  in  art  when 
we  make  use  of  the  Layton  Art  Gallery,  the  annual  Exposition  col- 
lection, the  mounted  pictures  in  our  library,  the  art  room  at  the  Public 


RELATION  OF  LIBRARY  READING  TO  OTHER  WORK.     221 

Library,  the  decorations  in  the  school  house,  and  in  fact,  good  art 
wherever  we  can  find  it.  There  are  always  classes  formed  to  fit  local 
or  present  interests.  Last  quarter  classes  were  reading  about  China, 
about  South  Africa,  and  one  class  was  following  a  city  lecture  course 
where  Jacob  Riis,  Henry  Van  Dyke,  Elbert  Hubbard,  and  Ernest  Seton 
'Thompson  appeared.  The  members  of  the  faculty  can  correlate  the 
classes  more  closely  with  their  subjects  by  suggesting  to  the  director 
-of  library  reading  books  of  general  interest  which  are  valuable  in  their 
studies. 

While  it  has  long  been  accepted  theoretically  that  the  man  and  his 
book  are  interdependent,  it  is  only  within  later  years  that  we  have 
come  to  see  that  the  same  relation  exists  between  the  child  and  his 
book.  Once  the  child's  field  of  literature  was  inadequate,  but  with  the 
demand  came  the  supply — so  great,  and  so  good.  Of  course  with  it 
then  came  the  Hentys  and  Oliver  Optics,  writers  who  care  only  to 
lead  children  through  twenty  or  thirty  volumes  of  their  own  writing, 
but  there  are  others  who  not  only  hold  out  inviting  hands  but 
leave  a  child  with  an  interest  that  he  seeks  to  gratify  in  other  fields 
of  information  ana  pleasure.  There  are  many  reasons  why  children 
should  be  systematically  encouraged  and  directed  in  their  reading; 
chief  among  them  these: 

The  boy  who  completes  his  course  of  study  is  specializing  before  he 
leaves  school,  for  the  keen  competition  of  modern  life  compels  it,  and 
the  man  of  science  has  no  time  to  make  himself  familiar  with  "the  best 
that  has  been  thought  and  said  in  the  world,"  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  man  of  letters  cares  little  for  the  fairyland  of  invention  and  elec- 
tricity which  would  have  fascinated  him  so  greatly  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  If  these  broad  interests  are  not  implanted  and  fostered 
in  his  life  in  the  grades,  then  they  must  forever  remain  lost  to  him. 

In  our  public  schools  only  about  one  quarter  of  those  that  start  in 
the  primary  ever  complete  the  eighth  grade,  and  it  is  the  poorer  chil- 
dren, without  good  home  influences  who  leave  school  first,  while  a  still 
smaller  per  cent,  go  on  to  the  high  school.  In  the  grades  then  is 
where  the  mass  of  children  must  get  acquainted  with  the  world  of 
books.  They  must  there  become  so  filled  with  the  desire  to  read  the 
best  things  that  are  written  that  when  school  life  ends  for  them  the 
habit  of  reading  will  draw  them  close  to  the  public  library. 

Believing,  then,  that  there  is  extreme  need  that  the  reading  habit  be 
rightly  formed  in  the  grades,  library  reading  is  carried  on.  The  plan 
of  organization  in  Milwaukee  is  as  follows: 

The  children  choose  what  they  like  to  read.  While  they  are  in  the 
lower  grades  there  is  no  attempt  made  to  keep  them  reading  the  same 
subjects.  They  read  by  themselves  children's  stories,  histories,  ana 
poems,  and  the  teacher  also  reads  a  great  deal  to  them.  Apparently 
this  reading  is  without  method  but  really  the  leader  is  starting  in- 
terests in  new  lines  or  adding  completeness  to  old  ideas.  Wherever 
the  children  show  an  interest  it  is  fostered  and  used  to  promote  more 
reading.  In  the  grades  the  child  is  expected  to  make  a  report  upon 
his  book  when  he  has  read  it.  The  tendency  of  the  age  is  toward 
fragmentary  reading.  The  literature  of  the  grades  hopes  to  correct 
this. 

In  the  study  of  poetry,  fiction,  and  books  of  information  in  the  reg- 
ular literature  work,  the  essentials  of  each  are  discussed.  These  are 


222  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher  of  juvenile  literature  and  underlie  the  en- 
tire work. 

In  poetry  the  children  read  to  feel  the  music,  to  visualize  the  pictures, 
to  be  swayed  by  the  feeling  and  uplifted  by  the  power  of  the  poem,  for 
poetry  must  speak  from  the  heart  of  the  poet  to  the  heart  of  the  child 
or  it  is  not  poetry.  In  the  lower  grades  the  teacher  brings  out  these 
things  in  her  reading.  The  poems  selected  for  work  here  contain  some 
vivid  idea  with  not  too  many  details  and  appeal  in  subject  matter  to 
the  child.  A  poem  for  young  children  must  be  filled  with  good  pic- 
tures and  those  listening  must  be  trained  to  see  and  reproduce  them 
in  drawing  and  in  speech.  The  music  must  be  true,  harmonious,  and 
most  of  all,  pronounced.  Feeling  in  a  poem  holds  a  child  closely,  for 
the  emotions  of  childhood  are  easily  aroused.  All  intense  feeling 
should  be  withheld  though  the  sad  and  the  happy  should  be  blended. 
Such  poets  as  Riley,  Field,  and  Stevenson  will  help  young  children  to 
love  poetry.  In  the  higher  grades  they  are  led  to  appreciate  some  of 
the  elements  of  poetry  for  themselves.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades 
they  learn  to  recognize  the  pictures  drawn  by  the  best  known  poets, 
to  appreciate  their  rhythmic  power,  to  understand  something  of  the 
poet's  sympathy  with  nature  and  with  life,  to  see  his  faith  in  goodness, 
and  to  follow  the  feelings  portrayed.  In  the  seventh  grade  they  read 
Riley,  Field,  Holmes,  Whittier,  Longfellow,  and  Stevenson,  making 
more  of  a  study  of  the  poet  as  expressed  through  all  his  poems.  The 
teacher  remembers  always  that  the  mission  of  poetry  is  to  keep  alive 
the  feelings  and  aspirations  for  the  beautiful  in  life  and  that  no  mat- 
ter how  clearly  the  facts  in  the  poem  come  home  to  a  boy  or  girl,  that 
child  is  not  reading  poetry  unless  he  gains  from  the  poem  an  im- 
pulse that  lifts  him  into  sympathy  with  the  beautiful  and  noble. 

In  the  stories  in  the  grades,  as  in  all  narration,  the  fundamentals 
are  plot,  character,  purpose,  and  setting,  or  life.  These  things  be- 
come of  literary  value  when  their  expression  has  in  it  artistic  merit. 
In  the  stories  fitted  for  use  in  the  lower  grades  strong  plot  or  action 
and  distinct  character-drawings  are  necessary.  The  first  training  the 
little  ones  receive  is  that  of  re-telling  the  stories  told  or  read  to  them, 
following  the  action  as  it  has  been  given.  In  the  third  grade  they  are 
reading  stories  for  themselves  and  here  they  begin  to  discuss,  in  a 
small  way,  the  characters,  and  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people, 
especially  when  the  traits  are  at  all  peculiar.  The  fourth  grade  forms 
the  bridge  between  the  report  in  which  the  story  is  told  and  the 
fifth  grade  where  the  children  discuss  character  and  life,  without  re- 
lating the  story.  In  the  sixth  grade  characters,  plot,  and  setting  can 
be  discussed  equally  well  by  the  children.  Historical  fiction  is  intro- 
duced here,  because  our  sixth  grade  begins  to  study  history,  also  sucH 
books  as  the  Jungle  Book,  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known,  and  other 
books  of  fiction  that  lead  to  history  and  nature. 

In  the  seventh  grade  they  begin  to  read  the  standard  novels,  though 
we  hold  them  back  to  the  simple  stories  of  home  life  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, such  as  Little  Women  and  the  Pepper  Series. 

In  the  eighth  grade  the  novel  is  read  for  life  chiefly  and  for  descrip- 
tion bearing  upon  life.  The  literary  merit  is  discussed  and  the  artis- 
tic side  made  prominent.  The  novels  selected  have  good  plot,  ac- 
curate setting  and  noble,  elevating  characters.  The  passionate  and 
dramatic  should  be  kept  from  them  until  they  love  the  simple  and  true. 

Books  of  information  are  read  in  the  library  reading  classes.     In- 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE.  223 

terests  started  in  fiction  and  poetry  and  in  regular  recitation  lead  into 
the  reading  of  history,  biography,  natural  history,  sketches  of  travel, 
etc.  It  is  not  until  the  children  are  in  the  eighth  grade  that  any  at- 
tempt is  made  to  have  them  read  the  literary  essay,  and  then  only,  with 
a  few  writers  like  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  Burroughs,  and  Irving.  The 
essay  work  is  confined  chiefly  to  short  essays  in  readers  and  magazines 
and  we  have  a  number  of  these  magazine  articles  bound  in  manila 
covers  especially  for  this  grade. 

This  in  brief  is  a  very  general  outline  of  the  plan  of  reading  for  the 
grades.  The  children  recite  at  least  once  a  week.  The  teaching  is 
done  by  seniors  who  have  taken  the  course  offered  in  Professional 
Juvenile  Literature  in  the  Normal  department.  The  pupil-teachers 
are  overlooked  by  the  critic  teachers  of  the  model  school  and  the  or- 
ganization and  supervision  of  the  entire  work  throughout  the  grades 
is  under  the  direction  of  the  head  of  the  department  of  literature  In 
the  Normal  school.  There  is  no  one  room  dedicated  to  literature  but 
according  to  the  plan  inaugurated  in  the  Milwaukee  Normal  school, 
every  child  in  the  model  school,  and  every  student  in  the  Normal 
school  is  reading  something  of  value  in  which  he  is  interested,  and  we 
call  this  library  reading. 

From  the  first  grade  to  the  senior  year,  the  literature  and  library 
work  is  arranged  so  as  to  bring  the  students  close  to  the  mass  of 
literature  itself,  so  that  the  teacher  of  literature  may  become  the 
teacher  of  the  sure  things  of  heaven  and  earth,  instead  of  the  teacher 
of  biography  and  composition.  Business  men  and  women  as  well  as 
librarians  and  teachers  of  literature  are  coming  to  see  that  the  "litera- 
ture of  power,"  as  DeQuincey  termed  it,  that  which  touches  life  at  all 
points  and  thus  makes  a  universal  appeal  to  human  nature,  is  the 
strongest  influence  for  a  lasting  civilization.  Hence  the  so-called  "li- 
brary movement,"  which  is  so  strong  in  our  state  today. 

I  believe  that  the  librarian  in  children's  libraries  should  find  the 
teacher  of  the  grades  ready  to  co-operate  in  directing  children  to  the 
right  books  and  in  fostering  the  love  for  them,  for  surely  one  of  the 
best  safeguards  for  the  future  of  the  state  lies  in  the  influence  which 
inspiring  literature  will  have  over  the  minds  and  ideals  of  children.  I 
want  to  add  in  closing  a  thought  from  Charles  Dudley  Warner's  essay 
on  the  Novel  and  the  Common  School, — "The  notion  that  literature  can 
be  taken  up  as  a  branch  of  education  and  learned  at  the  proper  time  is 
one  of  the  most  farcical  in  our  scheme  of  education." 


REPORT   OF    COMMITTEE. 

This  report  is  necessarily  incomplete,  general  conclusions  only  hav- 
ing been  arrived  at.  We  commit  ourselves  to  words  only  to  give  the 
general  scope.  It  was  inferred  from  yesterday's  session  that  the  gen- 
eral aim  is  to  develop  a  love  for  literature  and  foster  a  habit  for  read- 
ing. In  regard  to  method  and  plans,  we  arrived  at  no  uniform  con- 
clusion. 

We  recognize  three  stages  of  growth:  childhood,  the  time  of  rapid 
growth,  and  maturity.  These  have  their  corresponding  characteristics. 
The  imitative  impulse  is  strong  in  the  first,  delight  in  action  in  the 
second,  contemplation  and  reflection  in  the  third.  The  literature  that 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

-corresponds  to  the  three  stages  is:  first,  the  simple  tale  or  story  in 
prose,  jingle,  rhyme,  refrain,  imitative  combinations  in  poetry;  second, 
romance  and  adventure;  the  third  introduces  the  more  deeply  ar- 
tistic and  philosophical.  In  the  first  the  thought  element  is  not 
strong,  in  the  second  the  thinking  is  largely  occupied  by  the  objective 
world,  in  the  third  the  attention  is  directed  more  largely  to  the  sub- 
jective phases  of  thought  with  all  that  precedes  as  a  part  of  the  work- 
ing material. 
Cautions:  — 

1.  While  it  is  desired  to  pass  from  the  simple  to  the  complex  in 
literary  art,  we  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  favoring  any  piece  of 
literature  which  is  simple  but  not  great.     Stevenson's,  Riley's,  and 
Field's  poems  appeal  even  more  broadly  to  men  and  women  than  to 
children.     In  prose,  Pilgrim's  Progress  and  Robinson  Crusoe  may  be 
cited. 

2.  Considering  our  aim,  it  is  suggested  that  while  the  teacher  should 
direct  and  form  the  taste  of  the  child,  he  should  do  so  by  a  study  of  the 
-child's  interests. 

3.  Dividing  lines  are  not  to  be  taken  strictly,  as  they  vary  with  the 
individual. 

4.  If  the  teacher  introduces  the  contemplation,  or  philosophical  ele- 
ment, he  must  put  the  appreciation  on  an  intelligent  basis.     These 
may  be  introduced  for  their  musical  charm  (if  they  have  any)  without 
regard  to  the  thought  element. 

ELLEN  F.  P.  PEAKE, 
F.  K.  SECHRIST, 

Committee. 


MATHEMATICAL  SECTION. 
Leader,  W.  C.  HEWITT,  Oshkosh. 


'PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN    FOR  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC  IN 
NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

M.  A.  BUSSEWITZ,  Milwaukee. 

PURPOSE. 

I.  Academic. 

To  systematize  and  extend  the  student's  knowledge   of  arithmetic 
that  he  may — 

1.  Comprehend  clearly  its   basic   principles   and  discern  the  old  in 
the  new. 

2.  Acquire  accuracy  and  rapidity  in  operating. 

3.  Develop  insight  into  arithmetical  relations  and  processes  which 
will  enable  him  to  determine  quickly  what  should  be  done  in  a  par- 
ticular problem  or  case. 

4.  Acquire  power  to  state  solutions  in  clear,  concise  language. 

5.  Firmly    fix   habits    of    neatness    and  systematic  arrangement  of 
•written  work. 


PURPOSE,  PLAN  AND  SCOPE  IN  ARITHMETIC.  225 

6.  Learns    its    application    in     successfully     solving    problems    en- 
countered in  life. 

II.  Professional. 

a.  To  comprehend  the  educational  value  of  this  subject — 

1.  As  a  utilitarian  study. 

2.  As  an  instrumental  study. 

3.  As  a  disciplinary  study. 

4.  As  a  culture  and  ethical  study. 

b.  To  determine  what  topics  should  be  taught  and  to  arrange  these 
In  their  logical  sequence. 

c.  To  impart  power  to  separate  these  topics  into  suitable  units  for 
recitations  in  order  to  make  the  transition  from  the  old  to  the  related 
new  as  easy  as  possible  for  the  pupil. 

d.  To  develop  ability  to  analyze  the  unit  for  the  purpose  of  determ- 
ining what  must  be  known  or  done  by  the  pupil  in  order  to  master  it. 

e.  To  impart  power  to  select  the  new  and  to  discern  the  relation  of 
the  old  to  the  related  new. 

f.  To  devise,  exemplify,  and  discuss  approved  methods  of  knitting 
the  new  to  the  old — 

1.  For  presentation. 

2.  For  drill. 

3.  For  testing. 

g.  To  bring  to  the  student's  notice  the  great  psychological  and  ped- 
agogical laws  upon  which  rapid  progress  in  this  subject  depends,  and 
to  impart  power  to  apply  these. 

SCOPE. 
I.  Academic. 

1.  Brief  reviews  in  factoring.     G.  C.  F.,  L.  C.  M. 

2.  Drill  in  problems  involving  fractions. 

3.  Work  in  decimals,  including  the  development  of  the  decimal  sys- 
tem of  notation,  and  a  drill  of  about  fifteen  minutes  in  changing  num- 
"bers  to  another  system  and  vice  versa. 

4.  Work  in  percentage — pure  and  applied. 

5.  Reviews  in  other  topics  if  needed  by  class. 

The  greater  part  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  professional  work.  This 
greatly  enhances  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  thus 
supplements  the  academic  work  in  a  large  degree. 

II.  Professional. 

A.  Discussion  of  the  educational  value  of  this  subject  as  outlined 
under  "purpose." 

B.  Topics  to  be  taught  and  their  logical  sequence. 

1.  Things  to    be    learned    incidentally    in  connection  with  reading, 
writing,  language  work,  drawing,  etc. — 

a.  To  count  up  to  20  or  100. 

b.  To  read  and  write  these  numbers. 

c.  To  make  simple  measurements. 

2.  The  four  fundamental  operations.     The  pupil's  knowledge  of  read- 
ing and  writing  numbers    extended    when  necessary  but  no  attempt 
made  to  teach  the  system. 

15 


226  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

3.  Factoring,  G.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M. 

4.  Fraction,  with  the  three  cases  of  problems. 

5.  Decimals,  including  development  of  decimal  system  of  notation, 

6.  Percentage,  with  its  three  cases. 

7.  Application  of  percentage  not  involving  the  element  of  time. 

a.  Profit  and  loss. 

b.  Commercial  discount. 

c.  Commission,  brokerage  and  stocks.      (Omitting  problems  where 
a  sum  includes  both  proceeds  and  commission,  because  business  men 
do  not  use  it  in  their  transactions.) 

d.  Insurance.     (Omitting  life  insurance.) 

e.  Taxes.     (Omitting  poll  tax.) 

f.  Customs  and  duties. 

g.  Applications  of  percentage  involving  the  element  of  time. 

1.  Interest.     (One  method — the  exact.) 

2.  Promissory  notes  and  partial  payments.     (The  U.  S.  method.) 

3.  Bank   discount.      (Considered    as    interest    taken    in    advance — 
first  case.) 

4.  Present  worth. 

5.  Compound  interest.     (Knowledge  of  principle  and  use  of  interest 
tables.) 

h.  Measures. 

1.  Denominate  numbers.     (Confined  to  these  in  ordinary  use.     The 
fundamental  operations  with  them  as  exemplified  in  most  text-books 
are  omitted  as  laborious  and  impractical.) 

2.  Mensuration. 

a.  Development   of   rules    for    finding    area    of    plane    geometrical 
figures. 

b.  Development  of  rules    for    finding    area    of    simple    geometrical 
solids. 

c.  Applications  in  practical  work. 

3.  Square  and  cube  roots.     (Confined  to  factoring  and  estimating.) 
i.  Simple  proportion. 

g.  To  formulate  the  body  of  the  psycological  and  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples by  virtue  of  which  progress  in  the  branch  becomes  easy  and  to 
point  out  and  illustrate  their  application  in  the  recitation. 

PLAN. 

After  a  discussion  of  the  educational  value  of  the  subject,  we  take 
up  the  discussion  as  to  what  topics  should  be  taught  and  their  logical 
sequence. 

The  topics  are  separated  into  suitable  units  and  these  are  then 
made  a  basis  of  lesson  plans.  A  number  are  formulated  in  class  for 
the  purpose  of  exemplification.  The  students  then  formulate  lesson 
plans  on  assigned  units,  and  also  separate  topics  into  suitable  units 
for  work.  The  plans  are  read  in  class  and  discussed;  methods  of 
teaching  the  points  involved  are  exemplified  and  basic  psychological 
and  pedagogical  principles  pointed  out. 

Academic  reviews  are  taken  in  connection  with  the  professional 
work  on  the  topic,  where  they  serve  also  the  purpose  of  exemplifying 
methods  and  principles. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  ARITHMETIC.  227 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  FOR   TEACHING  ARITHMETIC   IN 
NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

L.  H.  CLARK,  River  Falls. 
PURPOSE. 

I.  Academic. 

(a)  Aim, — to  equip  the  Normal  school  student  with  the  knowledge 
of  that  body  of  definitions,  fundamental  principles,  methods  of  the  de- 
velopment of  rules  for  processes    and    applications  of  arithmetic  to 
business  that  a  teacher  should  possess,  and    also   to    develop   in   him 
that  skill,  both  economical  in  time  and  energy,  in  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems, very  desira&e  in  a  teacher  of  arithmetic. 

(b)  Reasons  for  the  academic    teaching    of  arithmetic  in  Normal 
schools. 

1.  On  entering  the  Normal  school,  not  one  student  in  ten  possesses 
that  knowledge  of  arithmetic  as  a  science,  or  that  skill  in  computa- 
tion, that  should  be  part   of   the   equipment   of  the    common   school 
teacher.    This  is  quite  as  true  of  students  coming  from  high  schools 
as  those  from  common  schools. 

2.  The   work   of  equipping    its    students    with  such  knowledge  and 
skill  in  arithmetic  as  a  teacher  should  possess,  should  not  be  under- 
taken by  the  high  school,  b^ause  such  knowledge  and  skill  are  not 
essential  for  good  citizenship  or  for  life.    Neither  can  the  high  school 
equip  its  students  with  such  knowledge  and  skill,  because  of  the  im- 
maturity of  the  students  when  they  must  drop   arithmetic  for  more 
advanced  and  important  studies. 

3.  Academic  work  in   arithmetic    is    fully   justified    in    the    Normal 
school  because  much  valuable    professional    knowledge    can    be    ac- 
quired by  the  student  in  no  better  way  than  by  receiving  instruction 
under  an  expert  teacher  who  calls  attention  from  time  to  time  to  his 
application  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  and  to  his  meth- 
ods of  presentation  and  of  drill. 

4.  Methods    of   academic    instruction     in    public    and     professional 
schools  must  necessarily  differ.       The  aim  in  teaching  arithmetic  in 
the  public  school  is  so  different  from  that  outlined  above  for  the  Nor- 
mal school  that  the  scope  and  plan  of  work  must  also  be  very  differ- 
ent.   In  the  public  school,  intellectual  discipline  is  and  should  be  the 
particular  aim,  while  the  amount  of  knowledge  should  be  a  secondary 
consideration.    In  the  professional  school,  knowledge  and  skill  in  the 
application  of  this  knowledge  should  be  the  leading  consideration  and 
intellectual  discipline  a  secondary  matter  altogether.  • 


AIM. 

II.  Professional. 

(a)  To  equip  the  student  with  a  knowledge  of  a  body  of  principles 
and  precepts  of  teaching  arithmetic  and  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in  their 
application. 

No  argument  is  necessary  to  show  the  reasonableness  of  this  aim. 


228  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


SCOPE. 

« 

1.  Definitions  of  all  terms  and  processes. 

2.  Notation  and  numeration. 

(a)  Arabic  with  practice  in  writing  numbers  in  different  scales. 

(b)  Roman. 

(c)  History  of  notations. 

3.  Reduction. 

(a)  Numbers  from  one  scale  to  another. 

(b)  Common  fractions  from  one  form  to  another. 

(c)  Common  fraction  to  the  decimal  form. 

(d)  Denominate  numbers. 

4.  Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division, — 

(a)  Numbers  in  the  scale  of  10. 

(b)  Numbers  in  other  scales  than  10, 

(c)  Common  and  decimal  fractions. 

(d)  Denominate  numbers. 

5.  Factoring, — 

(a)  Square  and  cube  root  by  factors. 

(b)  Greatest  common  divisor. 

(c)  Least  common  multiple. 

6.  Mensuration, — 

.  (a)  Development  of  rules  for  finding  the  area  of  plane  geometrical 
figures. 

(b)  Development  of  rules  for  finding  the    volume    of    simple    geo- 
metrical solids. 

(c)  Practical  applications. 

7.  Percentage, — 

(a)  Profit  and  loss. 

(b)  Commission. 

(c)  Interest,  1.  Simple,  exact,  annual,  partial  payments. 

2.  Compound. 

3.  Discount,  commercial,  true,  bank. 

8.  Proportion, — 

(a)  Simple. 

(b)  Compound. 

N.  B. — Some  topics  in  the  outline  above  are  inserted  because  many 
principals  and  city  superintenednts  still  require  their  teachers  to 
teach  them.  Some  county  superintendents  still  examine  their  teach- 
ers upon  them  and  also  give  questions  on  them  in  their  examinations 
of  rural  school  pupils  for  the  common  school  diploma. 

The  iopics  referred  to  are  true  discount,  stocks  and  bonds,  simple 
and  compound  proportion. 

PLAN. 

Work  in  arithmetic  in  the  State  Normal  school  at  River  Falls  is 
presented  to  four  different  classes  of  students. 

1.  Preparatory  students  are  taught  to  perform  with  some  degree 
of  rapidity  and  accuracy  simple  operations  in  arithmetic  without 
much  philosohpy.  This  work  is  intended  to  fit  pupils  to  do  the  work 
of  the  Normal  school.  They  are  drilled  upon  factoring,  common  frac- 
tions and  decimals  in  particular. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  IN  ARITHMETIC.  229 

2.  Students  who  are  admitted  to  the  Normal  department  upon  ex- 
amination, but  who  are  not  up  to  grade  in  arithmetic,  are  placed  in  a 
class  by  themselves  and  given  a  term's  work  in  analysis  of  problems 
in  common  fractions  and  percentage. 

3.  Students  well  prepared  to  do  the  work  in  the  Normal  department 
in  arithmetic  are  given   a  term's   work   in   what   may   be   called   the 
science  of  arithmetic,  with  special  emphasis  upon  definitions  and  ex- 
planation of  principles  and  methods  of  development  of  rules  by  in- 
duction.   Besides  this,  they  are  drilled  in  the  solution  of  problems  of 
rather  more  difficult  character  than  those  given  to  class    2,    and    by 
methods  at  once  economical  both  of  time  and  energy.     They  are  also 
instructed  in  methods  of  presenting  the  different  topics  in  arithmetic 
to  pupils  in  common  schools. 

4.  The  last  class  of  students  required  to  study  arithmetic  is  com- 
posed of  high  school  graduates  and  seniors  who  must  take  the  pro- 
fessional reviews.    The  work  presented  to  this  class  is  very  much  the 
same  as  that  of  class  3,  but  with  a  larger  amount  of  work  of  a  profes- 
sional nature.    The  aim  of  the  teacher  with  this  class  is  to  qualify  it 
for  practice  work  in  the  model  school.      While  it  is  called  a  profes- 
sional review  in  arithmetic,  still  the  teacher  aims  more  directly  at  in- 
creasing the  academic  attainments  of  the  students.       Their  greatest 
need  is  more  knowledge  in  arithmetic  and  before  they  can  do  practice 
work  in  the  model  school  they  must  know  more  of  the  subject  matter 
they  are  to  teach.      The  teacher  also  knows  that  much  of  the  profes- 
sional teaching  he  may  give  them  will  be  repeated  in    the    methods 
class  by  the  supervisor  of  practice  and  that  some  of  what  the  super- 
visor teaches  may  be  directly  contrary  to  that  which  may  be  taught 
in  the  class  of  professional  review.    Even  if  there  were  no  conflict  in 
opinion  still  it  seems  a  waste  of  energy  to  have  so  much  repetition. 
Hence  the  teacher  of  arithmetic   feels   that   he    can    do   his    students 
more  good  by  making  them  strong  in  academic  work. 


ARITHMETIC  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  THE  PURPOSE,  PLAN 

AND  SCOPE. 

EMILY  F.  WEBSTER,  Oshkosh. 

The  purpose  in  teaching  Arithmetic  in  the  Normal  schools  must  be 
determined  by  the  object  for  which  the  Normal  schools  were  founded 
and  have  since  been  maintained;  hence  a  brief  review  of  their  speci- 
fic work  as  established  by  law  not  only  in  this  state,  but  in  the  other 
states  of  the  union  in  which  the  Normal  school  is  a  part  of  the  edu- 
cational system,  will  not  be  out  of  place.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
observe  that  a  Normal  school  is  a  professional  school,  and,  in  com- 
mon with  all  other  professional  schools,  has  a  specific  object  in  view, 
that  object  being  in  the  present  case  to  afford  a  better  opportunity 
for  preparation  to  those  who  have  already  entered  the  ranks,  as  well 
as  to  thoroughly  equip  those  intending  to  teach. 

As  the  purpose  of  the  Normal  schools  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin,  ac- 
cording to  the  statutes  of  the  state,  is  the  preparation  of  teachers  to 


230  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

teach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  the  line  of  work  done  in  them 
should  be  such  as  will  best  carry  out  the  will  of  the  state  in 
this  matter. 

.  First  of  all  a  most  thorough  scholastic  line  of  work  should  be  pro- 
vided for  and  carefully  maintained,  because,  as  Edward  Everett  said 
in  1837  in  an  address  on  Normal  schools,  "A  teacher  ought  to  know  of 
everything  much  more  than  the  learner  can  be  expected  to  acquire. 
The  teacher  must  know  things  in  a  masterly  way,  curiously,  nicely, 
and  in  their  reasons."  Mr.  Everett,  though  not  a  schoolmaster  him- 
self, maintains  that  a  good  teacher  should  be  able  to  speak  the  Eng- 
lish language  with  propriety,  ease  and  grace,  and  this  he  says  cannot 
be  done  without  a  knowledge  of  its  grammar.  He  should  possess  at 
the  same  time  a  clear,  shapely  and  rapid  hand  and  be  well  versed  in 
the  elemental  principles  and  operations  of  numbers,  and  he  adds: 
"I  venture  to  say  that  a  man  who  possesses  these  three  branches 
thoroughly  is  as  rare  as  one  of  corresponding  eminence  in  any  of  the 
learned  professions."  Judging  from  this  testimony,  the  golden  age  of 
the  thoroughly  equipped  public  school  teacher  had  not  arrived  back 
in  the  thirties.  It  cannot  be  charged  against  Mr.  Everett  that  he  be- 
littled the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  higher  education,  because 
he  did  not  possess  it  himself,  since  he  had  it  in  large  measure,  but 
he  still  put  his  faith  in  the  common  schools  and  the  common  school 
branches,  for,  said  he,  in  the  address  before  mentioned,  "The  Normal 
school  should  raise  the  standard  of  common  school  education." 

"If  there  be  any  persons  to  whom  the  words  common  schools,  and 
common  school  education  convey  an  idea  of  disparagement  and  insig- 
nificance, such  persons  are  ignorant  not  merely  of  the  true  character 
of  our  political  system,  but  of  the  nature  of  man.  The  common 
schools  give  the  keys  of  knowledge  to  the  mass  of  the  people.  A  com- 
mon school  education  must  be  had  at  home  or  not  at  all.  I  think  it 
may  with  truth  be  said  that  the  branches  of  knowledge  taught  in  our 
common  schools,  when  taught  in  a  finished  and  masterly  manner,  are 
of  greater  value  than  all  the  rest  that  is  taught  at  school.  Our  com- 
mon schools  are  important  in  the  same  way  as  the  common  air,  the 
common  sunshine,  the  common  rain,  invaluable  for  their  common- 
ness. They  are  the  fountain  of  that  widespread  intelligence  whicii, 
like  a  moral  life,  pervades  the  country." 

Leaving  the  East  and  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  let  us 
advance  to  the  middle  West,  and  the  sunset  year  of  that  same  century 
to  once  more  get  our  bearings,  and  this  time  we  will  take  them  from 
those  who  make  the  training  of  teachers  their  profession.  The  In- 
diana State  Normal  school  says  in  its  latest  catalogue,  "The  sole  pur- 
pose of  a  Normal  school  should  be  to  confer  on  its  students  that  edu- 
cation, discipline,  professional  training  and  practical  skill,  which  will 
best  fit  them  for  teaching  in  the  public  schools.  The  school  should 
limit  its  attention  to  this  one  thing,  the  preparation  of  teachers  for 
teaching  in  the  common  schools  of  the  state.  The  school  should  seek 
first  of  all  to  ground  its  students  thoroughly  in  the  common  school 
branches, — they  are  the  foundation  of  all  learning." 

All  this  has  to  do  with  the  scholastic  or  academic  training,  and  this 
for  a  high  school  or  academy  would  be  sufficient,  but  not  so  for  the 
Normal  school,  for  it  has  to  do  with  the  making  of  teachers,  and  Mr. 
Everett  sa^s  "the  future  teacher  must  be  instructed  in  the  most  effec- 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  ARITHMETIC.  231 

tual  way  of  reaching  untaught  mind,"  and  he  adds,  "the  Normal 
school  should  exercise  a  salutary  influence  on  the  cause  of  common 
school  education.  The  office  of  the  teacher  in  forming  the  mind  and 
hearts  of  the  young  is  all  important.  It  is  not  a  mere  piece  of  Jpl 
work  to  which  anyone  may  turn  his  hand,  but  a  professional  calling 
which  requires  knowledge,  judgment  and  experience." 

So  much  for  the  professional  aspect  as  it  appeared  to  a  non-profes- 
sional when  the  Normal  school  system  was  in  its  infancy.     For  t 
present  opinion  we  may  turn  to  the  schools  themselves,  and  i 
ing  their  catalogues,  all  are  found  to  agree  that  the    instruction    1 
volves  a  knowledge  and  a  knowledge  of  how  to  present  subject-mat- 
ter so  as  to  conform  to  the  various  steps  of  mental  development. 

'Now  that  the  purpose  of  the  Normal  schools,  both  according  to  law 
and  by  common  consent,  is  to  prepare  teachers  to  teach  in  the  com- 
mon schools,  and  since  arithmetic  has  a  legal  place  among  those 
branches,  we  may  consider  the  purpose  for  which  arithmetic  is 
taught  in  the  Normal  schools,  and  in  the  light  of  the  purpose  for 
which  these  very  schools  were  established,  it  becomes  evident  that 
the  teaching  of  arithmetic  has  for  its  purpose  such  a  fitting  of  young 
people  that  they  in  turn  may  teach  the  subject  with  some  degree  of 
skill  in  the  common  schools  of  the  state. 

Arithmetic  has  been  degraded  from  its  once  proud  place  in  the 
triumvirate  of  learning,  but  it  still  holds  its  own  among  the  common 
school  branches.  Like  Samson,  it  has  been  shorn  of  its  might,  and 
the  schoolmaster  no  longer  holds  his  place  because  of  his  prowess  in 
"doing  sums." 

What  can  be  done  by  the  Normal  schools  to  restore  to  it  a  measure 
of  its  ancient  prestige?  Dr.  Winship  says  the  country  is  in  need  of 
nothing  new  at  present.  The  struggle  for  originality  could  profitably 
be  laid  aside  and  the  teacher  who  can  teach  the  most  arithmetic  in 
the  shortest  time  will  get  both  fame  and  honor.  Teachers  of  the  "Nor- 
mal schools,  there  lies  our  way, — "The  most  arithmetic  in  the  shortest, 
time."  But  how  shall  our  young  people  be  fitted  to  teach  the  most 
arithmetic  in  the  shortest  time  unless  they  have  first  received  a  thor- 
ough training  in  the  branch,  a  training  that  shall  make  them  masters 
of  the  subject? 

I  would  that  Dr.  Winship  had  hot  said  "the  shortest  time,"  for  that 
side  of  the  problem  has  been  emphasized  till  arithmetic  is  well  nigh 
emasculated. 

Something  like  a  century  ago  Warren  Colburn  was  inspired  by  a 
spark  direct  from  the  altar  and  a  mental  arithmetic  was  born  into  the 
world  and  men  and  women  yet  live  who  grew  strong  on  that  mental 
pabulum,  and  then  there  arose  others  who  said  "Let  us  away  with 
this  mental  arithmetic  and  thus  make  room  for  more  important  mat- 
ter." And  arithmetic,  having  been  smitten  on  the  one  cheek  turned 
the  other  also  and  time  was  taken  from  it  for  Greek  and  Roman 
fables,  for  nature  study,  for  popular  science,  and  I  know  not  what; 
and  the  parents  are  lamenting  in  bitterness  of  spirit  because  their 
children  cannot  cast  up  an  account  in  interest,  and  the  root  of  this 
evil  lies  in  their  inability  to  deal  accurately  with  numbers,  and  the 
desire  to  save  time  at  the  expense  of  good,  thorough,  lasting  work, 
hangs  like  a  pall  over  our  modern  civilization.  According  to  statistics 
the  length  of  a  man's  days  has  been  much  increased;  then  whence 


232  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

this  foolish  desire  to  shorten  the  time  of  preparation?  The  world's 
crying  need  is  for  better  workers,  and  it  should  be  the  purpose  of  the 
Normal  schools  to  furnish  them.  This  craze  for  minimizing  time  has. 
made  itself  felt  in  the  Normal  schools,  and  has  expended  itself  most 
furiously  on  arithmetic,  till  forgetful  that  the  Lord  himself  requires 
time  and  cannot  make  a  two-year  old  colt  in  a  minute,  we  are  vainly 
attempting  to  make  skillful  teachers  of  arithmetic  in  ten  weeks. 

The  Rhode  Island  Normal  school  says  in  its  catalogue  that  the  spe- 
cial vocation  of  the  Normal  school  is  to  beget  the  spirit  of  the  teach- 
er    The  Indiana  Normal  school    says,    "As    a   teacher   he    should 
freed  from  obedience  to  mere  prescription  and  rule  and  acquire  geD 
uine  originality  and  true  individuality." 

There  was  once  a  people  who  put  itself  on  record  as  requiring 
bricks  without  straw,  and  hard  taskmasters  have  they  been  called 
from  that  day  to  this.  But  wherein  are  we  better  than  the  ancient 
Egyptians?  We  say  to  the  student  entering  from  the  high  school  who 
recognizes  the  manifestations  of  number,  but  is  ignorant  of  the  under- 
lying principles,  "Go  to,  now,  have  the  spirit  of  a  teacher,"  but  it  does- 
not  come  with  the  laying  on  of  hands.  How  shall  he  be  freed  from 
obedience  to  mere  prescription  and  rule  when  the  force  of  that  pre- 
scription and  the  meaning  of  that  rule  are  unknown  to  him?  How 
shall  he  attain  "genuine  originality  and  true  individuality?"  Only 
through  a  masterful  knowledge  of  the  subject;  and  how  shall  he  get 
a  masterful  knowledge?  For  this  three  things  are  necessary.  Some 
maturity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil;  reasonable  time  granted  in  the 
course  of  study;  an  understanding  of  the  power  and  purpose  of  the 
branch  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  When  he  has  acquired  this  mas- 
terful knowledge  of  the  subject,  acquired  it  in  an  atmosphere  per- 
meated with  pedagogy,  he  is  then,  and  not  till  then,  prepared  to  ex- 
amine the  branch  with  special  reference  to  teaching  it  to  all  grades 
of  pupils. 

High  school  graduates  have  little  knowledge  of  the  common  school 
branches  except  that  acquired  at  an  early  age,  and  in  the  grades  be- 
low the  high  school;  and  the  professional  training  that  is  superim- 
posed upon  such  tottering,  time-stricken  foundations,  has  no  depth  of 
root.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  possible  to  carry  out  the 
Normal  school  plan,  which  contemplates  imparting  culture,  skill  and 
learning  for  a  specific  purpose,  that  purpose  being  a  comprehension 
of  the  processes  by  which  the  learning  mind  gains  knowledge. 

County  superintendents  complain  that  reading  and  arithmetic  are 
more  poorly  taught  than  any  of  the  other  branches.  This  surely  ought 
not  to  be  true  of  arithmetic,  for  there  is  a  directness  and  a  logical  se- 
quence which,  if  thoroughly  understood  by  the  young  teacher,  would 
enable  him  to  give  proper  instruction"  in  this  very  essential  branch. 
The  vexation  which  attends  the  study  of  this  branch  with  many~  chil- 
dren would  be  incredible  if  one  did  not  know  so  well  what  manner  of 
man  the  teacher  is.  He  is  teaching  in  an  unskillful,  desultory,  hap- 
hazard way.  There  is  no  form  nor  comeliness  in  his  instruction, 
there  is  no  beauty  in  it  and  there  is  no  joy.  When  it  shall  come  to 
pass  that  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  not  only  knows  arithmetic,  but 
knows  that  he  knows  it,  he  will  be  crowned  with  everlasting  joy,  and 
those  that  come  under  his  instruction  will  rise  up  and  call  him 
blessed. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  ARITHMETIC.  23o- 

Can  such  a  state  of  blessedness  be  attained  in  ten  weeks?  Normal 
schools  of  other  states  both  east  and  west  demand  either  a  much 
higher  standard  for  admission,  or  else  give  much  more  time  to  the 
branch  and  some  do  both.  The  Rhode  Island  Normal  school  demands 
in  "The  Regular  Training  Course  for  High  School  Graduates"  one- 
half  year  in  the  subject  of  arithmetic,  and  specifies  that  students 
must  be  graduates  of  a  strong  high  school  course  well  and  fully 
mastered,  or  its  equivalent.  Graduates  of  accredited  high  schools  are 
admitted  to  this  school  upon  their  diplomas,  but  take  an  examination 
in  English,  including  reading,  penmanship,  composition  and  grammar, 
U.  S.  history,  geography  and  arithmetic,  the  object  being  to  ascertain 
the  students'  substantial,  every-day  knowledge  and  ability.  High 
school  graduates  take  this  test  unless  they  choose  to  review  the  sub- 
jects before  entering  upon  the  course. 

The  New  Jersey  State  Normal  school  requires  for  admission  quite 
as  much  as  our  students  have  time  to  acquire  in  their  ten  weeks  of 
academic  work.  Let  me  quote  the  following  from  its  catalogue,  for 
1900:  "The  instruction  involves  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  common 
school  branches,  a  knowledge  of  mind  and  a  knowledge  of  how  to  pre- 
sent the  subject  matter  so  as  to  conform  to  the  various  stages  of  men- 
tal development.  The  common  school  branches  are  taken  up  in  the 
first  year  by  the  regular  Normal  teachers,  and  become  in  a  peculiar 
way  preparatory  to  the  strictly  professional  work  of  the  years  to  fol- 
low. The  work  of  the  second  year  is  strictly  professional.  Arithmetic, 
grammar,  geography,  and  U.  S.  history  are  again  taken  up  and  con- 
sidered fundamentally  in  the  light  of  method,  or  how  to  teach." 

In  the  Terre  Haute  school,  according  to  its  catalogue,  about  one 
year  of  the  Normal  course  is  devoted  to  a  thorough  reflective  study 
of  the  common  school  branches,  and  the  student  is  required  to  pos- 
sess the  usual  general  knowledge  of  these  subjects  before  he  can  be 
a'dmitted.  In  the  course  for  "Graduates  of  Commissioned  High 
Schools"  two  terms  of  the  first  year  are  given  to  arithmetic,  and 
there  is  no  escape  from  it;  as  there  are  only  three  terms  in  the  year, 
this  means  two-thirds  of  a  school  year.  Graduates  from  commissioned 
high  schools  may  obtain  twelve  credits  at  Terre  Haute,  but  they  are 
required  to  take  the  common  school  branches  and  the  entire  profes- 
sional work, — the  reason  being  stated  that  usually  high  school  grad- 
uates have  only  such  knowledge  of  the  common  school  branches  as 
they  have  acquired  at  an  early  age  and  in  the  grades  below  the  high 
school.  Only  to  candidates  entering  the  "Course  for  Persons  Holding 
Three  Years'  County  License"  is  any  credit  given  in  arithmetic,  and 
that  credit  covers  two  terms'  work. 

We  of  Wisconsin  may  claim  the  shortest  time  in  our  course,  but 
alas  for  the  common  schools?  We  cannot  claim  the  most  arithmetic. 

Have  we  not  unconsciously  drifted  away  from  our  true  course?  Are 
we  not  now  striving  rather  to  make  a  course  in  mathematics  that 
shall  enable  our  graduates  to  secure  credits  at  the  University  rather 
than  a  course  that  shall  make  them  strong  teachers  of  mathematics 
in  the  common  schools? 

Is  it  not  a  mistake  to  ask  the  high  schools  to  review  the  subject  of 
arithmetic  in  the  hope  and  expectation  that  the  pupils  will  be  thus 
fitted  to  enter  at  once  upon  professional  work?  Will  this  review- 
carried  on  at  the  high  school  be  surrounded  by  the  "pedagogical  at- 


234  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

inosphere"  that  best  prepares  the  pupil  for  the  study  of  method  with 
that  branch?  Distasteful  as  it  may  be  to  the  student  to  take  up  the 
common  school  branches  after  he  enters  the  Normal  school,  is  it  any 
the  less  distasteful  to  him  in  the  high  school?  May  he  not  indeed  be 
made  to  enjoy  it  more  at  the  Normal  school  through  the  new  point  of 
view  which  will  then  be  given  to  him? 

Would  we  not  better  trust  the  high  schools  to  teach  trigonometry 
and  advanced  algebra,  and  leave  the  review  in  arithmetic  to  the  Nor- 
mal schools? 

Examining  it,  then,  with  the  understanding  that  it  is  an  instrument 
for  the  development  of  the  human  mind,  will  he  not  see  In  it  a  beauty 
unimagined  before? 

The  conditions  do  not  require  that  we  should  make  of  the  young 
people  either  expert  accountants,  bankers  or  insurance  agents,  but 
the  scope  should  be  sufficient  to  equip  a  person  for  the  ordinary  de- 
mands of  life  which  may  come  to  him  in  business  or  in  the  pursuit  of 
other  branches  of  learning.  As  teachers  they  should  have  such  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  subject,  such  skill  in  it,  such'  respect  and 
love  for  it,  that  they  can  train  the  boys  and  girls  even  from  the  pri- 
mary grade  to  the  high  school,  who  shall  in  future  come  under  their 
care  so  that  they  in  turn  may  love  it,  attain  accuracy  and  reasonable 
rapidity  and  acquire  business-like  methods  of  presenting  the  work. 

Mental  arithmetic  should  once  more  find  a  place  in  the  school  cur- 
riculum. No  better  means  has  yet  been  devised  whereby  a  boy  or  a 
girl  may  get  possession  of  himself  or  herself.  The  Millersville,  Penn., 
Normal  school  says  in  its  catalogue:  "Mental  arithmetic  is  placed  in 
the  foundation  of  this  course  both  for  its  discipline  and  for  its  in- 
fluence in  the  acquisition  of  the  other  branches  of  science.  The  object 
in  mental  arithmetic  is  analysis  and  mental  discipline.  In  wrftten 
arithmetic  the  aim  is  the  power  of  synthetic  thought  and  skill  in  the 
application  of  the  science." 

If  the  seven  Normal  schools  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin  would  this 
day  determine  to  fit  their  pupils  as  the  law  requires  that  they  should, 
to  teach  the  common  school  branches  in  the  public  schools,  a  light 
would  shine  in  the  dark  places,  and  the  waste  places  would  be  made 
glad,  and  the  wilderness  would  blossom  like  the  rose. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  ARITHMETIC. 

The  committee  appointed  in  the  mathematical  section  of  the  Osh- 
kosh  Institute  for  Normal  school  faculties  for  the  purpose  of  formu- 
lating the  requirements  in  Arithmetic  for  entrance  and  for  gradua- 
tion, begs  leave  to  submit  the  following: 

Requirements  for  entrance: 

1.  Accuracy  and  rapidity  in  the  four  fundamental  operations  with 
integral  numbers.    No  explanation  of  process  to  be  required. 

Working  definitions  of  all  terms  used. 

2.  Factoring  to  100  by  inspection   and    to    1,000    by   tests    of    divis- 
ibility. 

3.  L.  C.  M.  by  inspection  and  factoring,  numbers  not  to  exceed  100. 

4.  Fractions: — nature;  reduction;   four  fundamental  operations  and 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  ARITHMETIC.  235 

comprehension  of  principles  upon  which  these  are  based;   application 
to  concrete  problems  with  analysis. 
Denominators  not  to  exceed  100. 

5.  Decimals: — nature,    four    fundamental    operations;      reductions; 
applications  to  concrete  problems. 

Decimal  places  not  to  exceed  four. 

6.  Percentage: — nature,    multiplication    table    of    percentage,    i.    e., 
fractional  parts  in  terms  of  equivalent  percents  and  vice  versa;   the 
three  general  problems;  profit  and  loss;  commission  (excluding  prob- 
lems in  buying  where  the  sum  includes  both  commission  and  invest- 
ment);  trade  discount;  interest  (by  one  method). 

7.  Denominate     Numbers     and     Measures: — 1.  Tables: — avoirdupois 
weight;  U.  S.  money;   linear,  square,  cubic,  liquid  and  dry  measures; 
time.     2.  Reduction  and  four  fundamental  operations.     Examples  to  be 
limited  to  tivo  denominations;  as  pounds  and  ounces;  feet  and  inches, 
etc.     3.  Practical   work   in   area,   capacity,    carpeting,    plastering   and 
lumber. 


REQUIREMENTS   FOR  GRADUATION   FROM   THE   ELEMENTARY   COURSE. 

1.  Definitions  of  all  terms  and  processes. 

2.  Notation  and  Numeration: — Arabic,   with   brief    drill    in   writing 
numbers  in  different  scale;  history  of  notations. 

3.  Reduction: — common  fractions  from  one  denominator  to  another; 
common  fractions  to  decimals  and  vice  versa;  denominate  numbers. 

4.  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication  and  Division: — integral  num- 
bers; common  and  decimal  fractions;  denominate  numbers. 

5.  Factoring: — square  and  cube  root  by  factors;  G.  C.  D.;  L.  C.  M. 

6.  Percentage: — 1.  Pure.     2.  Applied: — profit  and  loss;   commission; 
simple  and  compound  interest;   partial  payments  by  the  U.  S.  Rule; 
trade  and  bank  discount;  stocks  and  bonds. 

7.  Mensuration: — development  of  rules  for  finding  the  area  of  plane 
geometrical  figures  and  for  finding  the  volume  of  geometrical  solids; 
practical  applications. 

8.  Proportion: — simple  and  compound. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  extend  and  systematize  the  student's 
knowledge  of  this  subject,  hence  the  academic  phase  should  be  empha- 
sized. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  GRADUATION  FROM  THE  ADVANCED  COURSE. 

1.  Comprehension  of  the  basic  principles  of  this  subject  and  power 
to  discern  the  old  in  the  new. 

2.  Accuracy  and  rapidity  in  operating. 

3.  insight  into  arithmetical  relations  and  processes  which  will  enable 
one  to  determine  quickly  what  should  be  done  in  a  particular  problem 
or  case. 

4.  Power  to  state  solutions  in  clear,  concise  language. 

5.  Habits  of  neatness  and  sys  tern  in  arrangement  of  written  work. 

6.  Knowledge  of  its  application  in  successfully  solving  problems  en- 
countered in  life. 

7.  Comprehension  of  the  educational  value  of  this  subject. 


236  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

8.  Ability  to  determine  what  topics  should  be  taught  in  the  common, 
school  and  power  to  arrange  these  in  their  logical  sequence. 

9.  Power  to  separate  these  topics  into  suitable  units  for  recitations 
in  order  to  make  the  transition  from  the  old  to  the  related  new  as  easy 
as  possible  for  the  pupil. 

10.  ability  to  analyze  the  unit  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what 
must  be  known  or  done  by  the  pupil  in  order  to  master  it. 

11.  Power  to  select  the  new  and  to  discern  the  relation  of  the  old  to 
the  related  new. 

12.  Ability  to  discuss,  devise,  and  exemplify  methods  of  knitting  the 
new  to  the  old: 

1.  For  presentation; 

2.  For  drill; 

3.  For  testing. 

,13.  Knowledge  of  the  great  psychological  and  pedagogical  laws  upon 

which  rapid  progress  in  this  subject  depends  and  power  to  apply  these. 

The  greater  part  of  this  time  should  be  djevoted  to  professional  work. 

This  greatly  enhances  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  thus 

supplements  the  academic  work  in  a  large  degree. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

M.  A.  BUSSEWITZ, 
L.  H.  CLARK, 
EMILY  F.  WEBSTER, 

Committee. 


ALGEBRA. 

PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN. 
H.  H.  LIEBENBERG,  Platteville. 

PURPOSE. 

Arithmetic  is  the  science  of  numbers.  Algebra  is  arithmetic  gener- 
alized  and  enlarged. 

The  purpose  of  teaching  algebra  is  to  lead  the  individual  to  organize 
himself,  by  his  own  activity,  along  the  lines  of  direct,  accurate,  and 
economic  perception;  vivid,  concise,  and  practical  imagination;  keen, 
terse,  rigorous,  and  logical  analysis;  candid,  lucid,  and  unbiased  judg- 
ment; clear,  complete,  and  concise  expression;  and  intelligent,  practi- 
cal, and  varied  application.  It  is  to  secure,  pre-eminently,  that  clear 
and  clean-cut  method  of  thought  which  is  at  the  basis  of  all  effective 
interpretation  of  nature,  which  is  so  powerful  in  the  regulation  of  so- 
cial intercourse,  and  which  is  the  dominant  factor  in  the  determination 
of  means  to  ends  in  the  relations  of  life  and  its  environments.  Prop- 
erly persented  and  rationally  assimilated,  number  and  its  application- 
is  the  greatest  tool  we  have  to  bring  adjustment,  order  and  economy 
into  the  activities  of  organized  society.  How  many  activities  of  man 
can  we  name  in  which  the  application  of  number  does  not  stand  out  in 
bold  relief?  We  often  find  algebra  classified  as  a  "form"  study  and 
more  frequently  do  we  find  it  taught  as  purely  a  "form"  study,  taught 
as  a  study  of  symbolism  in  the  abstract.  Under  such  conditions  it  is 
certainly  not  strange  that  algebra  frequently  appears  "dry"  and  that 
results  are  meager  and  unsatisfactory.  Well  has  it  been  said  that 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  IN  ALGEBRA. 


237 


•"form"  without  "content"  is  barren.  What  is  needed  in  much  of  the  al- 
gebra work  now  done  in  our  schools  is  a  purpose  higher  than  the  mem- 
orizing and  manipulation  of  symbols.  We  need  "form"  enlivened  and 
enriched  by  "content"  to  give  it  more  meaning  and  interest.  The  pur- 
pose should  ever  be  to  stimulate  and  cultivate  clear  and  clean-cut 
thought  rather  than  to  memorize  and  to  learn  to  manipulate  meaning- 
less symbols  and  forms. 

SCOPE. 
First  term — 

1.  Algebraic  language,  including  definitions,  signs,  symbols,  etc.  (de- 
veloped when  needed). 

2.  Equation,  axioms  and  their  relation  to  the  equation. 

3.  Addition:      (a)   monomial,  (b)  polynomial,  (c)  literal  co-efficients 
'(simple  cases). 

4.  Subtraction:    (a)   monomial,    (b)    polynomial,    (c)    literal    co-effi- 
cients i, simple  cases). 

5.  Signs  of  aggregation:    (a)  removal,  (b)  introduction. 

6.  Multiplication:   (a)  monomial,  (b)  polynomial. 

7.  Division:   (a)  monomial,  (b)  polynomial. 

8.  Factoring,  monomial  factors. 

9.  Difference  of  two  squares:   (a)  simple,  (b)  binomials  which  can  be 
put  into  that  form,   (c)   trinomials  which  can  be  put  into  that  form, 

(d)  polynomials  which  can  be  put  into  that  form. 

10.  Difference  of  two  cubes:      (a)   simple,   (b)   binomials  which  can 
be  put  into  that  form. 

11.  Sum  of  two  cubes:    (a)  simple,  (b)   binomials  which  can  be  put 
into  that  form. 

12.  Binomials  in  general:    (a)  difference  of  odd  powers,  (b)   sum  of 
•odd  powers,  (c)  sum  of  even  powers  which  can  be  expressed  as  the  sum 
-of  odd  powers. 

13.  Quadratic  form:    (a)    co-efficient  of  x2  unity,   (b)    co-efficient  of 
-x-  not  unity. 

14.  Grouping. 

15.  Cubic  expressions,  co-efficient  of  x3  unity. 

16.  H.  C.  F.  and  L.  C.  M.  factoring  method. 

17.  H.  C.  F.  and  L.  C.  M.  division  method. 
Second  term — 

1.  Fractions. 

1.  Reductions:      (a)  reducing  a  whole  or  mixed  expression  to  a  sin- 
gle fraction,  (b)  reducing  a  single  fraction  to  a  whole  or  mixed  expres- 
sion,   (c)    reducing  to   lowest  terms,    (d)    reducing  to   higher  terms, 

(e)  reducing  to  common  denominator. 

II.  Fundamental  operations:   (a)  addition,  (b)  subtraction,  (c)  mul- 
tiplication, (d)  division,  (e)  complex  fractions. 

2.  Simple  equations. 

I.  One  unknown  quantity:    (a)  numerical  (solving  with  use  of  nota- 
tion), (b)  literal,  (c)  problems. 

II.  Two  unknown  quantities:    (a)  numerical  (solving  in  each  of  the 
three  ways),  (b)  literal  (solving  in  any  of  the  three  ways),  (c)  prob- 
lems. 

III.  Three  unknown  quantities:      (a)   numerical,   (b)   problems,   (c) 
principle  growing  out  of  I,  II,  and  III  applied  to  equations  of  four  or 
"five  unknown  quantities. 


238  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

3.  Involution. 

I.  Squaring:   (a)  monomial,  (b)  binomial,  (c)  trinomial  (grouping), 
(d)  polynomial. 

II.  Cubing:    (a)  monomial,  (b)  binomial,   (c)  trinomial  (grouping). 

III.  Higher  powers:      (a)   monomials,   (b)   binomial  theorem  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  the  lower  powers  by  mutliplication,  the  general  the- 
orem by  induction  (not  a  proof). 

4.  Evolution. 

I.  Square  root:     (a)    monomials,    (b)     polynomials,     (1)     factoring 
method,    (2)    geometric  method    (area  representation),    (c)    numbers,. 

(1)  factoring  method,  (2)  geometric  method  (area  representation). 

II.  Cube  root:      (a)  monomials,   (b)  polynomials,   (c)  numbers,  (1) 
factoring  method,  (2)  geometric  method. 

Third  term — 
1.  Exponents. 

1.  Five  laws,  provide  for  integral  exponents  and  assumed  for  other 
exponents  (expressed  in  formula  as  follows) : 

II.  Meaning  of  exponents   (with  proof  for   (a),   (b)   and   (c)):    (a) 
fractional,  with  exercises  for  application,  (b)  negative,  with  exercises 
for  application,   (c)   zero,  with  exercises  for  application,   (d)   the  five 
forms  of  an  algebraic  expression  with  a  fractional  exponent. 

III.  Application  of  the  five  laws:      (a)   simplifying,   (b)   multiplica- 
tion, (c)  division,  (d)  factoring,  (e)  roots. 

2.  Surds. 

I.  Reductions:     (a)  remove  factors  from  radical,  reverse,  (b)  clear 
radical  of  fraction,  reverse,  (c)  lower  the  index,  reverse,  (d)  surds  in 
simplest  form,  the  three  conditions. 

II.  Addition  and  subtraction. 

III.  Multiplication:    (a)  monomials,  (b)  polynomials. 

IV.  Division:      (a)  monomials,   (b)   polynomials. 

V.  Involution  and  evolution. 

VI.  Rationalization  of  denominators. 

VII.  Equations  involving  surds. 

3.  Quadratic  equations,  one  unknown  quantity. 

I.  Pure:     (a)  numerical,  (b)  literal. 

II.  Affected:    (a)  numerical,   (b)   literal,   (1)   completing  the  square, 

(2)  formula,  (3)   factoring. 

III.  Higher  equations  which  can  be  put  into  quadratic  form. 

4.  Quadratic  equations,  two  unknown  quantities. 

I.  One  equation  of  the  first  degree,  the  other  of  the  second  degree, 
solved  by  direct  substitution. 

II.  Both  equations  homogeneous,  of  the  second  degree,  solved  by  di- 
vision. 

III.  Miscellaneous  equations  solved  by  substitution,  division  group- 
ing, etc. 

IV.  Problems. 

5.  Ratio  and  Proportion. 

I.  Deriving  other  proportions  from  a  given  proportion,     (a)   inver- 
sion,  (b)   alternation,  (c)   composition,   (d)   division,   (e)   composition 
and  division. 

II.  Problems. 

Fourth  term  (from  one  to  two  and  one  half  years  elapse  between  the 
third  and  fourth  terms'  work). 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  ALGEBRA.      239 

1.  A  review  of  portions  of  the  work  of  the  previous  terms,  giving 
more  attention  to  the  theoretical  side  than  to  methods  of  teaching. 

2.  Theory  of  exponents. 

3.  Imaginary  quantities. 

4.  Theory  of  the  quadratic  equation. 

5.  Indeterminate  equations. 

6.  Progressions:      (a)    arithmetical,   (b)    geometrical,    (c)   harmonl- 
cal. 

7.  Binomial  theorem,  proved  for  positive  integral  exponents,  assumed 
for  other  exponents. 

Fifth  term — 

1.  Undetermined  co-efficients,  including  the  application  to  separating 
a  fraction  into  partial  fractions. 

2.  Logarithms. 

3.  Theory  of  equations:    (a)  number  of  roots,   (b)   relation  between 
the  roots  and  co-efficients,  (c)  transformation  of  equations,  (d)   calcu- 
lating the  commensurable  and  incommensurable  real  roots  of  an  equa- 
tion, (e)  cubic  equation;   (1)  general  solution,  (2)  application. 

PLAN. 

The  plan  of  work  is  to  arrange  for  the  best  possible  conditions  which 
will  lead  the  pupil  with  a  minimum  waste  of  effort  to  do  the  thinking 
and  acting  necessary  to  attain  the  above  stated  purpose.  The  value  of 
a  recitation  for  any  pupil  depends  directly  upon  the  kind  and  amount 
of  thinking  and  expressing  that  it  leads  him  to  do.  Intelligent  expres- 
sion depends  upon  clear  thinking,  and  clear  thinking  is  possible  only 
when  there  is  a  real  familiarity  with  the  nature  and  characteristics  of 
the  elements  that  enter  into  it.  The  great  amount  of  waste  in  the 
teaching  of  algebra  today  is  not  due  to  the  lack  of  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  or  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  but  is  due  to  the  pupil's  pov- 
erty in  ideas. 

The  pupil  is  coaxed  and  induced  to  try  to  think  when  he  has  not  the 
elements  of  thought  to  do  it  with.  For  instance,  before  we  can  ration- 
ally add  and  explain  mathematically  how  we  find  the  sum  of  5  cows 
and  7  horses  we  must  see  that  common  quality  in  a  cow  and  a  horse 
which  enables  us  to  make  the  following  reductions:  5  cows  =  5  ani- 
mals, 7  horses  =  7  animals,  hence  5  cows  -f-  7  horses  =  12  animals. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  find  the  sum  of  3  sounds,  2  sins,  and  1  solar  sys- 
tem than  to  find  the  sum  of  3  chairs,  2  chairs,  and  1  chair,  because  it  is 
more  difficult  to  make  the  necessary  abstractions  for  seeing  a  com- 
mon quality  in  the  former  than  it  is  in  the  latter.  The  pupil 
cannot  rationally  add  the  former  until  he  has  recognized  that 
common  quality  in  them  which  makes  them  addable.  A  pro- 
cedure without  this  must  lead  to  meaningless  symbolism,  a  study 
^of  "form"  without  "content."  Similarly  when  a  pupil  has  learned  that 
the  factors  of  a2  —  &2  are  (a  -f-  b)  and  (a  —  b),  even  when  he  has  proved 
it  he  may  have  failed  to  recognize  that  quality  in  it  which  determines 
that  it  can  be  factored.  When  he  has  once  abstracted  that  quality  it 

is  easy  to  lead  him  to  see  the  same  quality  in  c4  —  x4  even  in  —  _ 

ye         9xi2 

but  the  readiness  with  which  he  can  abstract  this  quality  in  any  of 
these  expressions  depends  largely  upon  the  richness  of  his  conception 
of  a  and  &,  upon  the  content  that  these  have  for  him.  Always  see  to  it 
that  the  pupil's  ideas  have  content.  Connect  the  work  in  algebra  when- 


240  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ever  possible  with  the  work  in  arithmetic.  As  soon  as  good  algebraic 
material  is  on  hand  connect  also  the  new  with  the  old  whenever  direct 
relations  exist.  But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  simply  mention  relations. 
For  instance,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  pupil's  arithmetical  idea  of 
.a  fraction  consists  simply  and  solely  of  a  memorized  group  of  meaning- 
less symbols,  and  any  attempt  to  generalize  this  into  the  algebraic  idea 
of  a  fraction  must  prove  futile.  In  all  such  cases  the  pupil  must  be 
led  to  observe,  abstract,  and  generalize  those  characteristics  of  the 
concrete  which  he  needs  in  the  thought  processes  to  form  an  enriched 
conception  of  a  fraction.  It  is  this  that  I  mean  in  the  "purpose"  when 
I  say  that  "form"  should  be  enlivened  and  enriched  by  "content." 

Ever  begin  with  the  concrete  and  present  the  conditions  that  give 
rise  to  the  new  topic  or  show  how  the  new  topic  may  grow  out  of  a 
topic  already  studied;  show  what  mathematical  tools  are  used,  how, 
and,  if  possible,  why  they  are  used;  oral  work  by  the  class  (mental  al- 
gebra);  written  work;  summary  by  the  pupil;  application,  including 
the  solving  and  making  of  problems.  The  oral  work  and  the  making 
of  problems  are  among  the  most  valuable  exercises.  In  such  topics  as 
rule  for  signs  in  multiplication,  laws  of  exponents  for  fractional  expo- 
nents, even  for  some  pupils  the  rule  for  signs  in  subtraction,  it  is  best 
to  state  and  explain  the  rule  clearly  and  teach  the  pupil  how  to  use  it, 
leaving  the  why  until  he  can  master  it  with  less  waste  of  effort.  In 
such  topics  as  the  equation,  axioms,  binomial  theorem,  it  is  best  to 
have  each  pupil  examine  a  sufficient  number  of  specific  cases  for  a  basis 
for  inferring  the  general  case.  In  the  great  majority  of  topics  teach 
the  pupil  what,  how,  and  why,  next  let  him  do  (oral  and  written),  then 
lead  him  to  express  what  he  has  done  in  his  own  words  and  he  has  the 
best  rule  there  is  for  him  (the  summary  already  mentioned).  Simi- 
larly explain  to  him  the  need,  meaning,  and  use  of  the  algebraic  lan- 
guage and  terms  as  they  are  needed  in  the  work,  then  lead  him  to  word 
his  own  definitions. 

These  wording  exercises,  properly  conducted,  can  be  made  most  valu- 
able training  exercises.  Written  exercises  in  familiar  work  calling  for 
the  maximum  amount  each  pupil  can  do  in  a  specified  time  are  an  ex- 
cellent device  for  cultivating  rapidity.  Roughly  estimating  or  approxi- 
mating the  result,  by  which  to  detect  absurd  answers  or  to  check  an- 
swers, affords  good  training  and  is  very  practical.  An  occasional  con- 
sideration of  the  method  in  use  is  helpful.  Patience,  tact,  cheerfulness, 
interest,  and  kindly  shown  sympathy  should  form  no  small  part  in  the 
teacher's  attempt  to  introduce  the  pupil  to  their  friend — Algebra. 


PURPOSE  AND  PLAN  IN  TEACHING  ALGEBRA. 

JOSEPH  V.  COLLINS,  Stevens  Point. 

Algebra  unlike  most  other  branches  in  the  elementary  course,  stands 
by  itself  in  two  or  three  important  particulars.  For  one  thing,  in  our 
teaching  it  is  not  very  closely  connected  with  either  arithmetic  or  ge- 
ometry, and  not  being  closely  connected  with  them  is  therefore  not 
very  closely  related  with  any  other  study.  Then  again,  if  most  teach- 
ers were  to  be  asked  what  is  the  good  of  the  study  of  algebra,  they 
would  have  difficulty  in  giving  an  answer  satisfactory  even  to  them- 


PURPOSE  AND  PLAN  IN  TEACHING  ALGEBRA.  241 

selves.  The  educational  value  of  algebra  is  probably  inferior  to  that 
of  either  arithmetic  or  geometry.  I  do  not  forget  that  algebra  enables 
the  graduate  from  arithmetic  to  solve  much  more  difficult  problems 
than  those  allowable  in  the  latter  subject,  and  that  it  teaches  a  form 
of  generalization.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  an  algebraical  solution  of 
an  arithmetical  problem  is  of  no  use  to  a  teacher  to  give  to  a  class 
which  does  not  understand  algebra,  while  the  idea  of  generalization  Is 
seldom  mastered  by  first  and  second  year  people  in  the  high  school. 
Why,  then,  does  algebra  get  the  place  it  occupies  in  our  curricula?  The 
answer,  I  believe,  is  for  neither  of  the  reasons  just  given,  but  be- 
cause it  conditions  nearly  all  of  the  mathematics  that  follows  it,  from 
trigonometry  to  the  calculus. 

If  this  view  is  correct,  then  it  would  seem  as  though  an  injustice 
were  being  done  the  scholar  who  goes  out  into  the  world  during  or  at 
the  end  of  his  high  school  course,  in  the  interest  of  the  scholar  who 
takes  the  more  extended  course. 

I  am  asked  to  treat  of  the  purpose,  plan  and  scope  of  the  work  in 
the  teaching  of  algebra.  First,  then,  with  reference  to  the  purpose. 
If  I  mistake  not,  most  teachers  have  been  controlled  very  largely  by 
the  purpose  which  we  saw  above  secures  for  algebra  its  place  in  the 
curriculum,  viz.,  the  laying  of  a  foundation  for  the  study  of  the  ad- 
vanced branches  of  mathematics.  Now  what  is  called  for  in  these 
higher  branches  is  ability  in  making  reductions  and  transforming  ex- 
pressions into  equivalent  ones  and  in  solving  equations.  The  end  and 
aim  of  the  teaching  with  this  purpose  in  view  seems  to  be  summed 
up  in  the  one  word  facility.  The  student  who  can  add  and  subtract, 
square,  or  cube,  and  extract  roots,  and  solve  for  x  in  the  hardest  prob- 
lems most  quickly  and  accurately  is  the  best  product  of  the  school. 
This  student  can  hand  in  the  best  entrance  paper  in  the  college  exami- 
nation and  get  the  best  mark,  which  is  evidence  that  his  training  is  the 
"best.  Now  there  is  justice  in  this  view,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
there  is  pedagogical  wisdom  behind  it.  It  seems  to  assume  that  al- 
gebra is  a  subject  filled  with  forms  which  the  scholar  must  learn.  For 
instance  that  a&  =  l>a,  that  a3  —  63  =  (a  —  b)  (a-  +  a&  +  V-),  that  xn. 
asm  =  arwi+n,  that  x  on  one  side  of  an  equation  becomes  —  x  on  the 
other  side;  but  why  these  things  are  so  need  not  concern  him,  since 
he  can  get  results  in  algebra  without  knowing  the  why.  The  case  Is 
something  like  that  of  the  engineer  who  uses  logarithmic  and  other 
tables  without  knowing  much  about  them.  He  may  be  much  quicker 
and  more  accurate  and  reliable  in  getting  results  than  one  who  under- 
stands the  philosophy  of  the  tables.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  edu- 
cationally or  in  the  long  run  he  is  as  well  off  as  the  other.  In  short,  I 
think  we  see  in  the  ordinary  teaching  of  algebra  now  what  has  been 
true  of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  in  the  past,  that  it  is  mechanical, 
full  of  forms  without  reasons  behind  them.  All  this  is  much  to  be 
regretted  and  steps  ought  to  be  taken  to  change  the  purpose  from  mere 
facility  to  facility  plus  fundamentals. 

The  plan  of  teaching  will  be  largely  determined  by  tne  purpose  in 
view.  If  this  purpose  is  chiefly  facility  in  algebraical  transformations, 
then  the  work  will  consist  largely  in  training  what  may  be  called  the 
memory  for  algebraical  forms  and  will  be  best  accomplished  by  multi- 
plying exercises.  If  on  the  other  hand  not  mere  results  but  also  cul- 
ture is  aimed  at,  then  the  purpose  will  be, — 

10 


242  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

(1)  To  connect  algebra  more  closely  with  arithmetic. 

(2)  To  clear  up  all  the  obscure  points  in  algebra  with  much  care. 

(3)  To  demand  the  reasons  underlying  operations  of  all  sorts  in- 
stead of  merely  accepting  them  by  analogy  from  arithmetic. 

(4)  To  make  the  reasoning  feature  in  the  study  of  equations  the 
most  important  part  of  the  training  in  the  whole  algebra. 

(5)  To  train  the  scholar  to  facility  in  making  all  sorts  of  alge- 
braical transformations. 

The  first  of  the  purposes  named  above  is  the  connecting  algebra 
more  closely  with  arithmetic.  How  shall  we  plan  to  attain  this  end? 

The  definition  of  algebra  often  given  says  it  is  the  science  which 
uses  letters  as  well  as  figures  in  the  study  of  numbers.  But  if  I  un- 
derstand the  matter  aright,  there  is  another  feature  in  algebra  be- 
sides the  use  of  letters  which  differentiates  it  from  arithmetic,  viz., 
the  use  of  two  kinds  of  numbers,  the  positive  and  negative.  Since 
these  two  characteristics  run  through  the  whole  warp  and  woof  of 
algebra,  I  am  led  to  think  that  this  latter  difference  deserves  to  be 
put  on  an  equality  with  the  other,  and  hence  I  believe  algebra  ought 
to  be  defined  as  the  science  which  uses  general  characters  as  well  as 
figures  in  the  study  of  numbers,  marking  its  numbers  off  into  two  op- 
posite kinds. 

Now  recognizing  that  there  are  two  difficulties  for  the  scholar  as  he 
enters  the  portals  of  algebra,  I  contend  that  he  ought  to  be  given  only 
one  of  them  at  a  time.  But  one  of  these  difficulties,  that  with  the 
signs,  can  be  overcome  while  still  using  the  familiar  Arabic  notation 
for  numbers.  I  would  teach  this  first  then,  and  would  develop  all  the 
rules  for  signs  for  all  of  the  fundamental  operations  without  the  use 
of  a  single  letter  to  stand  for  a  number.  But  I  would  go  a  long  step 
further.  I  would  teach  all  this  in  the  concrete.  This  can  easily  be 
done  when  one  is  allowed  to  use  the  Arabic  notation  freely.  Thus  the 
rule  for  algebraic  addition  can  be  derived  most  easily  from  elementary 
book-keeping.  A  man  in  his  accounts  has  credits  and  debts  coming  in 
indiscriminately.  Purposing  to  combine  them  in  one  result,  he  puts 
those  of  each  kind  together,  takes  the  difference  between  the  results, 
and,  so  to  speak,  prefixes  the  sign  of  the  greater.  Every  time  a 
scholar  forgets  the  rule  for  addition  I  would  take  him  back  to  a  con- 
crete example.  Similarly  subtraction  can  be  taught  by  concrete  ex- 
amples, as  by  finding  the  difference  between  the  financial  standing  of 
two  men,  or  by  finding  the  difference  between  two  dates,  or  between 
the  positions  of  the  mercury  in  a  thermometer  on  successive  occasions. 
It  is  not  so  easy  to  teach  the  rules  for  signs  in  multiplication  and 
division  concretely,  but  it  can  be  done  and  is  worth  the  trouble.  In 
this  way  the  transition  from  arithmetic  to  algebra  can  be  made  easy 
by  having  the  pupil  conquer  these  difficulties  one  at  a  time. 

Another  way  to  connect  algebra  with  arithmetic  is  by  using  a  letter 
to  represent  the  unknown  in  problems,  but  in  other  respects  reason- 
ing out  the  solution  as  one  would  be  obliged  to  in  arithmetic.  This 
course  has  been  pursued  by  a  number  of  authors,  and  always,  I  be- 
lieve, with  good  results.  This  method  can  be  utilized  for  solving  dif- 
ficult problems  in  arithmetic. 

The  second  purpose  named  above  was  to  make  very  clear  the  ob- 
scure points  in  algebra.  Most  of  these  difficulties  are  connected  with 
the  fact  that  algebra  has  in  it  the  two  kinds  of  numbers,  positive  and 
negative.  In  one  sense  algebra  is  more  general  than  arithmetic  and 


PURPOSE  AND  PLAN  IN  TEACHING  ALGEBRA.     243 

includes  the  latter;  but  in  another  sense,  algebra  is  one  thing  and 
arithmetic  is  a  very  different  thing.  Thus,  only  problems  whose  num- 
bers admit  of  both  positive  and  negative  values  are  properly  alge- 
braic problems.  To  be  specific,  problems  involving  a  merchant's  gains 
or  losses,  or  distances  to  the  left  or  right  of  a  given  point  on  a  hori- 
zontal line,  or  the  like,  are  algebraic,  while  those  dealing,  say,  with 
the  length  of  a  rectangle  or  the  number  of  apples  in  a  basket,  or 
the  like,  are  not  properly  algebraic  problems  but  arithmetical,  since  if 
any  negative  values  enter  they  cannot  be  interpreted.  I  do  not  think 
this  is  well  understood,  even  by  teachers,  and  it  leaves  an  obscurity, 
conscious  or  unconscious,  in  the  mind  of  both  teacher  and  scholar, 
which  is,  of  course,  to  be  regretted. 

Regarded  as  a  science  the  most  interesting  thing  in  algebra  is  the 
logic  of  the  solution  of  equations.  €k>od  teachers  have  probably  al- 
ways given  attention  to  this  matter.  Those  teachers,  however,  who 
depend  largely  on  the  text-book  for  guidance  will  be  led  to  neglect  the 
whole  question.  Among  all  the  older  text-books,  and  I  am  familiar  with, 
perhaps  20  or  30,  none  attends  properly  to  this  matter  with  the  single 
exception  of  Olney's,  and  he  presents  it  in  long  drawn  out  explanations 
after  solutions.  What  is  meant  by  attending  to  it  is  drilling  on  the  rea- 
sons which  justify  the  several  steps  in  any  solution.  Most,  perhaps 
all,  algebras  explain  clearing  of  fractions,  transposing,  etc.,  but  they 
do  it  just  once  and  then  drop  the  matter.  Now,  experience  shows 
that  drill  is  the  only  thing  that  will  fix  the  reason  in  the  scholar's 
mind.  A  Normal  school  principal  in  New  York  state  said  to  me 
that  he  believed  that  99  out  of  100  of  the  graduates  of  our  schools 
were  not  taught  and  would  not  be  able  to  promptly  explain  the  solu- 
tion of  equations.  Of  the  recent  text-books  on  algebra,  Beman  and 
Smith  calls  for  this  drill  in  the  reasoning  and  is  the  only  one,  aside 
from  my  own,  to  do  so.  Mr.  Smith  in  his  work  on  The  Teaching  of 
Elementary  Mathematics  has  this  to  say  on  the  subject:  "The 
teacher  will  do  well  to  avoid  such  mechanical  phrases  as  'clear  of 
fractions'  and  'transpose'  until  the  reasoning  is  mastered;  indeed, 
it  may  be  questioned  whether  these  phrases  are  ever  of  value."  My 
conviction  is  that  the  logic  of  the  solution  of  equations  is  an  admira- 
ble mental  training  and  that  it  prepares  the  student  for  the  rigor- 
ous reasoning  in  geometry.  The  best  way  I  know  of  to  attain  this- 
attention  to  the  reasoning  is  to  have  the  student  write  after  each 
line  of  a  solution  the  axiom  which  explains  what  has  been  done  and 
why  it  may  be  done.  Such  a  notation,  in  effect  a  species  of  shorthand, 
is  in  line  with  the  whole  history  of  algebra  which  has  always  been 
substituting  short  for  long  hand. 

When  the  student  learns  that  the  whole  process  of  solving  an  equa- 
tion is  reasoning  and  not  following  a  rule,  he  will  not  be  so  dis- 
posed to  servilely  follow  the  rules,  but  will  think  for  himself.  Prof. 
Chrystal  has  an  interesting  sentence  bearing  on  this  question  which 
caught  my  attention  several  years  ago:  "There  are  few  parts  of 
algebra,"  says  he,  "more  important  than  the  logic  of  the  derivation 
of  equations,  and  few,  unhappily,  that  are  treated  in  a  more  slovenly 
fashion  in  elementary  teaching.  No  mere  blind  adherence  to  set 
rules  will  avail  in  this  matter;  while  a  little  attention  to  a  few  sim- 
ple principles  will  readily  remove  all  difficulty." 

When  the  subject  of  equations  is  first  taken  up,  one  can  teach  that 
axiomatic  changes  in  an  equation  ordinarily  do  not  destroy  its  iden- 


244  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

tity  but  merely  change  its  appearance  or  dress.  Indeed,  one  can 
mark  the  equation  so  as  to  indicate  this.  Thus,  if  there  are  two 
equations  given,  the  first  in  all  the  forms  it  comes  to  assume,  can  be 
marked  (1)  and  the  second  equation  (2),  priming  these  numbers  to 
distinguish  the  several  forms  of  the  same  equation.  That  all  that 
is  proposed  here  is  feasible  I  can  vouch  for. 

Before  finally  leaving  the  subject  of  equations,  the  teacher  should 
investigate  with  his  class  the  question  Herbert  Spencer  set  for  him- 
self in  the  second  volume  of  his  principles  of  psychology,  viz.:  What 
is  the  logical  connection  between  the  several  equations  of  a  solu- 
tion? The  matter  has  a  psychological  as  well  as  mathematical  bear* 
ing  and  for  that  reason,  as  well  as  on  its  own  account,  deserves  at- 
tention. From  the  mathematical  standpoint  there  is  more  to  the 
matter  than  Mr.  Spencer's  discussion  would  imply.  The  best  treat- 
ment of  the  questions  involved  I  have  seen  is  in  Chrystal's  Text-book 
of  Algebra,  Chapter  XIV.  The  substance  of  Mr.  Spencer's  argument 
is  that  the  axiom  "things  equal  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to  each 
other"  generalized  into  "relations  equal  to  the  same  relation  are  equal 
to  each  other"  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  such  reasoning.  But 
mathematicians  find  that  some  of  the  relations  in  the  chain  are  not 
equal  to  others.  Hence  arise  difficulties  in  inference.  I  find  students 
much  interested  in  these  questions,  and  it  is  a  healthy  shock  to  them 
to  find  that  the  axioms  cannot  be  always  depended  on  for  results,  and 
that  verfication  in  the  original  equation  is  the  only  test  that  cannot 
mislead. 

As  stated  above,  algebra  should  be  more  closely  connected  with 
arithmetic.  Similarly  geometry  should  be  more  closely  connected 
with  algebra.  We  fall  into  a  great  mistake  in  not  making  a  larger 
use  of  algebra  in  geometry.  This  can  be  done  in  one  way  by  letting 
letters  represent  geometrical  magnitudes,  but  more  particularly 
through  solving  difficult  exercises .  algebraically.  The  number  of  ex- 
<ericses  in  what  has  been  called  determinate  geometry  commonly  given 
should  be  greatly  increased. 

One  other  matter  I  feel  like  referring  to,  though  I  will  not  discuss 
it  at  all.  It  is  an  examination  into  the  smallest  number  of  funda- 
mental principles  and  rules  from  them  which  a  scholar  must  know 
thoroughly  at  the  different  stages  of  his  progress  in  order  that  he 
may  be  equipped  for  the  work  he  has  in  hand.  I  have  made  a  study 
of  this  question  as  applied  to  arithmetic  during  the  past  year,  reducing 
the  number  of  really  fundamental  things  to  about  a  dozen  for  the 
whole  arithmetic.  I  should  like  to  offer  this  topic  as  a  subject  for 
thought  and  discussion  at  the  Institute,  should  this  proposal  meet 
with  the  approval  of  the  other  teachers  concerned. 

In  conclusion,  and  as  regards  the  scope  of  the  work  in  algebra,  I 
should  prefer  to  see  a  smaller  number  of  advanced  topics  thoroughly 
taught  than  to  see  more  attempted.  I  think  the  mistake  is  made 
in  many  colleges  of  trying  to  teach  freshmen  subjects  in  algebra  for 
which  they  are  in  no  wise  prepared  and  from  which  they  get  little  of 
value  to  them. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOMETRY.  245 

GEOMETRY. 

G.  L.  BOWMAN,  West  Superior. 

Purposes. — Geometry  should  be  taught,  first  of  all,  to  secure  an 
appreciation  of  quantitative  space  relations.  The  construction  of  our 
machinery,  large  buildings,  bridges,  docks;  the  laying  of  drains,  the 
location  of  streets,  railroads,  water-ways;  the  navigation  of  our  lakes 
and  oceans, — all  these  require  more  or  less  acquaintance  with  space 
relations.  The  measuring  and  comparing  of  magnitudes  in  everyday 
life  demand  this  knowledge.  Arithmetic  is  not  well  understood  till 
fair  progress  in  geometry  has  been  made.  Geometry  makes  arithme- 
tic possible.  It  is  the  foundation  to  physics  and  astronomy  and  may 
well  be  called  the  greatest  of  sciences. 

In  the  second  place,  but  no  less  important,  geometry  should  be 
taught  to  train  in  syllogistic  reasoning.  This  is  the  reasoning  of 
everyday  life.  In  our  civilization  to  get  on  well,  one  must  know 
how  to  proceed  with  security  from  premise  to  conclusion.  Even  our 
everyday  identifications,  our  classifications,  are  made  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  syllogism.  In  everyday  life  our  premises  are  very  fre- 
quently defective,  so  conclusions  drawn  from  them  are  often  mislead- 
ing. The  study  of  geometry  opens  the  field  of  ideal  premises  to  us, 
offers  the  opportunity  for  a  secure  passing  to  a  perfectly  reliable  con- 
clusion. 

In  the  third  place,  geometry  should  be  taught  to  give  skill  in  its 
applications  to  quantitative  relations  that  enter  into  our  commerce, 
our  study,  and  our  making;  to  secure  high  ideals  in  judging  and  rea- 
soning concerning  the  things  that  give  confidence  in  our  own  think- 
ing as  well  as  confidence  in  the  conclusions  of  our  fellow  men.  To 
habitually  reason  under  the  influence  of  geometrical  ideals  imparts 
dignity  to  the  mind  with  love  of  truth  and  unswerving  purpose. 

Scope. — The  course  in  geometry  should  include  elementary  or 
synthetic  geometry  and  enough  of  its  application  to  insure  clearness 
in  the  arithmetic  for  those  magnitudes  beyond  the  reach  of  direct 
methods.  If  the  study  of  geometry  does  not  do  this  for  the  student, 
training  in  reasoning  is  of  first  ultimate  importance,  but  this  first 
I  cannot  see  that  it  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  him.  I  know  the 
phase  needs  to  b,e  mastered  to  hold  the  interest  and  to  give  signifi- 
cance to  the  study  within  the  range  of  the  student's  experience. 

Enough  of  analytic  geometry  should  be  taken  to  insure  the  fact 
that  algebra  may  be  applied  to  geometry  and  that  the  constructions 
may  be  generalized.  I  know  that  time  will  forbid  doing  much  and 
it  is  of  doubtful  propriety  as  it  is  too  difficult  for  the  ordinary  Nor- 
mal school  pupil.  To  do  much  in  this  would  require  an  extension  of 
time  for  geometry  considerably  beyond  its  present  limits  or  a  much 
higher  requirement  of  attainments  for  admission  to  the  school. 

While  I  believe  that  the  Euclidean  geometry  will  constitute  the 
main  portion  of  the  geometry  taught  in  the  Normal  school  yet  any 
course  that  does  not  provide  for  some  instruction  in  the  non-Euclidean 
will  scarcely  answer  the  demands  of  the  best  thought  at  present. 
I  can  see  how  some  of  it  might  be  taken  in  connection  with  work 
as  given  now,  but  I  do  not  see  any  way  to  include  an  extensive  treat- 
ment of  it  with  only  present  possibilities  in  view. 


246  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

I  believe  the  scope  in  geometry  to  be  incomplete  if  it  does  not 
take  in  a  considerable  amount  of  inventional  geometry.  I  know  it 
is  not  pure  geometry,  but  it  is  "too  valuable  for  training  the  visualiz- 
ing and  inventive  powers  of  the  mind  to  leave  it  out.  It  assists  the 
pupil  to  see  ideal  figures  in  pure  geometry;  it  gives  that  skill  of  hand 
which  is  necessary  to  real  pleasure  in  the  study  and  makes  the  pu- 
pil ready  in  furnishing  drawings  to  fit  his  work  in  original  demon- 
strations. I  wish  our  texts  would  furnish  more  of  it. 

Of  course  elementary  geometry  is  the  stalk  upon  which  every  scion 
quantitative  and  reason  syllogistic  must  be  grafted.  So  that  the 
geometry  teacher  who  lives  up  to  his  privileges  will  find  that  time 
will  not  hang  heavy  on  his  hands.  But  no  more  ought  to  be  taken 
than  can  be  done  well  and  enough  ought  to  be  taken  to  leave  the 
pupil  with  a  permanent  interest  in  the  subject  strong  enough  to  invite 
him  to  make  an  effort  at  self-instruction  after  leaving  school. 

Plan. — I  must  confess,  at  the  outset  here,  that  I  approach  this  part 
of  the  work  with  a  great  deal  more  hesitation  than  I  have  any  pre- 
ceding part  of  the  discussion.  As  I  look  over  my  plans  as  they  have 
been  in  the  past,  I  see  so  many  places  that  might  be  changed  with 
profit  that  I  can  do  little  more  than  to  possibly  excite  discussion  in 
the  hope  that  I  shall  be  benefited  thereby.  I  have  been  diligent  in 
my  search  through  the  plans  of  others,  and  while  I  have  often  been 
rewarded,  I  still  am  looking  for  the  plan  that  shall  be  adequate  for 
the  demands  of  the  real  aims  in  geometry.  I  believe  this  is  due  to 
a  close  adherence  to  traditional  methods.  Until  in  the  last  decade 
there  was  little  effort  made  to  change  what  had  been  in  vogue  In 
teaching  geometry  for  hundreds  of  years.  Just  now  there  is  con- 
siderable activity  and  our  Normal  school,  in  one  of  its  representa- 
tives at  least,  is  taking  a  very  pleasant  part.  This  puts  one  who 
formulates  plans  right  to  the  front  where  the  bullets  fall  thickest 
and  where  repulses  are  felt  keenest.  I  venture  a  few  suggestions, 
however,  and  trust  they  will  be  received  in  the  spirit  in  which  they 
are  given,  will  be  accepted  in  case  they  are  worthy;  but  if  not,  will 
be  set  aside  by  the  substitution  of  something  better. 

In  any  plan,  I  believe  a  mastery  of  the  underlying  concepts  and 
necessary  truths  is  fundamental.  To  this  end  material  forms  are 
very  valuable,  but  it  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  that  thought  objects 
are  the  real  fundamental  notions  in  the  science.  In  this  connection 
can  be  used  many  models  that  will  suggest  the  geometrical  notion. 
Material  angles,  surfaces,  and  solids  presented  to  the  pupil  in  forms 
he  can  handle  will  lead  to  an  understanding  of  fundamental  defini- 
tions as  nothing  else,  that  I  know  of,  will.  The  definitions,  of  course, 
must  be  stated  and  mastered  in  such  a  way  that  the  statement  will 
bring  the  concept  in  mind,  and  vice  versa. 

A  profound  belief  in  necessary  truths  should  be  gained  through 
discussion  and  illustration.  An  axiom  is  not  a  self-evident  truth 
except  to  him  who  understands  it.  Pupils  may  be  able,  they  fre- 
quently are,  to  roll  axioms  off  their  tongues  readily  enough,  but  the 
simplest  test  is  sufficient  to  reveal  that  they  are  not  understood.  I 
do  not  mean  that  the  fundamental  concepts  and  axioms  should  be 
introduced  and  mastered  at  once.  I  believe  it  to  be  a  much  better 
plan  to  introduce  them  as  needed.  Pupils  come  to  us  claiming  a  good 
standing  in  geometry  who  are  so  deficient  in  these  fundamental  neces- 
sities that  I  feel  like  urging  the  importance  of  doing  this  work  of 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOMETRY.  247 

definition  with  great  thoroughness.  I  believe  much  of  the  success 
or  failure  is  due  to  the  ideals  allowed  to  obtain  in  this  part  of  the 
work.  All  the  old  ideas  of  arithmetic  and  of  algebra,  if  algebra  has 
preceded,  should  be  utilized  to  clearly  set  forth  these  notions.  In 
the  course  of  the  work  they  should  be  again  and  again  called  up, 
tested,  and  brightened. 

The  simplest  figures  should  be  taken  first,  gradually  introducing 
the  more  complex  in  such  order  as  to  render  lemmas  almost  unnec- 
essary. The  order  as  followed  by  most  text-books  may  be  regarded 
as  sufficiently  logical  for  our  purpose.  Figures  in  one  plane  to  be 
introduced  before  those  whose  parts  lie  in  different  planes,  for  ob- 
vious reasons.  Figures  in  geometry  are  ideal.  The  drawing  is  not 
the  figure.  So  many  pupils  come  to  me  who  have  had  geometry,  and 
who  are  so  fully  bound  by  what  th£  eye  sees  that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  get  them  to  allow  the  mind  to  be  addressed.  This  leads 
me  to  believe  it  is  a  characteristic  of  their  former  instruction.  We 
must  admit  that  the  first  notions  are  secured  through  the  concrete 
of  the  senses,  but  who  would  defend  the  proposition  that  this  is  geom- 
tery  until  the  mind  is  freed  from  the  concrete?  Constant  effort  will 
be  needed  to  lead  the  pupils  away  from  the  products  of  sense  and 
to  prefer  the  products  of  thought.  To  this  end  drawings  should  dif- 
fer as  much  as  possible  in  lettering,  in  form,  and  in  material, — pre- 
serving only  the  essential  relations.  In  this  phase  of  the  work  in- 
ventional  geometry  stands  first  in  value.  If  pupils  are  ready  with 
the  straight  edge  and  dividers,  with  pocket  knife  and  scissors,  the 
chances  are  the  mind  will  be  constantly  addressed  and  the  same  old 
drawing  that  has  so  long  charmed  the  eye  will  have  lost  its  occupa- 
tion. So  many  figures  are  found  in  the  material  of  the  room,  es- 
pecially those  of  solid  geometry,  in  the  surroundings  of  the  pupil, 
that  the  wonder  is  that  much  of  any  thing  else  should  receive  the 
almost  exclusive  attention  that  the  time  honored  drawings  have  had. 
It  would  seem  that  those  combinations  of  material  that  owe  their 
existence  to  geometry  would  commend  themselves  to  the  student  and 
teacher  of  geometry.  This  ever  varying  material  of  which  the  draw- 
ing is  made  prevents  the  learner  from  mistaking  the  form  that  ap- 
peals to  the  eye  for  the  substance  that  appeals  to  the  mind. 

A  full  understanding  of  the  nature  and  the  plan  of  the  geometrical 
demonstration  should  be  secured  before  the  pupil  should  be  asked 
to  use  it  unaided.  It  should  be  studied  in  and  of  itself.  The  pupil 
should  subject  it  to  a  strict  analysis.  Each  part  should  be  carefully 
examined  and  its  relation  to  the  part  going  before  fully  appreciated. 
It  is  best  to  commence  with  the  general  enunciation  separating  it 
into  hypothesis  and  conclusion,  resolving  the  hypothesis  into  the  prem- 
ises and  noting  the  premise  of  relation;  passing  next  to  the  draw- 
ing, examine  its  parts  and  point  out  the  part  that  represents  each 
premise,  noting  on  the  way  the  different  forms  the  drawing  may  take; 
taking  up  next  the  special  enunciations  and  their  different  forms  of 
statement;  then  carefully  examine  step  by  step  of  the  proof,  citing 
the  authority  as  it  should  follow  or  precede  the  statement  of  the  step; 
and,  finally,  ending  with  special  and  general  conclusions.  It  may 
take  several  recitations  to  do  this,  but  I  believe  it  pays.  The  ap- 
parent loss  of  time  is  more  than  made  up  by  greater  speed  later 
on.  I  believe  the  first  demonstrations  should  be  written  and  sub- 
jected to  a  close  inspection  by  the  teacher.  The  papers  should  be 


248  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

handed  back  for  correction  and  re-writing.  If  the  work  is  very  de- 
fective it  should  be  re-written  until  properly  done.  Later  the  dem- 
onstrations can  be  first  handed  to  a  committee  of  the  class  appointed 
by  the  teacher  for  their  inspection  and  correction,  finally  passing 
through  the  hands  of  the  teacher.  The  same  committee  should  not 
serve  long  at  a  time.  The  papers  which  are  perfect  might  be  read 
in  class  slowly  so  that  the  class  may  challenge  any  point  as  it  is 
passed  over.  Of  course  the  drawing  would  have  to  be  copied  on 
the  board.  Some  time  after  the  middle  of  the  first  book,  the  oral 
demonstration  begins  to  be  the  rule  and  the  written  form  becomes 
a  much  briefer  form  as  the  use  of  the  recognized  symbols  and  abbre- 
viations will  have  been  introduced. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  at  all  times  to  make  their  own  dem- 
onstrations, at  first  through  questions  and  suggestions,  and  finally 
unaided  by  any  of  these.  One  of  the  greatest  evils  the  Normal  schools 
have  to  fight  is  the  memorized  demonstration  in  geometry.  I  have 
pupils  in  my  solid  geometry  class  who  confessed  to  a  year's  tuition 
in  geometry  and  were  recognized  in  a  flattering  way  by  their  school, 
who  had  never  made  an  original  demonstration, — nay,  more  than  this, 
who  never  had  drawn  a  single  conclusion.  In  all  of  their  geometry 
work  the  thought  powers  seem  to  have  been  carefully  shunted. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  handling  those  pupils  who  come 
to  us  in  this  condition  for  the  shock  that  comes  to  them  when  they 
first  realize  their  condition  should  command  the  teacher's  encourage- 
ment and  sympathy  rather  than  his  condemnation.  I  know  they  are 
somewhat  to  blame  for  this  condition  of  things,  but  I  know  of  some- 
body else  who  is  much  more  to  blame.  If  the  Normal  school  gets 
back  of  that  kind  of  geometry  that  institution  must  suffer.  The  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  get  the  pupil  to  see  his  condition  and  the  next  is 
to  get  him  to  face  it  squarely.  With  these  two  elements  in  favor 
the  chances  are  that  the  mischief  will  be  corrected.  I  think  I  would 
rather,  sometimes,  take  a  pupil  through  the  entire  course  than  set 
one  right  who  has  gone  wrong. 

This  leads  me  to  my  next  point  in  the  plan.  The  teacher  will  need 
to  know  the  nature  of  conception,  judgment,  and  reason,  for  it  is  with 
these  powers  that  geometry  has  to  do.  If  he  knows  not  how  concepts 
are  formed,  how  judgments  are  made,  and  how  conclusions  are  drawn, 
it  will  be  the  blind  leading  the  blind,  and  there  need  be  no  wonder 
if  both  should  land  in  the  ditch.  When  a  subject  is  psychologically 
taught  it  is  practically  taught  and  therefore  correctly  taught. 

He  should  appreciate  that  the  pupil's  happiness  in  the  study  of 
geometry  is  to  come  from  the  consciousness  of  clear  concepts,  of 
the  ability  to  make  accurate  judgments  and  to  draw  conclusions  in 
which  he  can  have  perfect  confidence.  There  is  nothing  that  pleases 
a  student  so  much  as  to  be  able  to  give  the  correct  answer,  and  this 
pleasure  is  greatly  augmented  when  he  knows  that  he  got  it  himself. 
On  the  clearness  of  notions  depends  the  clearness  of  expression.  The 
grand  test  on  this  particular  is  clear,  original  language  as  the  English 
of  the  pupil. 

The  teacher  must  learn  to  hold  expectation  in  check  and  wait  for 
the  results.  This  is  especially  true  during  the  first  work.  It  takes 
time  to  think.  Only  the  most  expert  can  think  fast  and  it  is  better 
to  think  one  proposition  through  carefully  than  a  half  dozen  hur- 
riedly. I  know  this  is  difficult.  We  are  haunted  with  the  notion 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOMETRY.  249 

that  we  must  hurry,  hurry.  We  seem  to  catch  it  from  this  Ameri- 
can life.  We  want  to  get  through.  We  are  more  concerned  about 
getting  through  than  how  we  get  through.  Our  pupils  hurry.  They 
hurry  their  preparation, — rush  it  through.  I  have  seen  groups  of 
them  together,  all  talking  at  once,  preparing  the  geometry  lesson, 
because  the  time  was  short.  Thought  does  not  grow  in  such  an  at- 
mosphere. That  is  not  the  heat  in  which  are  forged  the  conclusions 
that  are  to  stand  against  the  world. 

As  a  rule  I  fear  too  little  time  is  given  to  geometry  in  the  Normal 
schools.  A  full  year  is  little  enough  for  plane  and  solid  geometry  and 
a  year  and  a  half  would  not  be  any  too  much.  Arrangements  can  now 
be  made  to  give  high  school  graduates  twenty  weeks.  Where  as  much 
time  as  this  is  given  they  can  cover  in  a  way  the  last  book  of  plane  and 
those  of  solid  geometry.  I  much  prefer  they  take  in  review  the  last 
book  of  plane,  because  of  the  chance"  to  freshen  the  theory  of  limits,  as 
well  as  to  show  them  weaknesses  of  the  work  before,  if  any  should  ap- 
pear to  me  to  exist.  Then  I  can  usually  tell  if  it  is  worth  while  for 
them  to  go  on  and  finish  the  work. 

If  we  had  time  for  it  much  profitable  work  could  be  done  in  the  field 
in  working  out  some  of  the  more  common  problems.  I  have  done  little 
or  nothing  in  this,  mainly  for  the  lack  of  time  on  my  part  and  a  too 
heavily  loaded  course  on  the  pupil's  part.  This  work  ought  to  be  done 
under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  at  first.  Such  problems  as  find- 
ing the  height  of  objects,  the  width  of  streams,  and  the  area  of  ponds 
could  be  solved  through  the  properties  of  triangles  and  without  sur- 
veyor's instruments. 

I  believe  the  plan  ought  to  take  in  a  great  deal  of  original  work.  It 
should  begin  with  original  demonstration  work  first,  of  those  theorems 
in  the  regular  work,  next  theorems  that  have  not  been  demonstrated 
for  the  pupil  nor  the  demonstration  suggested,  and  finally,  the  original 
work  should  be  almost  entirely  of  construction.  In  the  constructional 
work  the  beginning  should  be  made  as  the  work  progresses  with  the 
regular  constructions  given  in  the  text.  The  next  stage  of  the  work 
should  be  those  for  which  the  teacher  furnishes  the  data.  Gradually, 
through  the  encouragement  of  the  teacher  and  his  success  in  the  work, 
the  pupil  swings  out  into  inventional  geometry  with  the  purpose  to  dis- 
cover, to  him  at  least,  new  truth.  With  two  hands  skilled  in  the  use  of 
straight  edge  and  dividers  and  a  mind  back  of  them  that  delights  to 
reason,  the  pupil  can  take  care  of  himself,  at  the  same  time  making  of 
himself  a  citizen  highly  useful  to  the  state  and  community.  I  am  sure 
this  field  of  original  construction  has  not  been  utilized  as  fully  as  it 
might  be.  It  is  not  in  itself  pure  geometry,  perhaps,  but  if  the  learner 
pursues  the  plan,  "construct  and  prove,"  reaching  for  something  new 
constantly,  he  will  have  abundant  use  for  pure  geometry. 

It  is  urged  against  the  American-taught  geometrician  by  some  of  the 
better  class  of  foreign  schools,  that  he  cannot  stand  against  the  test  of 
inventional  geometry.  I  do  not  think  that  it  is  because  he  has  not 
had  that  particular  kind  but  the  fault  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  has  not 
been  taught  to  reason.  Inventional  geometry  is  a  fine  test.  It  gives 
the  student  a  means  to  test  himself  and  to  measure  his  power.  It  de- 
mands reasoning  to  succeed  in  it  and  it  is  the  acme  of  practical  geome- 
try. 

I  do  not  wish  it  understood  that  I  do  all  this  work  in  my  own  classes. 
Far  from  it.  I  succeed  in  getting  individuals  to  do  more  or  less  of  it. 


250  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Some,  after  being  started,  keep  it  up  of  their  own  accord  and  never  miss 
the  originals.  I  have  no  doubt  that  some  will  never  go  far  into  it  be- 
cause they  have  come  too  late  to  it,  or  their  tastes  lie  in  other  direc- 
tions. I  am  handicapped  on  account  of  time  and  so  are  you.  We  need 
more  of  it  and  the  best  way  to  commend  ourselves  for  an  increase  is  to 
use  what  we  have  to  the  best  advantage. 

I  wish  to  say  in  conclusion,  that  we  need  more  and  better  models, 
tools,  and  contrivances  for  the  initial  stages  of  the  work.  The  mathe- 
matics department  should  be  fitted  out  with  the  same  care  as  the  labora- 
tories in  natural  science  or  the  art  departments.  These  things  will 
come,  I  believe,  when  teachers  of  mathematics  recognize  that  geometry 
grows  out  of  space  relations  as  represented  in  the  concrete  and  is  to  be 
applied  to  the  organization  of  material  in  accordance  with  those  rela- 
tions and  that  to  draw  these  notions  from  what  is  at  first  seen  and  ap- 
ply them  to  what  cannot  be  entirely  seen,  demands  a  careful  training 
of  mathematical  conception,  judgment,  and  high  ideals  in  quantitative 
reasoning. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  TEACHING  GEOMETRY  IN 
NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

G.  C.  SIIUTTS,  Whitewater. 

I.  Purpose. 

To  the  ancient  Greeks  the  purpose  of  the  study  of  geometry  was  sim- 
ply to  search  after  truth.  To  us  it  is  more  varied,  viz. : 

1st.  To  know  the  facts  of  geometry  for  the  sake  of  their  value  in  the 
practical  affairs  of  life.  The  farmer,  the  mechanic,  men  in  nearly  all 
vocations  reap  advantages  from  its  study. 

2nd.  To  train  the  reasoning  faculties.  Each  statement  of  truth 
rests  ultimately  upon  definition  or  axiom,  and  as  the  student  proceeds 
in  his  work  he  is  led  to  build  up  a  body  of  truth,  any  part  of  which 
may  be  utilized  by  him  in  arriving  at  new  truth.  Each  statement 
must,  in  order,  rest  upon  a  previously  established  truth;  each  is  a  link 
in  a  logical  chain  of  reasoning  from  premise  to  conclusion. 

3rd.  To  train  in  the  use  of  language.  The  student  who  by  his  own 
analysis  of  the  theorem  succeeds  in  discovering  previously  established 
truths,  and  is  then  able  to  so  arrange  and  combine  them  as  to  arrive 
at  his  conclusion,  has  not  only  given  himself  a  training  in  thought 
power,  but  if  his  thought  has  been  well  expressed,  a  lesson  in  language 
that  has  no  superior.  The  thought  has  an  exact  significance,  and  to 
grasp  it  and  to  use  language  that  conveys  it  clearly  and  exactly  to  an- 
other, is  a  training  in  language  that  every  boy  and  girl  needs.  To 
jumble  language,  to  make  careless  statements,  or  to  guess  at  the 
thought,  is  only  to  bring  one  down  in  confusion;  hence  the  subject  is 
valuable  for  training  in  exactness  of  thought  and  its  correct  expres- 
sion. 

4th.  Professional.  So  far  its  use  in  the  school  curriculum  has  been 
considered  from  the  academic  standpoint.  But  besides  and  above  what 
has  been  said,  it  ranks  high  for  its  value  in  professional  training,  and 
this  vindicates  its  use  in  a  Normal  school. 

Every  study  in  a  Normal  school  should  play  its  part  in  the  profes- 
sional training  of  the  school.  Not  only  should  it  be  valuable  from  the 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOMETRY. 


251 


academic  standpoint,  but  through  it,  the  student  should  learn  some- 
thing of  the  art  of  teaching.     Later  it  will  be  seen  that  geometry  will 
not  fail  if  tested  by  these  requirements. 
II.  Scope. 

The  'amount  of  work  that  should  be  done  in  the  subject  should  be 
determined  in  part  by  the  program.  Many  Normals  in  other  states  de- 
vote forty  weeks  to  its  study,  while  we  give  but  thirty.  This  should 
be  regarded  as  the  minimum.  The  amount  of  matter  studied  in  plane 
geometry  should  not  be  less  than  is  sufficient  to  lead  up  to  the  area  of 
the  polygon  and  the  circle;  in  solid  geometry  to  the  area  of  the  zone, 
surface  of  the  sphere,  and  the  spherical  triangle,  and  to  the  volumes 
of  prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders,  cones,  spheres,  spherical  sectors,  and 
spherical  segments.  This  can  be  compassed  in  plane  geometry  with 
from  one  hundred  sixty  to  one  hundred  eighty  propositions,  and 
in  solid  geometry  with  from  eighty*"to  ninety  propositions.  To  prop- 
erly teach  the  subject  in  addition  to  the  above,  there  should  be 
solved  by  the  pupil,  unaided,  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  ex- 
ercises, dependent  upon  and  enlarging  the  application  of  the  regular 
propositions.  The  number  of  exercises  should  vary  with  different 
students,  depending  upon  their  ability,  assuming  that  some  pupils  will 
be  able  in  a  reasonable  period  simply  to  attain  to  a  minimum  standard. 
This  exercise  work  can,  I  think,  best  be  accomplished  by  putting  a 
premium  on  demonstration  of  exercises  instead  of  making  it  a  require- 
ment. This  brings  each  pupil  up  to  his  best  effort,  and  in  the  recita- 
tion a  variety  of  demonstration  results,  thus  adding  interest  and 
value  of  the  classrwork.  A  short  course  well  hancued  will  give  more 
geometrical  training  than  a  long  one  in  which  the  pupil  is  allowed 
to  rely  more  than  necessary  for  results,  upon  teacher  or  text.  It  is  the 
amount  of  thinking  rather  than  the  number  of  pages  studied,  that 
determines  the  amount  of  training  the  pupil  receives.  When  an 
original  demonstration  is  developed  in  class,  those  not  reciting  gain 
much  more  thought  power  than  if  listening  to  an  argument  with 
which  they  are  already  familiar.  In  general,  the  more  original  work 
done  in  class  and  out  of  it,  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  the 
scope  of  the  subject. 

III.     The  Plan  of  Work. 

As  in  every  other  subject  of  study  the  pupil  must  grasp  the  aim, 
which  in  this  case  is  expressed  in  the  theorem.  He  should  be  induced 
to  represent  it  without  assistance,  when  possible,  in  a  figure..  The  aim 
is  not  fully  appreciated  until  this  is  done.  If  the  pupil  is  not  able  to 
make  an  analysis  of  the  theorem,  he  should  have  at  hand  through  help 
of  teacher  in  class,  mimeograph  notes,  or  other  means,  a  sufficient 
statement  of  what  must  be  known  or  done  to  enable  him,  step  by  step, 
to  reach  the  conclusion  as  expressed  in  the  aim.  At  this  point  is  the 
greatest  difficulty,  viz.,  to  give  just  the  amount  of  assistance  neces- 
sary and  to  keep  pupils  from  helping  one  another,  so  that  they  may 
get  the  largest  amount  of  training.  As  most  pupils  study  a  text,  the 
teacher  should  try  to  inspire  each  to  use  it  only  to  get  the  help  that 
is  necessary  to  make  out  the  demonstration.  The  texts  are  usually 
made  for  the  pupils  of  a  minimum  standard  of  ability,  but  it  is 
usually  possible  to  inspire  a  pride  in  original  work  ttiat  will  lead  to 
the  above  result.  All  suggestions  to  the  pupil  should  be  given  with 
reference  to  making  him  independent  in  his  work;  they  should  lead 
him  to  grasp  principles  by  which  he  may  direct  himself. 


252  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

For  instance,  suppose  that  the  theorem  to  be  demonstrated  is,  that 
if  two  secants  meet  without  a  circle  they  are  reciprocally  proportional 
to  their  external  segments.  The  pupil  must  know  that  that  statement 

means  that      ^7^=    i      ,  AC  and  EC  being  the  secants  and  DC  and  BC 
41/0         r>U 

the  external  segments.  He  must  know  that  to  get  his  proportion 
he  must  get  it  by  means  of  similar  triangles,  hence  as  he  has  no  tri- 
angles they  must  be  constructed.  To  be  able  to  do  this  he  must  know 
that  the  homologous  sides  of  those  triangles  should  form  the  ratios,, 
and  that  antecedents  should  be  taken  from  the  same  triangle,  and  con- 
sequents from  the  same  triangle.  The  construction  is  now  very  sim- 
ple, but  to  make  it  the  pupil  has  grasped  and  applied  a  general  prin- 
ciple. Having  his  triangles,  he  must  discover  that  they  are  similar, 
which  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  similar  triangles  and  inscribed  angles. 
Before  the  assignment  of  the  proposition  all  of  the  above  information 
should  be  in  the  pupil's  possession,  except  the  theorem  and  its  special; 
enunciation.  This  the  teacher  should  see  is  fully  grasped  by  him. 

To  avoid  confusion,  I  would  have  pupils,  when  beginning,  always 
select  homologous  lines  for  the  terms  of  a  ratio,  and  if  they  wish  the- 
proportion  in  any  other  form  modify  it  by  alternation  or  some  other 
principle  in  the  theory  of  proportion. 

For  further  illustration,  suppose  the  requirement  is  to  construct  a 
fourth  proportional. 

Given  a,  b,  and  c,  the  fizrst,  second,  and  third  terms  of  a  proportion 
to  construct  x,  the  fourth  term. 

Having,  as  before,  mastered  the  aim,  he  must  know  that  each  figure 
in  which  a  proportion  of  four  quantities  has  been  established  may  be 
utilized  for  the  solution  of  the  problem.  Having  selected  one  he  must 
know  that  the  given  quantities,  a,  b,  c,  and  x  must  take  the  places 
of  the  corresponding  terms  of  the  proportion  in  the  theorem  selected. 
The  situation  can  best  be  studied  by  representing  the  figure,  and 
through  it  studying  how  to  effect  the  construction.  To  illustrate: 
Suppose  the  theorem,  "If  two  chords  intersect  the  segments  are  recip- 
rocally proportional,"  be  taken. 

The  pupil  must  know,  for  instance,  that    ^^  =  ^-5  ,  O  being  point 

of  intersection,  AB  and  DC  being  chords,  and  that  a  must  take  the 
place  of  AO,  &  of  OD,  c  of  OC  and  x  of  OB. 

To  effect  the  construction,  he  has  simply  to  draw  a,  b,  and  c  so  that 
their  extremities  meet  at  a  point,  b  and  c  forming  a  straight  line. 
The  circle  can  now  be  drawn  through  the  other  extremities  of  the 
lines.  If  a  be  extended  through  O,  the  point  of  intersection,  to  the 
circumfrence,  x  is  determined. 

In  assigning  a  lesson  for  construction  of  third,  fourth,  or  mean 
proportional,  for  instance,  a  construction  could  be  effected  before  the 
class,  taking  an  authority  at  random  as  a  basis.  Then  if  several 
of  the  propositions  be  called  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil  which  might 
be  used,  he  should  be  able  to  make  an  intelligent  study  of  the  subject, 
and  if  sufficient  time  is  allowed,  possibly  produce  several  methods. 
I  have  seen  a  large  part  of  a  class  produce  two  constructions  of  a  fourth 
proportional,  several  more  than  two,  and  one  as  many  as  five. 

A  whole  class  hour  may  occasionally  be  spent  with  great  profit 
In  bringing  out  the  different  original  constructions  that  members 
of  the  class  have  worked  out.  Of  course  not  all  propositions  will 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE.  253 

be  as  productive  of  different  methods  as  the  one  last  cited,  but  when 
one  occurs  it  should  be  utilized  for  what  it  is  worth.  The  teacher 
should  ever  be  alert  to  induce  original  work  and  then  see  to  it  that  it 
gets  due  credit. 

To  sum  up  this  phase  of  the  plan  of  teaching:  The  teacher  must 
be  sure  the  pupil  understands  the  aim  and  that  he  has  in  mind  or 
knows  where  to  look  for  what  he  must  know  to  enable  him  to  get 
his  lesson. 

To  the  pupil  thus  far  the  work  has  been  purely  academic,  except  in 
so  far  as  he  has  been  observing  his  teacher's  methods.  As  the  subject- 
matter  probably  needs  all  his  attention  this  would  be  but  incidental. 
When  the  pupil  has  his  lesson  so  that  he  thinks  he  understands  it, 
he  should  then  prepare  it  so  that  he  can  make  the  class  understand  it. 
He  is  now  studying  from  the  teacher's  standpoint.  In  the  recitation 
he  should  be  given  the  class  and  held  responsible  for  their  understand- 
ing of  the  truth  he  wishes  to  present.  It  may  easily  be  seen  that 
original  work  lends  itself  better  than  any  other  to  the  professional 
as  well  as  to  the  academic  phase  of  the  work.  He  should  be  taught  to 
follow  the  class  as  he  develops  his  thought  and  to  quickly  detect 
by  the  expressions  and  movements  of  the  pupils  anyone  who  has  lost 
the  thread  of  the  argument.  If  the  pupils  raise  questions  he  can, 
if  he  has  fully  prepared  his  lesson,  settle  the  points  in  doubt  or  dispute. 
I  have  seen  a  well  equipped  pupil  question  his  questioner  with  expedi- 
tion and  profit.  He  should  be  his  own  judge  as  to  the  best  method  of 
clearing  up  the  difficulty,  and  be  held  responsible  for  results.  But 
here  the  teacher  should  be  on  the  alert  to  see  that  time  is  not  wasted 
by  bungling  pupils,  or  that  no  one  in  class  takes  the  opportunity  to 
annoy  the  one  reciting;  in  short,  must  act  as  moderator. 

The  pupil  who  recites  with  eyes  upon  the  teacher,  studying  care- 
fully his  face  for  approval  or  dissent,  has  no  place  in  a  Normal  school. 
The  teacher  should  occasionally  call  attention  to  his  method  of  assign- 
ing a  lesson,  and  should  frequently  discuss  the  success  or  failure  of 
a  pupil  from  the  professional  standpoint.  In  short,  the  subject  of 
geometry  should  be  so  handled  that  the  pupils  will  be  better  able  to 
teach  it,  or  any  other  subject,  for  having  studied  it  in  a  Normal  school. 


REPORT  OF   COMMITTEE. 

The  committee  appointed  by  the  Leader  to  report  upon  a  minimum 
of  propositions  to  be  used  in  the  work  in  geometry  in  the  Normal 
schools  of  Wisconsin,  beg  leave  to  submit  the  following: 

That  in  the  text  of  VanVelzer  &  Shutts,  which  was  used  as  the  basis 
of  comparison,  the  following  omissions  only  should  be  made:  Articles 
278,  279,  287,  305,  306  and  307. 

1.  The  theorems  of  articles  305,  6  and   7,  while  necessary  for  au- 
thority in  later  work,  should  be  postulated  rather  than  demonstrated, 
and  freely  illustrated,  for  the  argument  is  so  difficult  that  no  student 
fully  grasps  the  thought  without  too  large  an  expenditure  of  time. 

2.  As  proportion  in  geometry  is  not  the  proportion  of  algebra  in 
.all  respects,  the  theorems  of  proportion  should  not  be  omitted,  even 


254  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

though   previously   studied  in   algebra,   but   should   be   carefully  con- 
sidered from  the  geometrical  standpoint. 

Respectfully, 

GEO.  C.  SHUTTS, 
Jos.  V.  COLLINS, 
G.  L.  BOWMAN, 

Committee.. 


SPECIAL. 

APPLICATION   OF   THE    FOUR   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES    IN 
TEACHING  ARITHMETIC,  ALGEBRA,  AND  GEOMETRY. 

G.  C.  SHUTTS,  Whitewater. 

The  subject  of  the  four  fundamental  principles  in  their  general 
application  has  already  been  discussed,  hence  this  paper  will  consider 
only  their  application  to  Arithmetic,  Algebra  and  Geometry. 

At  first  thought  the  statement  of  the  importance  of  their  application 
seems  but  a  truism.  Yet  when  one  considers  the  amount  of  unsatis- 
factory work  done  in  our  schools,  the  amount  of  energy  expended  at 
a  loss  by  both  teacher  and  pupils,  the  utter  failure,  so  many  times, 
to  reach  important  results,  through  failure  to  apply  them,  he  feels  that, 
in  schools  devoted  to  the  work  of  training  teachers,  too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  laid  upon  them. 

Arithmetic. 

It  has  been  frequently  affirmed  that  "too  much  time  is  being  devoted 
to  arithmetic."  I  think  this  is  true,  and  that  if  one  half  to  one  third 
of  this  time  could  be  devoted  to  history  and  kindred  subjects  the 
pupil  would  be  better  prepared  for  citizenship.  Can  equally  good  or 
better  results  be  accomplished  in  less  time?  Much  work  is  done  in 
arithmetic  without  a  carefully  defined  aim.  The  teacher  should  first 
consider  the  subject  as  a  whole;  but  to  dub  her  aim  "mental  develop- 
ment" or  "character  building"  is  not  sufficient.  Both  of  these  aims,  as 
generally  considered,  are  so  indefinite  as  to  be  practically  valueless. 

In  determining  the  purpose  of  teaching  arithmetic,  it  is  naturally 
classified  into  pure  arithmetic  and  applied  or  into  abstract  processes 
and  concrete  problems.  The  principal  aim  in  the  former  toward  which 
pupils  and  teacher  should  be  consciously  working  is  skill  in  computa- 
tion, and  by  skill,  I  mean  habits  of  accuracy  and  rapidity;  and  to  this 
aim  everything  else  should  be  subordinated;  in  the  later,  the  aim  is 
to  acquire  power  of  thought,  i.  e.,  the  power  to  analyze  a  combination 
of  conditions  given  and  so  arrange  and  combine  them  as  to  arrive  at  the 
result  demanded.  When  these  purposes  are  kept  each  in  its  legitimate 
field,  with  rational  means  of  accomplishment,  arithmetic  may  be  com- 
passed in  less  time  with  more  satisfactory  results.  The  aim  of  the 
subject  as  classified  in  its  grand  divisions  should  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  the  pupils,  especially  in  Normal  schools,  for  it  must  at  all 
times  oe  studied  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher.  Then  the  aim 
of  each  unit  of  work  in  the  assignments  from  day  to  day  should  be 
related  to,  and  made  to  fit  into,  the  general  aim  so  that  the  pupils 
may  see  each  part  logically  made  to  subserve  its  purpose,  viz.,  to  ac- 
complish the  ultimate  aim. 


APPLICATION  OF  FOUR  PRINCIPLES  IN  MATHEMATICS.     255 

There  was  a  time  in  the  past  when  arithmetic,  because  the  curricula. 
of  our  schools  were  suffering  from  a  scarcity  of  matter,  supplied  the 
demand  for  all  kinds  of  training.  But  now  that  "enrichment"  has 
gone  to  such  an  extreme,  it  should  take  its  true  place  as  an  instrument 
for  use  in  life  experiences,  in  school  and  out.  And  just  as  the  tool 
chest  of  the  carpenter  contains  implements  designed  for  different  kinds 
of  work,  so  the  subject-matter  of  arithmetic  should  be  treated  with 
discrimination  as  a  means  to  an  end. 

It  has  been  said  that  each  lesson  has  its  aim  which  should  be  care- 
fully denned.  To  illustrate,  suppose  a  lesson  in  least  common  multiple 
be  considered.  This  is  one  of  the  abstract  processes  and  the  aim  may 
be  stated:  To  ascertain  the  method  of  finding  the  least  common 
multiple  of  several  numbers  and  to  acquire  skill  in  performing  the 
operation. 

Before  the  teacher  is  ready  to  assign  the  lesson  she  must  make 
careful  classification  of  what  must  be  known  or  done  to  accomplish 
the  aim,  viz.: 

(a)  Skill  in  factoring. 

(b)  Meaning  of  multiple,  common  multiple  and  least  common  mul- 
tiple. 

(c)  The  principle  that  the  multiple  of  any  number  must  contain  all 
of  the  factors  of  that  number. 

(d)  The  knowledge,  growing  out  of  the  principle,  that  the  product 
of  the  highest  powers  of  each  of  the  prime  factors  occurring  in  the 
numbers  is  the  least  common  multiple. 

(e)  Drill  for  skill  in  computation. 

To  direct  the  pupil's  energy  with  the  greatest  profit  the  teacher 
must  determine  in  class  and  out  of  it  what  the  pupil  already  knows 
of  a,  1),  etc.  If  a  is  not  known  the  pupil  is  not  ready  to  have  the  lesson 
assigned;*  hence  the  teacher  should  know  that  a  is  known.  The  remain- 
ing items  should  be  canvassed  to  show  the  pupil  what  he  does  not 
know,  and  consequently  upon  what  he  must  apply  his  study;  and  sug- 
gestions should  be  given  him  as  to  how  to  study  most  profitably.  For 
instance,  after  the  meaning  of  the  terms  has  been  illustrated,  the  truth 
of  the  principle  c  should  be  shown,  and  by  application  of  the  principle 
to  several  numbers  the  truth  of  d  will  appear.  Now  unless  a  proper 
appreciation  of  what  must  be  done  to  accomplish  e  is  in  the  pupil's 
mind,  most  of  the  study  hour  will  be  wasted.  To  determine  this  the 
ultimate  aim  must  be  kept  in  mind,  viz.,  skill  in  computation,  i.  e.,  the 
pupil  should  acquire  a  reasonable  degree  of  skillfulness,  and  not  be 
embarrassed  by  clumsy  habits  or  methods.  To  show  the  pupils  how  to 
accomplish  e  several  numbers  whose  prime  factors  are  known  at 
sight,  should  be  expressed  upon  the  board.  Have  a  pupil  name  any 
prime  factors  of  one  of  the  numbers.  Have  him  state  the  greatest 
number  of  times  it  occurs  in  any  number,  keeping  in  mind  principle  c. 
The  same  with  each  of  the  remaining  prime  factors  of  the  numbers. 
By  taking  the  product  of  these  powers  of  the  prime  factors  according 
to  d,  he  has  his  answer. 

If  the  above  woric  is  carefully  done  in  the  assignment  of  the  lesson, 
and  it  may  require  one  fourth  to  one  half  of  the  recitation  period,  the 
pupil  is  ready  to  devote  his  energy  to  the  essentials.  The  next  reci- 
tation hour  should  be  devoted  to  training  in  working  examples.  It 
should  have  it  in  two  elements:  a  testing  of  the  study  of  the  pupils 
and  a  drill  to  show  further  how  to  study  for  the  next  lesson.  This 


256  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

drill  should  be  in  the  nature  of  the  training  given  by  a  coach  to  make 
the  hundred  yard  dash,  i.  e.,  to  get  there  in  the  best  form  and  the 
quickest  time.  I  should  not  allow  the  pupils  to  express  the  prime 
factors  of  the  numbers,  but  would  demand  that  they  simply  multiply 
together  the  highest  powers  of  the  prime  factors  of  the  numbers, 
which  powers,  if  they  are  ready  for  the  subject,  they  can  recognize 
at  sight.  If  drilled  in  this  way  they  will  soon  be  able  to  get  the  answer 
before  they  would  be  able  to  write  the  prime  factors  of  the  numbers. 
One  serious  fault  that  militates  against  our  aim  in  arithmetic  is  the 
practice  of  allowing  pupils  to  expresss  so  much  work  that  might  be 
mentally  performed. 

In  the  concrete  problems  it  has  been  said  the  aim  is  to  develop  the 
power  of  thought.  Principles  &,  c  and  d;  viz.:  "What  must  be 
known  or  done  and  the  difference  between  what  the  pupil  now  knows 
and  what  he  must  know  to  solve  the  problem,  must  determine  the 
selection  of  the  problems  for  any  given  pupil  or  class  of  pupils."  Such 
problems  must  be  selected  as  contain  enough  of  what  the  pupil  knows 
or  can  do  that  he  may  be  able  to  master  the  element  of  the  unknown. 
If  there  is  no  unknown  in  the  problem  it  is  of  no  value  toward  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  aim.  If  the  unknown  element  is  too  large  the 
pupil  fails,  and  the  problem  is  again  valueless;  besides,  he  is  apt 
to  become  discouraged  in  the  work  upon  other  problems.  A  careful 
selection  of  problems,  keeping  in  mind  the  four  fundamental  principles, 
and  giving  due  credit  for  original  work,  will  make  this  part  of  the 
subject  an  exceeedingly  valuable  one. 

One  condition  necessary  to  success  here  is  that  facility  be  acquired 
in  the  abstract  process  before  it  is  applied  in  the  concrete  problem. 
The  carpenter  who  attempts  to  saw  off  a  board  by  means  of  a,  draw 
shave  may  accomplish  his  purpose,  but  he  can  scarcely  enjoy  the  work 
while  in  progress  nor  contemplate  the  result  with  much  satisfaction. 
No  more  should  the  aim  in  arithmetic  be  divorced  from  the  nature 
of  the  subject  if  the  work  would  be  pursued  with  pleasure  or  profit. 

Algebra. 

Before  the  first  recitation  in  algebra  the  teacher  should  have  In  mind, 
clearly  defined,  the  different  aiins  to  be  accomplished  by  the  work  as 
a  whole.  At  one  time  it  should  be  the  acquirement  of  skill  in  com- 
putation, this  is  perhaps  not  so  prominent  a  feature  for  the  simple 
purpose  of  skill  as  in  arithmetic;  at  another,  the  development  of  a 
formula  and  its  interpretation  or  translation  into  a  rule  of  action. 
This  is  an  important  function  of  algebra.  In  other  subjects,  as  physics, 
astronomy,  or  other  mathematics,  formulae  are  required  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  subject,  and  it  is  the  function  of  algebra  to  supply  them, 
sometimes,  training  in  deductive  reasoning.  Algebra  is  especiallly 
adapted  to  this  as  it  is  based  upon  definitions  and  axioms,  and  the 
notions  defined  are  of  the  most  general  nature;  and  still  again  the 
function  is  to  tram  the  imagination,  judgment  and  memory. 

Other  aims  might  be  named.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  nature 
of  the  subject-matter  should  determine  the  methods  of  presentation. 

Having  determined  the  general  aim  and  having  selected  a  given  unit 
of  work,  as  for  instance,  the  solution  of  symmetrical  simultaneous 
quadratic  equations,  the  special  aim  must  be  considered,  viz.,  to  deter- 
mine the  value  of  the  unknown  quantities  in  said  equations.  What 
must  be  known  or  done  that  the  solution  may  be  effected  must  be  deter- 


APPLICATION  OF  FOUR  PRINCIPLES  IN  MATHEMATICS.    257 

mined  by  the  teacher  before  the  lesson  is  ready  for  assignment.      For 
instance, — 

(a)  A  knowledge  of  the  divisibility  of  the  sums  or  differences  of 
like  powers  of  two  numbers  by  the  sum  or  difference  of  the  numbers. 

(b)  A  knowledge  of  how  to  solve  the  quadratic  form  in  whatever 
guise  it  may  appear. 

(c)  A  rule  for  the  solution  of  the  general  problems — (1)   given  sum 
and  difference  of  two  numbers  to  find  the  numbers  and — (2)  given  pro- 
duct and  the  sum,  or  product  and  difference  of  two  numbers  to  find 
the  numbers. 

(d)  The  methods  of  elimination  of  elementary  algebra. 

(e)  Training  to  enable  one  to  detect  the  particular  method  of  solution 
for  any  given  example. 

Before  the  pupil  is  ready  to  have  the  lesson  assigned,  a,  6,  c  and  d 
should  be  known.  The  work  for  the  pupil  lies  in  e. 

The  general  aim,  to  train  the  imagination,  judgment  and  memory, 
is  in  point  here.  As  the  several  varities  of  these  equations  give  a 
large  range  of  possibilities  of  solution,  an  unusually  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  training  in  judgment  is  here  given. 

In  the  more  simple  of  these  examples,  as  x2+y2=B4,  xy=l5,  the  pupil 
should  be  asked  to  simply  state  the  steps  in  the  solution.  To  do  this 
he  has,  from  the  conditions  given,  to  judge  what  to  do  and  represent 
in  mind  the  results.  The  results  he  must  remember,  again  judge  what 
to  do  and  represent  in  mind  the  results.  This  has  to  be  continued  to 
the  end  of  the  solution.  Or  send  class  to  the  board  and  have  pupils 
simply  express  results  in  second  member  of  the  equation.  This  is 
exceedingly  valuable  mental  training.  The  imagination,  judgment  and 
memory  are  trained  as  they  cannot  be  when  the  slow  process  of  writing 
out  the  whole  of  the  first  member  of  the  equations  is  indulged  in.  In 
too  much  of  our  work,  in  both  algebra  and  arithmetic,  is  the  physical 
exercise  of  recording  the  work  allowed  to  become  a  drag  upon  the 
mental,  or  to  supersede  it  altogether.  Much  of  this  muscular  exercise 
had  oetter  be  remanded  to  the  gymnasium.  But  this  mental  training 
can  only  be  done  when  the  four  principles  have  been  duly  considered 
and  proper  relations  established.  Every  subject  in  algebra  when  con- 
sidered from  the  standpoint  of  the  four  principles  with  due  regard  to 
the  nature  of  the  subject  becomes  valuable  for  development  of  power. 

Geometry. 

In  geometry  the  four  fundamental  pinciples  must  be  observed  if  one 
would  have  his  pupils  do  original  work.  The  aim  is  expressed  in 
the  theorem;  a  part  of  what  must  be  known  is  also  there  expressed. 

The  test  of  whether  this  element  of  what  must  be  known,  is  under- 
stood by  the  pupil,  is  whether  he  can  represent  it  in  a  figure.  The 
remainder  of  what  must  be  known  or  done  consists  of  previous  pro- 
positions, axioms  and  definitions;  and  the  ability  to  detect  by  compari- 
son of  what  is  given  with  what  is  required,  their  application  in  the  fig- 
ure. This  latter,  simply,  is  usually  the  unknown  that  remains  for  the 
pupil  to  accomplish. 

The  teacher  must  be  keenly  alive  to  the  relation  of  this  element, 
viz.,  what  remains  to  be  done,  to  the  ability  of  the  pupil.  This  un- 
known factor  must  be  such  as  to  keep  the  pupil  up  to  steady,  hard 
work,  not  so  small  as  to  remove  the  need  of  effort  nor  so  great  as  to 
overcome  him.  In  either  case  the  proposition  is  of  no  value  as  a  means 

17 


258  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

of  training.  In  order  to  maintain  a  proper  equilibrium  between  this 
factor  and  the  ability  of  the  pupil  or  class  to  analyze  it,  the  teacher 
must  give  suggestions  to  assist  the  pupil;  i.  e.,  must  make  the  known 
element  larger.  This  may  be  done  in  various  ways,  viz.,  by  directing 
what  to  do;  by  giving  a  reference  or  authority;  by  drawing  a  construc- 
tion line  or  lines;  by  developing  in  class  a  parallel  demonstration, 
etc.  What  help  is  given  should  as  far  as  possible  be  general  in  its 
application.  The  pupil  thus  grasps  and  applies  a  general  principle 
and  is  able  to  take  a  broader  view  of  his  subject.  This  can  usually 
be  done  by  getting  clearly  the  general  notion  of  what  must  be  known 
or  done  as  called  for  in  the  theorem.  For  instance,  the  pupil  is  trying 
to  get  his  proportion  to  establish  the  fact  that  "a  perpendicular  let 
fall,  from  the  vortex  of  the  right  angle  of  a  right  triangle  to  the  hy- 
pothenuse  is  a  mean  proportipnal  to  the  segments  of  the  hypothenuse." 
He  has  discovered  in  a  proper  figure  that  the  triangles  are  similar. 
At  this  point  he  needs  to  know  that  the  terms  of  a  ratio  should  be 
homologous  lines  in  the  similar  triangles  and  that  the  antecedents 
should  be  taken  from  tne  same  triangle.  This  suggestion  being  general 
in  its  nature  not  only  bridges  the  unknown  in  this  proposition  but 
makes  him  the  master  of  many  propositions  that  follow,  and  gives 
him  a  broader  view  of  the  subject. 

The  secret  of  success  is  to  keep  this  fourth  ol  the  four  fundamental 
principles  just  up  to  the  ability  of  the  pupil,  gradually  enlarging  it 
as  he  grows. 

In  aritnmetic,  algebra  or  geometry,  success  is  conditioned  upon  an 
application  of  the  four  fundamental  principles,  for  while  they  concern 
themselves  with  what  should  be  done,  taken  in  their  full  significance 
they  underlie  and  suggest  how  to  do  it.  The  "method  of  the  how"  is 
built  upon  the  sand  unless  its  foundations  are  laid  deep  in  the  "method 
of  the  what." 


REPORT  OF  LEADER. 

The  leader  of  the  Mathematical  Section  submits  the  following  re- 
port: 

1.  The  program  was  carried  out  as  printed. 

2.  There  was  a  general  agreement  in  the  purposes  for  Algebra  and 
Geometry  as  laid  down  in  the  papers  of  Mr.  Collins  and  Mr.  Lieben- 
berg. 

3.  The  discussion    in  Algebra  and  Geometry  was  confined  largely  to 
the  scope  of  these  subjects. 

The  amount  of  matter  taught  in  Algebra  in  the  various  schools  was 
essentially  the  same,  but  it  was  thought  best  to  appoint  a  committee 
to  determine  the  minimum  amount  of  matter  for  the  courses  in  Plane 
and  Solid  Geometry.  This  committee  consists  of  G.  C.  Shutts,  G.  L. 
Bowman,  and  J.  V.  Collins.  The  report  of  this  committee  will  "be 
placed  before  the  Board  of  Regents  in  due  time. 

4.  (a)   In  Arithmetic  there  was  some  difference  of  opinion  in  regard 
to  the  purpose  of  teaching  Arithmetic,  but  it  was  finally  decided  that  the 
purpose  laid  down  in  the  papers  by  Mr.   Clark,  Mr.  Bussewitz,  and 
Miss  Webster,  were  not  inharmonious  and  were  complete  enough  to 
cover  tne  work  in  Normal  schools. 


RESULTS  OF  THE  CONFERENCE  ON  MATHEMATICS.     259 

(b)  There  was  some  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  scope  of 
Arithmetic  in  the  Normal  school,  and  in  order  to  unify  the  work  of  the 
various  schools  as  much  as  possible  the  following  committee  were 
appointed:  M.  A.  Bussewitz,  L.  H.  Clark,  Miss  Emily  Webster.  The 
report  of  this  committee  will  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Board 
of  Regents  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  points  to  be  covered  by  the  report  are: 

1.  The  amount  of  Arithmetic  necessary  to  enter  the  Normal  schools. 

2.  The  amount  necessary  to  graduate  from  the  Elementary  Course. 

3.  The  amount  necessary  to   graduate   from  the  Advanced   Course. 

4.  The  relation  of  academical  and  professional  Arithmetic. 

5.  The  following  resolutions  were  submitted  by  Mr.  Clark  and  unani- 
mously adopted: 

Resolved,  That  the  President  of  each  school  be  asked  to  call  con- 
ferences of  the  model  school  teachers,  the  supervisors  of  practice,  and 
the  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics  to  arrange  a  course  of 
study  in  Arithmetic  that  shall  contain  both  the  topics  to  be  taught 
as  well  as  the  method  of  teaching  them.  Furthermore,  that  this 
course  of  study  shall  be  a  guide  so  clear  and  definite  that  it  may  be 
given  the  student  teachers  to  guide  them  in  their  preparation  of  their 
lessons  for  their  practice  classes. 

Resolved,  That  the  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics  in  each 
school  should  be  relieved  of  enough  academical  work  in  the  Normal 
department  to  give  him  time  to  observe  the  work  done  in  arithmetic 
in  the  nfodel  school  and  to  confer  from  time  to  time  with  the  super- 
visors of  practice  and  the  model  school  teachers. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  CONFERENCE  ON  MATHEMATICS. 

1.  A  discussion  of  the  purposes  in  Algebra  and  Geometry  in  which 
there  was   a  general  agreement  with  the  purposes  set  forth  in  the 
papers  read. 

2.  As  to  the  scope  of  Geometry,  a  committee  of  three  was  appointed 
to  suggest  the  minimum  scope  of  work  in  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry. 
The  committee  is  to  correspond  with  mathematical  teachers  in  all  the 
Normal  schools. 

3.  In  Arithmetic,  there  was  some  discussion  of  the  purpose  in  the 
academic  and  professional  phases.     But  the  opinion  prevailed  that  the 
purposes  set  forth  in  the  various  papers  were  not  inharmonious  and 
were  fairly  complete. 

4.  A  committee  of  three  was  appointed  to  do  the  following: 

(a)  Determine  the   content  in  arithmetic  for  entrance  to  Normal 
schools. 

(b)  Determine   the   amount   for   graduating   from   the   Elementary 
Course. 

(c)  Determine  the  amount  for  graduating  from  the  Advanced  Course. 

(d)  Suggestions    for    co-ordinating    and    professionalizing     certain 
phases  of  arithmetical  work. 

5.  A  resolution  submitted  by  Mr.  Clark  was  adopted  looking  toward 
enlarging  the  power  of  the  professor  of  mathematics  over  the  work  of 
the  model  school. 

W.  C.  HEWITT. 


260  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

MODEL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS. 

Leader,  NINA  VANDEWALKER,  Milwaukee. 


MODEL  TEACHING  FOR  OBSERVATION  CLASSES :  WHAT  MEANS 
SHOULD  BE  USED  TO  MAKE  THIS  OF  MOST  VALUE  TO  OB- 
SERVERS? 

ALFARETTA  HASKELL,  Oshkosh. 

So  many  things  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  determin- 
ing upon  the  best  course  to  be  followed  in  the  work  of  observation  that 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  upon  which  to  decide.  The  existing  conditions 
in  our  Normal  schools  make  it  impossible  to  follow  a  general  plan. 

About  this  one  point,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  question: — that 
until  the  work  in  observation  is  placed  upon  the  same  definite  basis  as 
other  branches  in  our  schools,  the  most  profitable  results  cannot  be 
reached.  Under  our  present  program  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find 
available  classes  for  observation,  the  practice  program  being  so 
crowded. 

Those  taking  the  work  in  observation  are,  as  a  rule,  young  and  in- 
experienced, few  of  them  have  taught,  and  fewer  still  have  a»y  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  art  of  teaching. 

Not  long  ago  while  reading  an  article  dealing  with  the  ever-vital 
question,  the  education  of  the  child,  this  statement  appealed  to  me 
with  a  new  force:  "It  is  at  the  point  of  the  child's  sense  contact  with 
the  external  world  that  the  opportunity  for  our  best  appeal  to  him  lies." 
This  was  read  shortly  after  holding  a  conference  with  a  group  of  ob- 
servers, a  conference  which  had  left  us  with  a  feeling  of  depression, 
knowing  by  the  children's  faces  that  we  had  failed  to  reach  their  point 
of  contact. 

The  observers,  strangers,  come  to  us  for  a  few  moments'  conference 
each  week.  We  know  nothing  of  their  mental  status,  of  their  past  ex- 
periences in  the  educational  field,  and  that  great  element,  time,  is 
against  us  in  enabling  us  to  know  more  of  their  needs.  So  we  do  the 
best  we  can  in  the  short  space  of  time  allotted  us  and  try  to  explain 
our  aims  and  the  scope  of  the  work. 

The  object  should  be  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  the  department  teacher  should  meet  the  class 
in  observation  before  the  recitation  for  the  first  week  or  two,  give  to 
them  her  plan  of  recitation,  emphasizing  the  special  points  to  be  ob- 
served. 

It  is  but  just  to  these  earnest  young  people  that  something  more 
than  mere  generalizations  be  given  them  upon  which  to  base  their  ob- 
servations. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  explain  the  purpose  of  the  les- 
son, its  correlation  with  other  branches;  why  this  particular  subject 
should  be  taught  at  this  time;  what  has  preceded  it  and  what  advanced 
work  is  to  be  based  upon  this. 

It  may  be  said  that  giving  the  plan  of  work  to  the  observers  before 
the  recitation  may  lessen  their  self-activity.  But  is  it  not  true  that 
we  find  ourselves  studying  some  fine  picture,  a  beautiful  piece  of  sculp- 


MODEL  TEACHING  FOR  OBSERVATION  CLASSES.         261 

ture,  with  a  greater  degree  of  enjoyment  through  having  some  knowl- 
edge beforehand  of  the  artist  and  his  conception?  If  we  are  going 
abroad,  or  going  to  enter  a  new  field  of  labor,  we  strive  to  gain  as  much 
knowledge  as  possible  regarding  existing  conditions. 

If  we  endeavor  to  make  plain  to  the  observers  our  plan  of  work  dur- 
ing the  recitation,  having  their  needs  rather  than  those  of  the  children 
uppermost  in  our  minds,  we  defeat  our  own  purpose, — the  conducting 
of  an  ideal,  or  model  recitation.  I  recall  visiting  a  school  of  observa- 
tion at  one  time  when  the  teacher  explained  the  various  steps  to  the 
observers  in  the  presence  of  the  children.  It  reminded  me  forcibly  of 
the  labeled  drawings  of  the  small  boy.  Every  effort  should  be  used  to 
keep  the  children  unconscious  of  being  observed,  as  the  moment  they 
become  self-conscious  spontaneity  of  thought  and  action  ceases. 

After  the  recitation  a  regular  period  should  be  taken  in  which  the 
director  of  observation,  the  department  teacher  and  the  class  in  ob- 
servation, meet  to  discuss  the  lesson.  This  discussion  should  be  based 
upon  the  following  points: 

Was  the  plan  closely  followed?     If  not,  why  not? 

Is  it  best  not  to  adhere  too  closely  to  one's  plan? 

Unforeseen  incidents — how  used? 

Attention:  Being  good,  how  secured?  If  poor,  give  reasons  and  rem- 
edy. 

Interest:     How  aroused  and  maintained? 

Attitude  of  teacher  toward  the  subject: — Did  she  deal  with  it  with 
zest  and  enjoyment? 

Attitude  of  the  children  toward  the  subject. 

Character  of  relations  between  the  teacher  and  pupil: — Was  there  a 
mutual  respect,  confidence  and  helpfulness? 

Were  the  powers  of  the  child's  mind  cultivated  in  the  right  order? 
Give  examples. 

How  and  where  did  the  teacher  use  testing?  teaching?  drilling?  What 
was  the  relative  proportion  of  each? 

What  was  done  to  stimulate  self-activity  on  the  part  of  the  child? 

What  materials  and  illustrations  were  used?    Why  these? 

What  means  of  self-expression  were  used  by  the  children?  Were 
they  encouraged  to  do  any  constructive  or  illustrative  work? 

What  were  the  individual  needs  of  the  children?  How  were  these 
met  by  the  teacher? 

The  observers  should  become  familiar  with  the  books  used  both  by 
teacher  and  pupil;  they  should  be  required  to  learn  something  of  the 
author's  aims;  they  should  determine  why  a  certain  book  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  children  at  this  stage.  Does  it  supplement  the 
oral  teaching?  Is  it  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  children  at  this  par- 
ticular time?  Why?  Is  it  well  graded,  so  that  all  matter  may  be  used 
or  does  the  teacher  make  selections? 

They  should  be  helped  to  measure  results. 

Has  the  work  been  progressive  and  cumulative  from  day  to  day? 

Has  each  new  lesson  been  related  to  the  preceding  lesson  or  to 
some  other  branch? 

Has  the  child  gained  in  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  and  in 
ability  to  use  it? 

Why  have  some  children  gained  more  than  others?  How  has  the 
teacher  met  this? 

Is  the  stage  of  progress  suited  to  the  grade  of  children? 


202  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Such  relations  should  be  established  between  the  department 
teacher  and  observers  that  the  latter  will  feel  free  to  come  with 
questions  at  any  time  when  the  former  is  free.  They  should  be  en- 
couraged to  visit  the  department  at  other  times  than  at  the  regular 
assignment,  studying  the  children  under  other  conditions  in  order 
to  make  relative  estimates  and  to  better  determine  the  individual  and 
class  needs. 

The  majority  come  to  us  now  having  but  three  questions  to  ask: 

"What  is  the  average  age  of  the  class? 

How  much  time  do  the  pupils  have  for  preparation  of  the  lesson? 

What  is  your  purpose  in  the  work? 

It  is  plain  to  be  seen  that  they  are  failing  to  get  the  spirit  of  the 
"work.  This  is  the  fault  of  no  one  so  long  as  there  is  such  a  pressure 
of  other  work,  allowing  but  tne  minimum  of  time  to  be  devoted  to 
this  branch.  The  only  way  to  solve  the  difficulty  is  by  having  more 
and  definite  periods  set  aside  for  conference  and  discussion,  thereby 
establishing  closer  relations  between  those  having  charge  of  the  work 
and  the  observers. 

Again,  there  should  be  more  concentration  of  thought  along  par- 
ticular lines.  The  period  of  time  devoted  to  observing  one  branch 
should  be  extended.  Five  weeks  is  none  too  long  to  be  given  to  this. 
Say,  for  instance,  all  the  observers  are  sectioned  and  assigned  to  the 
various  arithmetic  classes  in '  the  several  grades.  The  results  at 
the  end  of  the  five  weeks  would  be  of  inestimable  value.  The  con- 
ferences would  be  of  far  more  worth  than  at  present  and  on  general 
principles  the  truths  gained  would  be  true  in  all  succeeding  work. 

One  of  the  greatest  lacks  in  the  present  system  of  observation  is 
the  inability  of  the  observers  to  realize  the  unity  of  the  work  in  the 
several  grades.  Their  programs  will  not  admit  of  more  frequent 
periods  of  observation,  so  that  in  our  consultations  with  them  we  must 
strive  to  give  this  to  them.  Wherever  possible  they  should  be  re- 
quired to  see  the  connection  between  the  work  in  geography,  history 
and  nature  work,  the  relation  of  reading  and  spelling  to  these 
branches  and  note  that  the  language  work  is  also  largely  based  upon 
them.  If  done  here  when  they  reach  their  practice  we  shall  be  able 
to  get  a  greater  unity  of  thought  in  the  work  all  along  the  line. 


MEANS  NECESSARY  TO  OVERCOME  THE  BAD  EFFECTS  OF 
POOR  TEACHING  IN  THE  GRADES  BY  PUPIL-TEACHERS. 

J.  I.  JEGI,  Milwaukee. 

The  title  of  this  paper  affirms  positively  that  evil  effects  result  in  the 
grades  from  the  teaching  done  by  pupil-teachers.  As  a  general  propo- 
sition it  must  be  granted.  No  one  can  observe  the  work  of  any  num- 
ber of  pupil-teachers,  day  after  day,  without  clearly  realizing  that  the 
children  are  in  the  hands  of  immature,  inexperienced  young  artisans 
who  almost  daily  meet  conditions  with  which  they  cannot  cope,  prob- 
lems they  cannot  solve,  opportunities  they  cannot  appreciate.  Yet  I 
wish  to  say  that  there  are  some  pupil-teachers  in  every  large  class, 
who  are  a  help,  an  inspiration,  from  the  very  beginning,  both  to  the 
children  they  are  teaching  and  to  the  critic  teacher  under  whose  super- 


JMEANS  TO  OVERCOME  EFFECTS  OF  BAD  PUPIL-TEACHING.  263 

vision  they  instruct.  This  class  is,  however,  in  the  minority.  Were  it 
not  so,  there  could  be  little  justification  for  the  maintenance  of  Nor- 
mal schools  at  state  expense,  at  least  the  model  department  or  practice 
school,  and  the  critic  teachers  would  constitute  a  non-essential  attach- 
ment, a  sort  of  luxury,  an  aftertnought  of  little  consequence. 

While  tne  subject  assigned  me  seems  to  call  for  measures  designed 
to  correct  the  evil  effects,  to  repair  the  injury,  to  make  good  the  loss, 
or  to  deal  with  the  mischief  after  it  has  been  done  by  the  pupil-teacher, 
I  take  the  liberty  to  interpret  it  in  a  somewhat  broader  way,  so  as  to 
include  also  the  numerous  preventive  measures  which  are  of  far 
greater  significance.  Surely  here  an  ounce  of  preventive  is  worth  more 
than  a  pound  of  cure. 

Let  me  first  mention  some  influences,  factors,  conditions,  over  which 
.you  have  little  or  no  control.  By  you,  as  used  in  this  paper,  I,  of 
course,  refer  to  critic  teachers  and  supervisors  of  practice  work  of 
our  Normal  schools. 

1.  The  Normal  school  atmosphere 

This  is  determined  in  a  measure  by  the  Board  of  Regents,  in  its  (1) 
'erection  of  a  suitable  building  with  its  essential  appointments,  (2)  se- 
lection of  a  President  and  faculty  who  are  able  to  make  the  most  of  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  placed.  More  largely,  however,  is  this 
atmosphere  determined  by  the  various  members,  each  and  all,  constitut- 
ing the  teaching  force.  It  must  be  such  as  will  early  and  constantly 
force  to  the  attention  of  each  student  the  fact  that  he  is  in  a  Normal 
school,  that  he  is  to  become  a  teacher  of  children,  that  the  model  or 
practice  school  is  the  center,  the  pivot,  about  which  and  in  relation  to 
which  all  of  his  work  is  organized  and  correlated.  In  every  depart- 
ment and  in  every  subject  the  model  and  practice  school  must  be  held 
up  as  a  real  model,  an  illustration  exemplifying  sound  psychological 
principles  applied  to  actual  schoolroom  management  and  instruction. 
The  department  teachers  (I  mean  persons  instructing  in  any  of  the  de- 
partments of  the  Normal  school  and  not  of  the  model  and  practice 
school)  must  refer  to  the  model  and  practice  school  as  a  measuring  rod 
with  which  students  may  test  the  value  of  theoretical  discussions  wher- 
ever found.  Every  department  teacher  should  not  only  feel,  but  mani- 
fest a  sympathetic  interest  in  the  model  and  practice  school,  the  clinic 
of  the  Normal,  the  educational  laboratory. 

2.  The  professional  subjects. 

The  work  in  these  subjects  should  articulate  closely  with  the  course 
followed  and  methods  pursued  in  the  model  and  practice  school.  It 
can  never  be  unrelated  to  the  work  done  down  stairs  except  in  so  far 
as  it  may  be  intended  to  cover  a  wider  range  of  conditions.  The 
teachers  of  the  professional  subjects  should  understand  thoroughly  the 
course,  methods,  and  materials,  as  well  as  chilhood,  in  each  grade  of 
the  model  and  practice  school.  No  lack  of  co-ordination  should  exist 
in  this  particular. 

3.  Visitation  by  pupil-teachers. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  course  in  observation  under  the  direction 
of  a  member  of  the  faculty,  students  should  be  encouraged  to  visit 
freely  the  model  and  practice  school  with  the  thought  of  gaining  in- 


264  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

sight,  on  the  one  hand,  into  the  art  of  teaching  and  managing  children 
as  exemplified  by  experts,  by  artists  in  our  profession,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  into  child  nature  as  seen  in  the  various  grades.  The  pros- 
pective pupil-teacher  should  be  led  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  childhood. 
This  work  may  be  stimulated  by  the  department  teachers,  but  it  can  be 
best  undertaken  by  you  and  should  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  your  reg- 
ular duties.  , 

4.  High  ideals  of  teaching. 

High  ideals  should  be  kept  before  the  students  from  the  moment  they 
cross  the  threshold  of  a  Normal  for  the  first  time  until  they  are  gradu- 
ated from  the  institution.  In  no  department  should  the  ideal  recita- 
tion and  the  ideal  schoolroom  conditions  be  lost  sight  of  for  any  other 
consideration.  Students  should  not  only  see  good  teaching  in  every  de- 
partment, but  they  should  be  made  to  realize  that  it  is  good  teaching, 
and  shown  why  it  is  good  teaching  to  the  end  that  they  too  may  grow 
to  be  forceful,  logical,  and  inspiring  teachers. 

5.  Model  recitations. 

The  department  teachers  should  assign  lessons  daily  in  a  definite, 
clear  and  careful  manner,  and  show  students  how  to  study  economically 
and  effectively  to  the  end  that  careful  preparation,  right  in  kind  and 
adequate  in  amount,  may  be  habitually  made  by  each  member  of  the 
class.  Next  it  is  essential  to  test  students  quickly  and  thoroughly  on 
the  matter  assigned.  It  may  be  necessary  to  drill  on  some  of  the 
more  important  points  in  the  lesson.  The  students  should  be  made 
conscious  of  the  fact  that  the  teacher  is  following  a  plan  thought  out 
and  organized  before  coming  to  the  class.  The  "lesson-plan"  should 
be  impressed.  In  other  words,  every  recitation  in  every  department 
should  be  a  model  in  the  true  sense,  both  as  to  the  what  and  the  how 
in  teaching. 

To  me  it  is  clear  that  you,  living  up  to  your  privileges  and  opportuni- 
ties, are  the  most  potent  factors  of  the  Normal  schools,  as  they  are 
organized  in  this  state  at  present,  in  guiding  and  shaping  the  practical 
work,  the  art  side,  of  the  pupil-teachers,  and  so  in  predetermining 
largely  the  future  destiny  of  our  graduates  as  teachers.  If  broad  and 
liberal  culture,  wide  experience,  specific  training,  sympathetic  nature, 
and  native  fitness  for  teaching  count  for  anything  anywhere  in  our 
profession,  they  reach  their  highest'  value,  they  are  used  for  the  noblest 
purpose,  they  are  attended  by  the  most  bountiful  fruition  in  your  work 
as  teachers  of  the  model  and  practice  schools. 

I  firmly  believe  to  natural  ability,  broad  culture  and  wide  experience 
should  be  added  special  training  for  your  work  in  such  an  institution 
as  The  Teachers'  Training  College,  New  York,  or  The  Chicago  Insti- 
tute. The  salaries  paid  for  your  services  well  rendered  should  be  equal, 
at  least,  to  those  received  by  the  most  successful  members  of  the  Nor- 
mal faculty  having  equal  training  and  experience.  Your  positions 
should  attract  the  best  teaching  skill  in  the  land.  Your  work,  as  I  see 
it,  lies  along  two  quite  separate  and  distinct  lines;  it  is  of  a  double  na- 
ture: (1)  You  are  to  be  an  expert  teacher,  an  artist  in  the  highest 
sense,  both  in  the  teaching  and  in  the  management  of  children.  (2) 
You  are  to  be  expert  in  helping  pupil-teachers  to  master  the  art  side  of 
our  profession.  The  latter  is  fully  as  important  as  the  former.  You 
dare  not  become  unmindful  of  this  fact. 


MEANS  TO  OVERCOME  BAD  EFFECTS  OF  PUPIL-TEACHING.   265- 

Let  us  now  see  some  of  the  conditions,  factors,  over  which  you  have 
some  control.  The  Normal  students  are  yours  for  a  considerable  part 
of  the  time  they  spend  in  the  institution.  Part  of  this  time  you  have 
them  (1)  in  conferences  of  some  sort,  (2)  in  observation  of  your  own 
teaching,  and  (3)  in  practice  work  under  your  supervision. 

CONFERENCES. 

1.  General  conferences. 

An  occasional  meeting  of  all  students  doing  practice  teaching  may 
be  of  inestimable  value  if  conducted  in  the  right  way  by  the  right  per- 
son. Of  course,  more  or  less  of  detail  must  necessarily  be  considered 
at  this  meeting,  but  its  chief  value,  its  highest  purpose,  it  seems  to  me, 
lies  in  the  opportunity  it  affords  for  fixing  higher  ideals  of  professional 
work,  for  creating  a  professional  spirit,  for  inspiring  to  greater  use- 
fulness and  nobler  endeavor.  The  conference  should  be  attended  by 
all  members  of  the  faculty  interested  in  the  topic  under  consideration. 
I  do  not  care  to  outline  fully  the  work  of  such  meetings,  but  simply  to 
suggest,  in  addition  to  the  above,  one  topic.  The  course  of  study  of 
the  model  and  practice  school  should  be  gone  over  with  some  care,  so 
as  to  give  students  a  general  view  of  the  purpose,  scope  and  sequence 
of  the  various  subjects  in  each  grade.  The  best  results  demand  a 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  the  entire  field  of  work  pur- 
sued by  the  pupils  under  his  charge.  Where  teaching  is  done  by  so 
many  different  persons  it  becomes  necessary  for  each  to  have  quite 
clearly  in  mind  the  general  field  to  be  covered  by  all.  The  model  and 
practice  school  of  all  schools  needs  a  course  of  study  carefully  arid  com- 
pletely worked  out  and  understood  by  all  who  come  in  contact  with  it. . 

2.  Grade  or  group  conference. 

This  should  be  called  by  the  critic  teacher  whenever  it  is  necessary, 
although  a  stated  time,  at  least  once  a  week,  is  very  desirable.  This- 
critic  meeting  has  a  distinct  purpose  and  may  be  so  conducted  as  to 
be  indispensable  to  effective  work  by  the  pupil-teacher.  What  was 
said  concerning  the  general  course  of  study  applies  here  with  equal 
force  to  the  particular  grade.  A  definite  course,  well  understood,  and 
somewhat  carefully  followed,  is  essential  to  that  unity  of  effort,  econ- 
omy of  time,  and  proper  articulation  and  co-ordination  of  work  so  often 
lacking  in  our  model  and  practice  schools. 

The  matters  peculiar  to  the  particular  grade,  both  as  to  subject  mat- 
ter, methods  and  child  nature  should  be  considered  in  such  meetings. 
This  feature  of  the  critic  meeting  is  most  important  in  the  lower 
grades.  This  is  the  place  for  true,  real,  first-hand  child  study  for  pur- 
poses of  management  and  instruction.  All  persons  present  are  dealing 
with  the  same  children  and  should  become,  as  soon  as  possible,  fa- 
miliar with  them.  The  critic  teacher  may  tell  or  lead  pupil-teachers 
to  observe  such  characteristics  of  these  children  as  will  enable  the 
pupil-teachers  to  understand  something  of  child  mind,  its  capacities, 
powers,  interests  and  peculiarities,  to  the  end  that  teaching  may  be 
more  helpful.  Of  course  minor  matters  of  detail  in  management  must 
be  considered,  but  I  fear  that  this  meeting  may  degenerate  if  too  much 
time  is  spent  on  these  things.  Emphasize  those  details,  numerous  as 
they  may  be,  which  are  essential  in  a  good  class  teacher.  At  first  the 
pupil-teacher  may  be  painfully  conscious  that  she  has  many  things  to 


266  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

bear  in  mind  when  before  her  class,  but  later  these  become  so  fixed, 
second  nature,  as  to  be  properly  looked  after  without  conscious  atten- 
tion. They  grow  to  be  indispensable  conditions.  Impress  the  impor- 
tance of  good  class-room  habits  based  on  high  ideals.  The  most  benefi- 
cent influence  of  critic  meetings  comes  from  the  strong,  inspiring  per- 
sonality, the  lofty  ideals,  and  the  nobility  of  character  of  the  critic 
teacher. 

3.  Individual  conferences. 

These  must  occur  almost  daily.  Pupil-teachers  should  come  to  you 
freely  and  frequently  to  talk  over  their  individual  difficulties  and  de- 
feats as  well  as  their  victories.  You  must  constantly  study  your 
pupil-teachers  in  order  to  be  of  service  to  them.  These  heart  to 
heart  talks  with  a  community  of  purpose  and  interest,  that  you  have 
with  your  pupil-teacher  alone,  the  influence  of  a  true  friend  and  real 
artist  upon  his  pupil,  the  effect  of  a  strong,  inspiring  nature  upon 
a  young,  highly  plastic  soul  under  such  conditions  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. You  know  how  to  criticise  each  pupil-teacher,  how  to 
encourage,  how  to  commend.  See  to  it  that  the  pupil-teacher  leaves 
you,  regardless  of  the  mistakes  and  shortcomings  you  have  pointed 
out,  with  a  feeling  that  you  have  helped  her,  that  you  have  taken 
the  part  of  a  friend.  Never  flatter,  never  discourage.  Praise  at 
times;  encourage  always. 

4.  Teachers'  conference. 

The  supervisor  of  practice  should  hold  frequent  conferences  with 
his  critic  teachers,  and  such  other  members  of  the  faculty  as  he  may 
care  to  invite,  to  the  end  that  there  may  be  brought  about  that  unity 
and  harmony  so  desirable  in  all. the  work  pertaining  to  the  pupil- 
teachers.  I  can  see  that  such  an  understanding  may  be  thus  estab- 
lished. 

Before  dismissing  the  matter  of  conferences,  I  want  to  emphasize 
the  necessity  of  an  hour  during  the  day  when  such  meetings  can 
be  held  without  inconveniencing  anyone  interested.  An  hour  after 
school  is  dismissed,  or  before  school  in  the  morning,  or  at  noon,  can- 
not fail  to  leave  the  impression  that  these  conferences  are  of  little 
consequence.  If  they  are  important,  if  you  make  them  so,  I  am  cer- 
tain that  time  will  be  found  for  them. 

OBSERVATION. 

Time  does  not  permit  the  discussion  of  the  so-called  observation 
early  in  the  course  before  practice  work  is  begun,  although  in  that 
work  you  have  an  opportunity  to  give  the  Normal  students  many 
very  valuable  suggestions.  I  regard  that  kind  of  observation  as  very 
helpful,  although  its  importance  depends  almost  exclusively  on  you. 

1.  After    practice    teaching    has    been    assigned,    give    your    pupil-; 
teacher  an  opportunity  to   observe   the   children,  if  possible,   in  the 
subject  he  is  to  teach.     When  feasible,  several  days  may  very  profit- 
ably be  spent  in  showing  your  pupil-teacher  how  to  instruct  this  par- 
ticular class  in  this  subject.     Not  that  he  may  mechanically  and  slav- 
ishly imitate  you,  but  that  he  may  have  a  proper  background,  a  setting 
for  his  own  experiences. 

2.  When  necessary  take  the  class  from  a  pupil-teacher  for  a  day 
or  more  and  let  him  observe  you  teach.       Call  his  attention  to  your 
method,  let  him  see  how  you  accomplish  the  result  he  failed  to  reach, 


MEANS  TO  OVERCOME  EFFECTS  OF  BAD  PUPIL-TEACHING.  267 

show  him  wherein  his  mode  of  teaching  was  wrong.  Remember  teach- 
ing is  an  art.  Showing  how,  at  the  proper  time,  is  worth  more  than 
telling  how  to  do  it. 

3.  Often  when  you  see  a  pupil-teacher  struggling  with  a  difficulty 
that  he  cannot  master,  take  his  class  for  a  moment,  and  show  him 
how,  by  asking  the  right  question  or  series  of  questions,  to  clear  up 
the  matter.     It  can  do  no  harm  if  you  do  it  in  the  spirit  of  helpful- 
ness. 

4.  You  must  observe  each  pupil-teacher  more  or  less  in  order  to 
properly  help  him  in  his  work  and  to  keep  your  hands  on  the  situa- 
tion.    Know  your  pupil-teachers  and  know  how  frequently  your  visits 
should  be  made  to  be  of  most  value  to  all  concerned.       You  know 
that   some   pupil-teachers   do   best  when  carefully   looked   after,   and 
others  do  better  work  when  left-- largely  to  themselves.     Over-super- 
vision is  not  only  useless,  but  harmful;   it  all  depends  upon  the  in- 
dividual. 

5.  Visits  made  by  department  teachers  should  be  reported  to  you 
in  writing^  and  your  pupil-teachers  get  such  criticisms  as  you  deem 
wise  in  each  case.     The  visitation  by  department  teachers  certainly 
has  its  place  and  may  be  mutually  valuable,  but  you  are  in  best  posi- 
tion to  report  all  criticisms  personally. 

6.  Should   the   pupil-teacher   fail   to   profit   by  your   suggestions   it 
might  be  wise  for  you  to  take  the  class  for  the  remainder  of  the 
time  and  ask  him  to  observe  you  daily  and  render  such  assistance 
as  you  may  call  for.     Observations  of  this  kind  should  be  reported  in 
writing  each  day. 

PRACTICE   WORK. 

1.  Find  the  right  person  for  the  right  class.       You  know  that  a 
person   naturally   fitted  for  primary  work  may  utterly  fail  if  given 
Algebra  or  English  History  in  the  eighth  grade.     Know  where  to  start 
each  pupil:teacher  and  how  to  find  his  level. 

2.  Practice  teachers  should  visit  you  almost  daily  to  talk  over  their 
plans,  their  failures  and  their  victories.     You  have  a  right  to  know 
the  lesson  plan  and  to  criticise  it  before  it  is  used  in  class,  and  you 
also  have  a  right  to  hear  the  outcome  of  every  exercise.     In  order 
that  you  may  know  your  pupil-teachers  the  better,  I  believe  not  all 
teachers  should  be  moved  to  another  grade  at  the  end  of  ten  weeks, 
but  some,  natu/ally  fitted  for  your  grade,  whether  strong  or  weak, 
should   be   retained   another  quarter,   it   may  be   in  the   same   class. 
This  will  materially  lessen  your  anxiety,  strengthen  your  grade,  and 
I  believe  help  the  pupil-teacher  even  more  than  to  chase  about  from 
grade  to  grade.    When  feasible  have  some  pupil-teachers  take  work 
with  you  for  two  hours  or  even  a  halfday  at  a  time.     While  all  pupil- 
teachers  should  observe  work  in  all  of  the  grades  including  the  kin- 
dergarten, I  am  fully  convinced  that  they  would  get  most  good  from 
their  practice  teaching  if  it  were  limited  to  rather  narrow  lines.     We 
need  to  specialize  more  and  more.     There  is  a  demand  for  primary 
teachers,  for  intermediate  teachers,  for  grammar  grade  teachers,  and 
this  demand  is  rapidly- increasing.     Shall  we  not  meet  it? 

3.  The   number   of   pupil-teachers    assigned   you   should   not  be   so 
large  as  to   render  fairly   close   and   helpful   supervision   impossible, 
or  to  prevent  your  teaching  several  classes   daily.     Remember  that 


268  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

you  are  a  model  teacher  as  well  as  a  critic  teacher,  that  you  are  to 
maintain  a  model  school  as  well  as  a  practice  school,  that  you  are 
in  charge  of  a  model  department  as  well  as  an  educational  clinic. 
Both  are  important;  neither  alone  will  suffice. 

It  has  seemed  to  me  that  we  were  in  danger  of  emphasizing  the 
practice  school,  the  laboratory  side,  important  as  it  is,  to  the  neglect 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  equally  valuable  model  school.  If  there 
is  too  much  practice  teaching  permitted,  it  ceases  to  be  a  true  model 
school.  You  must  do  considerable  class  teaching  yourself.  If  possi- 
ble meet  all  of  your  children  in  some  one  or  more  exercises  daily. 

4.  The  department  teachers  may  be  of  great  help  to  you  if  they  co- 
operate with  you  in  such  matters  as  selecting  teachers,  visiung 
classes  and  reporting  to  you  frequently  matters  of  mutual  concern* 
They  should  feel  a  deep  interest  in  the  success  of  the  model  and 
practice  school. 

REMEDIAL    MEASURES. 

Little  need  be  said  on  this  point.  If  the  suggestions  above  have 
been  carried  out  in  the  right  spirit  there  will  be  little  to  remedy,  for 
all  serious  dangers  and  shortcomings  will  have  been  prevented.  Yet 
it  does  occur  sometimes  that  a  class  is  really  falling  behind  and 
there  seems  no  hope.  Under  such  circumstances,  what  shall  be  done? 

1.  Take  the  class  from  the  weak  pupil-teacher  and  give  it  to  one 
especially  strong  in  that  particular  subject  and  grade.     If  possible,. 
keep  it  yourself  until  the  work  is  fully  made  up. 

2.  Find  a  strong  practice  teacher  for  next  quarter  for  the   class 
that  has  had  a  weak  one.     Know  why  the  former  pupil-teacher  failed; 
and  now  select  one  particularly  strong  in  the  characteristic  wanting 
in  the  former. 

3.  Department  teachers  may  at   times  take   classes   provided   they 
are  able  to  fully  adapt  their  work  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils  in 
the  grade  in  question.     Some  department  teachers  can  successfully 
teach  children,  others  cannot. 

4.  Cut  down  the  number  of  pupil-teachers  you  supervise.     This  will- 
enable  you  to  do   a  larger  proportion  of  the  teaching  and  in  that 
way  obviate  the  evil  effect  to  a  great  degree. 

Doubtless  you  have  many  suggestions  to  add  to  what  has  been  said. 
The  point  I  wish  to  emphasize  particularly  in  conclusion  is  that  you. 
always  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  yours  is  not  only  a  practice  school 
in  which  Normal  students  are  to  acquire  skill  in  the  art  of  teach- 
ing and  managing  children,  but  also  a  model  school;  a  model  for 
Normal  students  to  observe  and  to  pattern  after;  a  model  for  the 
teachers  in  corresponding  grades  of  the  city  schools.  Yours  is  not 
simply  a  good  average  city  grade  but  one  which,  because  of  its  high 
ideals  and  excellent  quality  of  daily  work  done,  is  easily  in  the  very 
front  ranks  among  the  foremost  schools  of  the  land.  You  can  afford 
nothing  less.  Under  such  conditions  the  evil  effects  of  pupil-teachers 
in  the  grades  need  concern  us  little;  they  can  be  prevented,  or  am 
overcome. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER.  269 


REPORT  OF  THE  LEADER. 

The  first  subject  discussed  was  the  "Bearing  of  the  fundamental 
propositions  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  in  determining  what  work,  if  any,  now 
being  done,  may  and  should  be  eliminated."  Prof.  Patzer  did  not 
present  a  written  paper,  but  with  text-books  in  hand,  indicated  the 
work  that  might  be  omitted  in  arithmetic  and  grammar.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  discussion  that  folowed,  a  motion  was  made  and  carried 
that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  recommend  phases  t»f  work  to  be 
eliminated  in  the  subjects  mentioned,  this  committee  to  report  at  the 
Normal  Section  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Teachers'  Association.  The 
committee  appointed  consists  of  Pres.  McGregor,  and  Professors  C. 
E.  Patzer  and  G.  C.  Shutts. 

The  second  topic,  "Model  teaching  for  observation  classes;  what 
means  should  be  used  to  make  this  of  most  value  to  observers,"  by 
Miss  Alfaretta  Haskell,  was  then  taken  up.  Miss  Haskell  empha- 
sized the  necessity  for  observation  as  a  preparation  for  practice 
teaching,  and  the  difficulty  of  carrying  it  on  so  as  to  result  in  the 
greatest  good  to  the  observers  and  the  least  harm  to  the  children. 
The  discussion  brought  out  the  differences  in  the  methods  of  con- 
ducting the  observation  work  in  the  different  Normal  schools  of  the 
state.  The  necessity  for  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  director  of 
observation,  the  critic  teacher,  and  the  observers  was  the  most  im- 
portant conclusion  arrived  at. 

The  third  paper  on  the  program  was  that  by  Prof.  J.  I.  Jegi,  on 
^'The  means  necessary  to  overcome  the  bad  effects  of  poor  teaching 
in  the  grades  by  pupil  teachers." 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  this  topic  and  the  limited  time  for 
discussion  it  was  voted  that  it  be  recommended  for  general  discus- 
sion in  the  meeting  Friday  morning.  The  time  Friday  morning  did 
not  admit  of  this,  however. 

The  next  topic  was  "How  should  the  character  of  the  teaching  in 
the  grammar  grades  differ  from  that  in  the  primary  and  interme- 
diate grades?"  Miss  Carpenter  discussed  the  subject  informally  and 
showed  that  all  education  should  be  based  on  the  mental  activity 
predominating  at  a  given  period.  During  the  period  covered  by  the 
primary  grades  the  powers  of  perception  and  imagination  should  be 
appealed  to  and  the  tendency  to  imitation  utilized;  during  the  inter- 
mediate period  memory  and  imagination  are  the  powers  to  be  es- 
pecially exercised.  The  work  of  the  intermediate  grades  concerns 
itself,  therefore,  largely  with  drill.  During  the  period  covered  by  the 
grammar  grades  the  reasoning  powers  are  developing,  and  the  work 
should  call  these  powers  into  exercise.  The  need  for  expression  in 
some  form  of  manual  training  was  pointed  out,  such  expression  being 
provided  for  in  the  primary  and  intermediate  grades  in  some  meas- 
ure, but  usually  crowded  out  in  the  grammar  grades  by  the  pressure 
of  other  studies,  though  no  less  necessary  to  complete  development. 
Though  the  paper  did  not  bear  directly  upon  Normal  school  problems, 
it  would  have  given  rise  to  fruitful  discussion  had  time  allowed  it. 
•Since  the  section  had  voted  to  limit  the  program  to  two  hours,  there 
•was  no  time  for  discussion. 

In  view  of  the  emphasis  placed  upon  the  work  of  the  Model  school 


270  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

and  the  Model  school  teachers  by  the  institute  as  a  whole,  it  was 
felt  by  the  teachers  in  question  that  the  program  as  printed  and 
the  one  brief  meeting  did  not  give  an  adequate  opportunity  for  a 
formulation  of  the  problems  of  the  Model  school  and  the  Model  school 
teachers  with  reference  to  the  work  of  the  other  departments  of 
the  Normal  school,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Model  school  teachers 
themselves.  Hence  a  brief  meeting  was  called  Friday  afternoon, 
with  a  view  to  appointing  a  committee  to  formulate  a  series  of  reso- 
lutions for  that  purpose. 

An  informal  discussion  showed  so  great  a  difference  in  the  condi- 
tion of  the  different  Model  schools,  that  the  brief  time  remaining  was 
seen  to  be  inadequate  to  the  reaching  of  conclusions,  or  even  the 
drafting  of  a  series  of  resolutions  then  and  there.  A  committee  was 
therefore  appointed  to  draft  such  a  series  of  resolutions  concerning 
desirable  changes  in  Model  school  conditions,  such  resolutions  to  be 
submitted  to  the  teachers  of  the  different  Model  schools  for  discus- 
sion and  approval,  and  to  be  returned  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  committee  appointed  is  as  follows: 

Addie  E.  Bettes,  Superior. 

Alfaretta  Haskell,  Oshkosh. 

Emily  W.  Strong,  Milwaukee. 

Carol  Goff,  Platteville. 

Carrie  J.  Smith,  River  Falls. 

Sophia  Runnie,  Whitewater. 

Josephine  Fitzgerald,  Stevens  Point. 

NINA  C.  VANDERWALKER. 


MUSIC. 

Leader,  MAE  E.  SCHREIBER,  Madison. 


THE  GENERAL  METHOD  OF  THE  "HOW,"  IN  THE 
RECITATION. 

GRACE  HEWARD,  Oshkosh. 

If  there  is  one  thing  more  than  any  other  to  be  constantly  kept  in 
the  mind  of  the  supervisor  of  music  in  common  with  every  other  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  in  a  Normal  school,  it  is  that  we  are,  or  should 
be,  preparing  students  to  go  out  to  the  public  schools  of  the  state  to 
teach  music. 

In  this  paper  I  wish  to  offer  a  few  suggestions  which  I  sincerely 
hope  will  be  freely  and  fully  discussed.  I  shall  simply  touch  upon 
a  few  points  that  appeal  to  me  as  being  vital,  and  put  some  ques- 
tions to  you  which  I  have  been  asking  myself  during  the  time  I  have 
been  teaching  in  the  Normal  school,  many  of  which  I  have  not  as 
yet  been  able  to  answer  with  satisfaction  to  myself. 

Normal  schools  are  being  criticised  because  they  do  not  send  out 
persons  properly  fitted  and  prepared  to  teach  music.  A  large  amount 
of  the  blame  for  poor  music  work  and  bad  singing  in  the  public 
schools  is  laid  at  the  doors  of  the  Normal  schools.  Are  such  critl- 


GENERAL  METHOD  IN  MUSIC.  271 

cisms  and  assertions  just?  Are  the  majority  of  our  students,  when 
they  leave  the  school,  capable  of  taking  charge  of  the  music  in  their 
grades?  I  am,  I  must  confess,  inclined  to  answer,  "No."  Then,  what 
can  be  done  in  the  Normal  schools  to  change  this  state  of  affairs?  It 
is  my  purpose  to  give  some  suggestions  as  to  how  this  may  be  ac- 
complished. 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  with  what  previous  preparation  the 
teacher  enters,  what  does  she  bring  in  the  way  of  previous  musical 
training?  Very,  very  little,  and  that  little  often  worse  than  none  at 
all.  Three  fourths  of  the  students  who  enter  the  music  classes  in  a 
Normal  school  have  lived  where  the  musical  advantages  were  lim- 
ited to  the  church,  Sunday  school,  and  possibly  an  occasional  term 
of  singing  school,  and  these  do  not  always  tend  toward  giving  all 
that  could  be  desired  as  to  correct  ideas  of  music  and  singing. 

As  a  general  thing,  the  Normart  schools  of  this  state  provide  for 
two  terms  of  ten  weeks  each  for  the  music  work.  Is  it  possible 
unless  entering  with  previous  training  and  ability,  to  equip  teachers 
in  that  length  of  time? 

When  so  many  of  the  schools,  more  and  more,  are  introducing 
music  as  a  part  of  the  regular  school  curriculum,  the  work  to  be  given 
by  the  regular  teacher,  without  the  assistance  of  a  supervisor,  is  it 
not  necessary  to  have  a  more  extended  course  in  music?  We  must 
remember  that  unlike  geography,  arithmetic,  reading  and  spelling, 
they  have  not  had  instruction  in  music  from  the  first  year  of  their 
school  life.  Then,  is  it  not  true  that  more  necessity  exists  for 
training  in  this  branch  since  the  average  student  has  had  more  ex- 
perience with  mathematics  than  music? 

Many  students  on  entering  classes  do  not  know  a  staff  from  a  clef, 
and  yet  we  are  expected  at  the  end  of  twenty  weeks  to  have  pre- 
pared them  to  teach  music. 

Many  students  have  expressed  their  desire  for  another  quarter  of 
music  in  the  course,  and  I  feel  confident  most  of  them  would  willing- 
ly take  all  the  instruction  in  music  that  the  required  course  of  study 
would  permit.  They,  as  well  as  we,  realize  that  in  order  to  teach 
children  to  read  notes  they  themselves  must  be  able  to  read  them. 

What  teacher,  without  being  master  of  the  subject  she  is  to  present, 
.can  teach  with  spontaneity? — and  are  not  life,  enthusiasm  and  spon- 
taneity requisites  of  music  teaching? 

Another  thing,  many  of  my  students  take  professional  music  be- 
fore taking  any  other  professional  study  and  before  they  have  had 
enough  theory, — some  before  they  have  had  any, — to  put  in  practice 
or  even  to  grasp  or  understand  the  simplest  educational  principles 
applied  to  the  teaching  of  every  subject.  This  certainly  should  not 
be,  for  the  student  works  at  a  great  disadvantage. 

I  have  found  the  necessity  of  unteaching  many  of  my  students. 
This  was  brought  forcibly  to  my  attention  a  short  time  ago.  The 
lecture  that  particular  day  had  been  upon  the  care  of  the  child  voice. 
I  had  tried  to  impress  upon  the  students  the  necessity  of  insisting 
upon  the  children  singing  sweetly  and  softly.  One  young  man  who 
had  taught  for  some  time,  and  seemed  much  interested  in  the  music 
work,  came  to  my  desk  at  the  close  of  the  recitation  and  said,  "Well, 
Miss  Heward,  I  have  learned  one  thing  today  that  I  never  knew  be- 
fore, and  that  is,  that  children  should  sing  softly.  Why,  our  insti- 


272  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

tute  conductor  has  said  to  us  time  and  time  again,  "Make  the  chil- 
•dren  sing.  Make  'em  sing  till  the  windows  rattle!"  That  one  thing, 
the  subject  of  sweet,  soft  singing,  has  to  be  forcibly  impressed  upon 
our  students,  has  to  be  told  and  retold  in  a  forceful,  convincing  way. 
It  seems  sometimes  to  me  that  I  talk  quite  as  much  about  that  one 
thing  as  everything  else  put  together,  and  yet  not  a  day  passes  in 
visiting  classes  of  practice  teachers  that  I  do  not  have  to  write: 
"The  children's  voices  are  loud  and  harsh.  You  must  insist  upon 
soft,  sweet  singing."  The  trouble  is  that  for  many  years  they  have 
been  accustomed  to  hearing  that  hard,  forced  tone  which  invariably 
is  brought  on  by  making  the  "windows  rattle."  Their  ears  are  un- 
trained to  soft,  sweet  tones.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  to  them  along 
this  line.  Make  them  realize  that  they  are  doing  the  child  a  phys- 
ical injury.  This  appeals  to  them  when  many  other  arguments  fail. 
I  know  it  is  natural  for  children  to  sing  too  loud, — they  do  so  with- 
out any  urging  from  the  teacher;  nevertheless  it  is  all  wrong  and 
the  teacher  must  be  made  to  know  this  and  to  feei  the  importance 
and  need  of  continued  watchfulness  to  secure  soft  singing. 

A  much  vexed  question  with  me  is  the  advisability  of  having  the 
students  take  charge  of  the  role  work.  I  feel  some  hesitancy  in  mak- 
ing the  confession  -that  heretofore  that  has  not  been  my  custom. 
Keeping  in  mind  "the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number,"  I  have 
not  given  any  of  that  work  to  the  practice  teachers. 

Will  you  please  give  me  your  opinion  on  this  subject?  I  know 
they  are  obliged  to  take  this  work  when  they  have  schools  of  their 
own,  and  it  seems  that  we  are  only  doing  them  justice  and  giving 
them  what  by  right  they  can  demand  in  allowing  them  some  expe- 
rience in  rote  work  before  they  leave.  But  how  can  we  intrust  the 
sweet,  pure  voices  of  our  children  to  the  untrained,  uncultivated  and 
many  times  disagreeable  and  unpleasant  voices  of  many  of  our  stu- 
dents? Ought  this  to  be  done? 

When  the  work  in  rote  singing  is  being  taught  and  discussed,  to 
show  them  the  proper  way  of  teaching  rote  songs  to  children,  a  class 
from  the  practice  school  is  taught  before  them,  the  class  observing 
the  manner  and  method  of  presenting  rote  songs.  They  are  urged 
to,  and  often  do  attend  the  chorus  practice  in  the  different  depart- 
ments, but  is  that  giving  them  all  the  work  to  which  they  are  en- 
titled? 

Quite  an  amount  of  time  is  spent  in  discussing  the  kinds  of  songs 
to  be  taught  children  and  a  list  of  books  for  the  different  grades  is 
given  them. 

Another  practice  which  must  be  forcibly  put  before  our  students 
as  an  evil  is  that  of  the  teachers  singing  with  the  children.  The 
fact  that  they  must  refrain  from  doing  this  comes  to  most  of  them, 
I  find,  as  a  revelation,  as  they  always  have  sung  with  the  children. 
And  I  ask  myself,  can  we  wonder  at  this  when  less  than  a  year  ago 
a  supervisor  of  music  from  a  Normal  school  having  listened  to  a 
chorus  practice  in  one  of  the  departments,  said  to  me:  "Don't  you 
ever  sing  with  your  children?"  And,  receiving  a  reply  in  the  negative, 
said:  "Well,  I  suppose  it  isn't  right,  but  I  do  love  to  sing  with  them,  so 
I  very  often  do.  I  suppose  it  is  wrong." 

Should  we  not  endeavor  to  make  our  pupils  realize  that  even  though 
they  may  not  possess  the  ability  to  sing  beautifully  they  may  success- 


GENERAL  METHOD  IN  MUSIC.  273 

fully  teach,  rote  singing,  so  that  one  possessing  the  requirements  for 
teaching  an  other  branch  is  capable  of  conducting  a  class  in  rote 
.singing?  I  know  this  to  be  so.  We  all  from  experience  know  it  to 
be  true.  I  am  in  favor  of  having  more  students  take  practice  work 
in  music  during  their  course  in  the  school.  I  am  not  prepared  to 
say, — have  all  take  the  work.  Here  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  choice 
and  no  one  who  says  he  cannot  teach  is  obliged  to  try.  People  learn 
by  doing,  and  this  is  the  place  for  them  to  learn.  Here  they  have 
what  they  may  never  have  elsewhere:  the  opportunity  of  teaching 
under  the  direction  of  a  trained  supervisor  who  aids  them  with  sug- 
gestions and  kindly  criticism.  Ought  they  not  to  take  advantage  of 
this?  Many  after  having  left  school  to  teach  realize  this  themselves 
and  say  to  me  upon  returning  to  the  school  to  visit:  "How  I  wish 
I  had  had  a  practice  class  in  music-when  I  was  here." 

The  question  which  comes  to  me  is  this:  Is  it  fair  to  the  Normal 
school,  to  the  teacher  of  music,  to  the  students,  to  the  school  in 
which  they  have  charge  of  the  music,  for  them  not  to  have  a  prac- 
tice class  in  music?  Were  any  of  them  certain  of  not  having  to  do 
this  work  it  would  be  quite  a  different  matter;  but  one  never  knows 
when  this  may  be  required  of  him. 

I  find  an  inexperienced  teacher  in  teaching  young  children  has 
to  be  warned  against  crowding  the  subject  matter;  the  child  mind 
refuses  to  assimilate  anything  which  it  does  not  readily  understand. 
Every  primary  teacher  knows  that  instruction  in  music,  as  in  every- 
thing else,  must  be  oft  repeated  and  thoroughly  taught. 

Quite  the  reverse  I  find  to  be  true  in  the  work  of  the  upper  grades. 
The  teacher  often  fails  to  realize  how  much  work  can  be  accomplished 
in  a  recitation  of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  provided  the  work  is 
well  planned,  the  subject  matter  well  in  hand,  the  attention  of  the 
children  held  and  time  not  occupied  in  unnecessary  talking.  In  the 
latter  an  inexperienced  teacher  is  apt  to  fail  us  in  music,  perhaps 
more  than  in  any  other  subject.  If  the  work  is  well  directed  and 
properly  planned  the  children  will  accomplish  much  with  few  direc- 
tions. 

Many  of  our  students  have  a  wrong  idea,  in  some  of  them  firmly 
rooted  and  difficult  to  change,  as  to  the  treatment  of  monotones,  be- 
lieving them  to  be  hopeless,  incapable  of  being  taught  to  sing,  a 
drawback  an;l  nuisance  to  the  class  in  general;  and  so  they  are  for- 
bidden to  take  any  active  part  in  the  work,  and  the  teacher  drops 
the  matter  there,  believing  it  to  be  utterly  useless  to  attempt  teach- 
ing them,  a  sheer  waste  of  time  and  patience.  I  have  had  them  evince 
the  greatest  surprise  when  I  have  made  the  assertion  that  they  should 
be  allowed  to  sing, — not  only  allowed,  but  encouraged  to  sing, — and 
that  as  a  rule  they  can,  with  proper  treatment,  in  a  short  time  be 
converted  and  brought  into  the  fold  of  sweet  singers. 

Should  we  not  make  a  plea  in  behalf  of  these  monotones  who,  with 
'but  very  few  exceptions,  can  with  proper  training  and  treatment  be 
taught  to  use  their  ears  and  voices? 

Should  it  not  be  a  part  of  our  work  to  impress  our  students  with 
the  power  and  magnetic  influence  of  a  teacher's  voice  over  children, 
not  alone  in  singing,  but  in  conversation  as  well?  Are  not  the  music 
-classes  the  places  where  this  work  should  be  done? 

18 


274  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Is  it  possible  to  send  pupils  from  our  classes  with  a  desire  to 
broaden  the  knowledge  there  acquired,  with  a  desire  to  teach  them- 
selves by  reading  helpful  and  suggestive  articles  in  books  and  maga- 
zines, by  availing  themselves  of  every  opportunity  of  hearing  good 
music  and  so  keeping  in  touch  with  all  progressive  teaching? 

One  more  point  before  I  close.  Would  it  not  be  well,  if  we  find  any 
in  school  particularly  endowed  with  musical  ability,  to  encourage 
them  to  specialize? 

I  have  not  been  able  in  a  paper  of  this  length,  nor  have  I  made  any 
attempt  to  treat  any  of  these  subjects  exhaustively.  It  has  been  my 
intention  to  throw  out  some  suggestions  for  discussion.  I  hope  we 
may  have  some  of  them,  if  not  all,  discussed. 


CAN    ALL    STUDENTS    BE    SO    TRAINED    AS    TO    MAKE    THEM. 
EFFECTIVE  TEACHERS  OF  SINGING? 

F.   F.   CHURCHILL,  PLATTEVILLE. 

To  this  question  my  answer  would  in  most  cases  be,  "Yes."  In 
music,  as  in  all  other  branches,  there  will  always  be  some  failures; 
but  as  a  rule  I  find  that  the  successful  grade  teacher  is  a  successful 
music  teacher  when  under  proper  supervision. 

The  idea  seems  to  prevail  in  the  minds  of  many  that  unless  one 
is  endowed  with  a  great  amount  of  natural  ability,  he  cannot  acquire 
even  a  thorough  practical  knowledge  of  music. 

However,  conclusive  evidence  of  this  error  may  be  found  by  visit- 
ing any  public  school  where  music  is  taught  according  to  correct 
methods  and  educational  principles.  It  is  true  that  natural  aptitude 
does  give  one  pupil  the  advantage  over  another;  but  no  more  so  in 
music  than  in  any  other  branch,  as  I  believe  the  proportion  of  fail- 
ures in  music  is  no  greater  than  in  language  or  mathematics. 

Of  all  the  long  list  of  studies  music  has  perhaps  received  the  least 
attention  until  very  recent  years;  but  happily  the  value  of  musical 
training  is  now  recognized  by  our  best  educators  and  is  not  only 
rapidly  gaining  the  front  rank  in  our  school  curriculum,  but  is  con- 
sidered a  necessity. 

Why  a  necessity?  Because  of  its  influence  for  good  and  for  re- 
finement with  the  boys  and  girls  of  this  nation;  for  in  no  way  can 
the  heart  of  the  child  be  reached  more  effectually  than  through  the 
medium  of  song. 

It  is  said  "that  next  to  religion  music  is  one  of  the  greatest  civil- 
izing powers." 

People  learn  music  both  as  a  science  and  as  an  art  precisely  a& 
they  do  other  things. 

If  students  are  going  to  become  effective  teachers  of  singing  in  our 
public  schools  they  must  first  have  a  systematic  course  of  instruction 
along  this  line,  and  be  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination 
the  same  as  in  other  studies. 

This,  I  think,  is  the  main  trouble:  music  has  not  been  compulsory, 
but  when  it  is,  and  school  boards  say:  "We  must  have  a  teacher 
who  knows  something  about  music  and  can  teach  it,"  you  will  find 
that  we  shall  have  more  successful  teachers  of  singing. 


TRAINING  ALL  STUDENTS  TO  TEACH  MUSIC.  275 

With  our  graded  methods  of  today  the  art  of  teaching  is  so  simpli- 
fied that  anyone  who  can  teach  a  class  to  read  from  an  ordinary  school 
reader  can  teach  them  to  red  music. 

It  is  a  wrong  idea  to  think  that  a  good  singer  is  necessarily  a  good 
teacher.  To  be  a  good  singer  is  one  thing,  and  to  be  a  good  teacher 
of  singing  is  another. 

There  are  many  who  possess  a  great  amount  of  knowledge  but 
cannot  instruct  others. 

The  grade  teacher  is  not  expected  to  do  the  singing  but  she  can 
be  trained  to  guide  the  children  in  learning  to  sing  and  read  intel- 
ligently. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  part  of  this  question:  "Will  the  time 
and  effort  necessary  to  secure  this  training  be  the  best  possible  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  effort  for  students  and  teachers?" 

If  music  is  going  to  be  taught  in  our  public  schools  simply  as  a 
means  of  recreation  and  pastime,  my  answer  would  be,  "No;"  for  if 
our  ideals  are  no  higher  than  that,  I  believe  we  would  be  wasting 
our  time. 

But  does  not  the  teaching  of  music  mean  more  than  that? 

Music  if  properly  used  becomes  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  for 
good  at  one's  command. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  blessed  of  all  of  the  gifts  of  God.  It 
has  done  much  for  the  uplifting  of  mankind. 

Did  not  music  play  a  prominent  part  in  two  of  our  late  conflicts? 
When  the  enemy  were  pressing  hard  upon  our  boys  in  blue,  and 
when  by  superior  numbers  our  lines  were  broken,  the  two  songs, 
"Rally  Round  the  Flag"  and  "Star  Spangled  Banner"  did  more  towards 
rallying  our  forces  than  all  the  threats  or  commands  of  the  officers. 
Music  is  an  important  part  of  our  life.  It  pervades  everything;  in 
fact,  no  gathering  seems  complete  without  it,  and  to  my  mind  there 
is  nothing  tnat  contributes  more  largely  to  the  present  interest  and 
needs  of  the  public  school  than  music. 

From  an  educational  standpoint  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  forces  in 
maintaining  discipline.  It  teaches  accuracy.  It  promotes  pride  and 
self-respect.  There  is  no  better  way  to  curb  our  unruly  boy  than  by 
interesting  him  in  music.  Let  us  see  what  some  of  our  foremost 
men  of  the  world  have  said  about  music. 

Plato  said:  "Music  is  a  moral  law.  It  gives  a  soul  to  the  universe, 
flight  to  the  imagination,  a  charm  to  sadness,  gayety  and  life  to  every- 
thing. It  is  the  essence  of  order  and  leads  to  all  that  is  good,  just, 
and  beautiful."  Luther  said:  "Music  is  one  of  the  best  arts.  It 
drives  away  sadness,  quickens  and  refreshes  the  heart.  It  is  half 
the  discipline,  and  makes  men  more  gentle,  more  modest  and  sens- 
ble.  A  schoolmaster  must  know  how  to  sing,  else  I  will  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  him."  Mr.  Gladstone  is  quoted  as  saying:  "They  who 
think  music  ranks  among  the  trifles  of  existence  are  in  gross  error, 
because  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  down  to  the  present  time 
it  has  been  one  of  the  most  forcible  instruments  both  for  training 
and  arousing  and  for  governing  the  spirit  of  man."  It  is  said  that 
Milton  listened  to  his  organ  for  his  most  solemn  inspirations. 

Thus  we  see  that  music  has  always  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
for  good,  and  this  question  of  who  shall  teach  it  should  be  settled 
at  once.  As  long  as  the  grade  teacher  is  not  required  to  teach  music 


276  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

you  can  rest  assured  that  she  will  not  trouble  herself  about  prepar- 
ing for  it. 

I  believe  the  time  has  come  when  music  should  be  placed  where 
it  justly  belongs,  and  that  is  on  the  same  plane  with  other  branches; 
and  we  should  require  the  grade  teacher  to  teach  it  as  she  does  other 
branches  of  study.  When  this  is  done,  I  am  sure  that  the  time  and 
effort  necessary  to  secure  this  training  will  be  the  very  best  possible 
expenditure  of  time  and  effort  for  students  and  teachers. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER. 

In  the  conference  of  music  teachers  in  the  Normal  school  institute, 
it  was  decided  to  lay  out  so  far  as  possible,  by  a  careful  application 
of  the  lour  fundamental  principles  to  the  subject  of  music,  a  course  in- 
dicating what  should  be  taught  in  music  in  the  Normal  schools.  The 
following  general  outline  was  the  result  of  the  conference: 

The  pupils  in  a  Normal  school  should  be  able — 

I.  To  correctly  interpret  the  simple  musical  page. 

II.  To  teach  the  same  to  others. 

To  correctly  interpret  the  simple  musical  page  implies 
To  know,  recognize,  interpret,  and  express: 
I.  Rhythm. 

1.  Feeling  for  rhythm  in  all  its  forms. 

2.  Recognition  of  all  the  symbols,     a.  Relative  length  of  notes  and 
rests.      b.  Metre  signatures.      c.  Measure.      d.  Bar.      e.  Double  bar. 
f.  Dot.    g.  Tie.    h.  Hold.    i.  Triplet,    j.  Terms  indicating  variations  in 
movement. 

3.  Interpretation  and  expression  of  the  foregoing. 

II.  Melodies. 

1.  a.  Should  know  major,  minor,  and  chromatic  scales,  b.  Intervals. 
c.  Part  singing. 

2.  Recognize  and  interpret  use  of — a.  Staff,     b.  Cleff.     c.  Key  signa- 
ture,    d.  Accidentals. 

III.  Expression. 

1.  Expression    gained    mainly    in    teacher's    practice    by    appeal    of 
teacher  to  emotional  side  of  pupils. 

2.  Must  recognize  marks  of  expression. 

To  teach  the  foregoing  to  others,  the  pupil  teacher  must  know — 

1.  The  subject  matter. 

2.  Must  know  what  to  teach  as  determined  by  the  four  fundamental 
principles  in  their  application  to  the  subject  matter. 

3.  Must  know  the  how,  or  the  psychological  principles  underlying 
all  teaching  and  especially  as  applied  to  music. 

4.  Must  be  able  to  present  the  subject  to  the  pupils  by  means  of  right 
amount  of  testing,  teaching,  and  drilling. 

The  following  principles  are  the  most  important  in  their  application 
to  the  teaching  of  music — 

1.  The  teacher  must  meet  physical  conditions — body  and  mind  must 
be  in  partnership. 

2.  The  teacher  must  realize  that  the  pupil  gains  the  raw  material  of 
knowledge  through  senses, — hearing  and   sight  mainly  concerned   in 
music, — quickness,  accuracy,  and  discrimination  sought  for. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     277 

3.  All  new  knowledge  is  gained  by  means  of  knowledge  already  in 
the  mind. 

4.  The  logical  order  of  learning:     From  percept  to  concept;   from 
simple  to  complex;  from  the  thing  to  the  symbol. 

5.  All  knowledge  comes  from  self-activity. 

6.  The  first  steps  of  any  art  must  be  learned  through  imitation. 

7.  The    underlying    principles    of    drill — repetition    with    attention. 
Any  drill  exercise  is  worthless  which  does  not  secure  attention  and 
best  efforts. 

8.  Learn  to  sing  by  singing. 

9.  Principles  of  attention,  principles  of  interest,  principles  of  apper- 
ception. 

IV.  There  must  be  a  certain  amount  of  practice  work,  putting  these 
principles  into  practical  application,,.. 

The  foregoing  course  was  carefully  discussed,  step  by  step.  The  out- 
line shows  the  result  of  the  discussion  and  the  best  judgment  of  the 
majority.  There  was  a  general  feeling  that  better  results  could  be  ob- 
tained if  more  time  were  devoted  to  the  subject  of  music.  At  the  same 
time  the  preponderance  of  opinion  was  that  it  was  not  a  question  of 
more  time,  but  a  better  use  of  the  time  already  allowed.  It  was  ad- 
mitted that  by  a  careful  application  of  the  four  fundamental  princi- 
ples to  the  subject  of  music,  some  things  now  taught  in  the  Normal 
schoo'ls  could  be  eliminated. 

It  was  agreed  to  give  the  foregoing  course  a  fair  trial,  and  at  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  in  1901  to  meet  for  further  consultation, 
and  to  report  on  the  results  obtained.  Miss  Grace  Heward  of  the  Osh- 
kosh  Normal  school,  was  elected  chairman  for  that  meeting. 

MAE  E.  SCHREIBER. 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING. 

Leader,  W.  H.  CHEEVER,  Milwaukee. 


PURPOSE,   SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAIN- 
ING IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

LORRAINE  TRUESDELL,  River  Falls. 

That  the  student  body  of  any  school  will  be  characterized  by  special 
deficiencies  resulting  from  nationality,  environment,  occupation,  and, 
in  short,  all  those  influences  and  conditions  which  might  be  summed 
up  as  "Nature's  legacy,"  it  is  needless  to  affirm.  These  deficiencies, 
of  course,  imply  special  physical  needs,  and  in  a  Normal  school  it 
should  be  the  work  of  the  department  of  Physical  training  to  con- 
sider these  physical  needs  rather  than  the  pedagogical  equipment 
of  the  student. 

In  our  own  institution,  which  draws  chiefly  from  the  rural  districts 
and  smaller  towns,  the  typical  student  of  either  sex  when  he  pre- 
sents himself  is  of  robust  health,  with  such  faults  of  manner  and 
bearing  as  are  incident  to  youth,  or  resultant  from  a  quiet  life  and 
unfamiliarity  with  social  forms.  Though  having  undergone  some 


I 

278  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

changes  since  the  first  years  of  my  experience,  my  purpose  as  re- 
gards this  typical  student  is  as  stated  below: 

First,  to  place  within  his  reach  the  means  of  physical  culture; 
that  is,  physical  work  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  corrective  and 
educative  to  the  body  without  calling  to  the  attention  of  the  indi- 
vidual too  noticeably  defects  such  as  are  revealed  only  by  test  and 
measurement.  The  body  should  be  educated  into  subjection,  and 
so  far  as  possible  trained  into  obscurity,  the  end  being, — though,  alas, 
often  theoretical  rather  than  actual, — that  through  our  effort  in  his 
behalf  our  typical  student  shall  be  characterized  by  self-possession 
rather  than  self-consciousness,  elasticity  rather  than  heaviness  of 
movement,  suppleness  instead  of  stiffness,  self-control  rather  than 
nervousness,  repose  rather  than  restlessness,  and  ease  of  bearing 
under  all  circumstances  rather  than  awkwardness;  and  with  the  re- 
moval of  these  hindrances  should  result  a  natural,  alert  responsive- 
ness, with  ready  powers  of  expression,  because  the  body  serves  as  it 
should  in  the  capacity  of  "obedient  servant  of  the  mind." 

Second,  to  furnish  through  the  years  of  mental  application  a  means 
to  the  maintenance  of  health  by  placing  the  student  regularly  un- 
der conditions  where  the  body  is  released  from  the  pressure  of  con- 
ventional dress,  the  limbs  are  given  perfect  freedom,  and  attention 
is  called  to  correct  adjustment  of  all  parts  of  the  body  as  a  founda- 
tion of  health.  That  under  supervision  he  may  be  led  to  take  such 
exercise  as  shall  tend  to  health  of  muscle  and  increased  vigor  in  the 
discharge  of  all  the  natural  functions  of  the  body. 

Third,  to  increase  mental  vigor,  that  the  reflex  influence  of  the 
work  in  the  gymnasium  may  be  felt  in  every  department  of  the 
school.  That  through  the  development  of  the  muscular  co-ordina- 
tion, calling  for  the  exercise  of  the  powers  of  attention,  discrimina- 
tion, inhibition,  will  and  execution,  a  corresponding  mental  develop- 
ment results  is  easily  demonstrable  even  to  those  unfamiliar  with 
the  verdicts  of  expermental  phychologists.  Observation  bears  out 
the  statement  that  a  person  lacking  in  muscular  control  and  co- 
ordination, also  lacks  mental  power,  and  as  his  skill  in  the  execu- 
tion of  complex  physical  exercises  increases,  he  also  displays  increased 
intellectual  keenness. 

Fourth,  that  through  inclement  weather  and  all  seasons  a  ground 
may  be  available  for  recreation,  where  such  games  should  be  taught, 
supervised  and  encouraged  as  shall  employ  the  greatest  number  of 
players,  and  shall  stimulate  the  dull,  slow,  phlegmatic  student  to 
alertness,  ready  decision  and  self-forgetfulness.  I  believe  that  the 
practice  of  organizing  and  encouraging  the  picked  basket  ball  teams  to 
go  out  of  the  institution  and  compete  in  physical  prowess  with  teams 
of  like  calibre  should  be  confined  to  the  male  portion  of  the  school, 
and  that  much  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  preliminary  practice 
does  not  result  in  the  monopoly  of  the  gymnasium  to  the  entire  ex- 
clusion of  those  most  in  need  of  the  healthful  stimulus  of  friendly 
competition. 

Ladies'  basket  ball  matches  outside  of  the  school  are  eschewed  on 
the  ground  that  such  contests  tend  to  foster  indelicacy  rather  than  to 
contribute  to  refinement  or  general  culture,  it  being  in  my  opinion 
absolutely  without  elevating  or  educational  influence  and  implying  a 
misconception  of  the  prime  purpose  of  physical  training  in  a  Normal 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     279 

school  which  should  be  to  fit  for  competition  in  the  intellectual,  rather 
than  for  combat  in  the  athletic  field. 

Fifth,  to  add  to  the  professional  efficiency  of  the  student.  At  the 
present  time  a  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  of  some  standard 
system  of  physical  training  being  essential  to  the  equipment  of  every 
teacher,  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  a  Normal  school  to  fur- 
nish such  equipment,  but  when  we  consider  that  few  will  use  gym- 
nastics without  supervision,  or  for  a  short  time  each  day  for  recreative 
and  corrective  effects,  we  must  conclude  that  it  is  not  wise  to  at- 
tempt to  prepare  thoroughly  in  the  theory  of  physical  training."  The 
ability  to  correct  posture,  a  general  idea  of  the  means  to  be  used,  the 
skill  to  outline  a  day's  order  and  command  a  lesson  clearly,  being 
about  the  maximum  of  equipment  for  the  average  student. 

Scope  of  work  in  the  Model  Grades. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  most  important  that  we  consider  the  ma- 
terial, the  end,  and  the  method  of  attaining  that  end,  and  in  arranging 
work  for  the  Model  grades  the  determining  factor  is  the  age  of  the 
child  and  the  demand  of  his  particular  growth  period. 

The  work  begins  in  the  kindergarten  with  a  systematic  effort  to  de- 
velop the  sense  of  rhythm  by  simple  exercises  of  motion. 

In  the  primary  grade  in  accordance  with  the  positive  demand  of 
the  growing  muscles  for  exercise,  animating,  restful  movements  are 
used  to  counteract  the  effect  of  compulsory  sitting.  When  possible 
the  work  of  the  Model  grades  is  performed  with  musical  accompani- 
ment. 

In  the  intermediate  grade  the  exercises  must  again  be  in  accord 
with  the  demand  incident  to  growth,  such  as  tend  to  good  carriage 
and  ease  of  bearing,  also  contests  and  games  involving  skill  and  ac- 
tivity. 

According  to  Dr.  Krohn  the  period  of  greatest  possibilities  in  physi- 
cal development  is  from  fourteen  to  twenty  years  of  age.  The  great 
need  of  exercise  during  this  period  is  for  the  purpose  of  inciting 
strong  activity  of  heart  and  lungs  and  to  be  of  any  real  benefit  must 
conduce  to  the  increase  of  skill,  daring,  and  courage. 

Scope  of  work  in  the  Normal  school. 

The  requirement  of  the  department  is  that  a  student  shall  complete 
a  course  of  one  year  before  graduation.  Credit  for  the  maximum  of 
required  work  however  does  not  excuse  from  further  work  in  the 
gymnasium.  For  two  years  we  have  through  the  winter  terms  made 
physical  training  compulsory  for  all  except  those  excused  for  special 
reasons,  but  as  the  number  of  students  in  attendance  is  constantly  on 
the  increase  the  result  of  this  plan  is  so  large  an  enrollment  in 
classes  that  our  small  dressing  rooms  are  entirely  inadequate  for  the 
wardrobing  of  the  number  of  suits,  to  say  nothing  of  the  entire  lack 
of  facilities  for  caring  suitably  for  the  articles  of  apparel  which  every 
lady  must  reckon  in  a  day's  attire. 

Another  obstacle  lies  in  the  fact  that  ordinary  janitor  service  is 
inadequate  to  the  proper  care  of  a  room  where  two  hundred  and  fifty 
persons  exercise  daily,  and  where  mats  which  take  and  retain  dust 
are  brought  into  frequent  use.  Though  the  nightly  sweeping  with 
damp  sawdust  reduces  somewhat  the  surface  accumulation  of  dust,  un- 
less the  floor  is  often  thoroughly  scrubbed,  and  the  mattresses  vigor- 
ously beaten  whenever  used,  there  is  enough  dead  and  harmful  mat- 


280  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ter  left  in  accumulation  to  be  stirred  into  circulation  by  the  move- 
ment of  many  feet  to  be  very  harmful  to  the  throat  and  lungs  of 
those  who  inhale  it,  and  more  than  ordinarily  harmful  under  conditions 
where  respiration  is  increased  by  active  exercise. 

Furthermore,  a  large  percentage  of  the  student  body  is  transient, 
the  attendance  of  those  who  complete  the  Normal  school  course  usu- 
ally being  intermittent.  This  irregularity  not  only  interferes  with, 
the  grading  of  the  work,  but  with  other  adverse  conditions  render  it 
impossible  to  furnish  positive  proof  of  the  really  wonderful  results 
that  may  be  brought  about  under  conditions  favorable  to  proper  grad- 
ing, regularity  and  continuity  of  the  work  throughout  the  entire  school 
life. 

Plan  of  work. 

That  the  work  may  be  so  varied  as  to  prevent  its  becoming  monoto- 
nous and  that  interest  may  be  sustained,  it  should  include,  in  limita- 
tion, all  of  the  more  refined  forms  of  physical  exercise  which  would 
be  comprehended  in  an  extensive  course  in  physical  training:  gym- 
nasium tactics;  corrective  exercises  according  to  the  Swedish  sys- 
tem; dancing  steps;  and  much  rhythmical  work. 

According  to  progression  hand  apparatus  should  be  used;  clubs, 
dumb-bells,  wands,  hoops,  rings,  etc.,  in  as  systematic  order  as  the 
uneven  grading  will  permit.  Through  the  colder  months  when  out-of- 
door  exercise  is  impossible,  heavy  apparatus  should  be  brought  into 
requisition  for  men's  classes,  but  should  be  used  with  much  caution 
by  young  women.  Somewhere  should  be  introduced  for  women  a 
course  in  Delsarte  and  what  may  be  termed  aesthetic  gymnastics. 

The  conditions  which  surround  the  work  in  a  Normal  school  have 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  time  spent  in  making  physical  examination 
and  in  administerng  tests  which  reveal  and  emphasize  physical  defects 
and  weaknesses,  does  not  contribute  to  the  physical  welfare  of  an 
already  morbidly  self-conscious  person.  One  in  need  of  special 
physical  prescription  is  out  of  place  in  a  Normal  school.  The  state 
requires  that  any  person  admitted  must  be  of  sound  bodily  health,  and 
a  person  in  need  of  medical  gymnastics  would  not  belong  in  that 
category.  Would  not  the  results  be  immeasurably  better  if  money 
expended  in  the  purchase  of  expensive  anthropometric  instruments 
were  used  in  employing  a  competent  pianist  for  a  day  or  two  each 
week  to  furnish  music  for  rhythmical  gymnastics?  The  feature  of 
good  music  contributes  more  than  any  other  toward  sustaining  in- 
terest in  the  work  of  the  gymnasium,  and  the  tonic  effects  upon  the 
nervous  system  of  rhythmical  movements,  is  unquestioned. 

Would  we  not  better  look  at  existing  conditions  reasonably  and 
work  for  results  within  the  range  of  possibilities?  That  system  has 
not  been  founded  which  will  counteract  or  overcome  entirely  the  ef- 
fects of  heredity,  occupation,  etc.  The  question  which  may  fairly  test 
the  efficacy  of  physical  training  is,  does  it  not  raise  to  a  higher  plane 
mentany,  morally,  and  physically?  Was  not  Socrates  right  when  he 
said — "It  is  disgraceful  that  any  one  through  want  of  attention  to 
these  matters  should  grow  old  without  seeing  what  kind  of  a  man  he 
may  become  by  making  his  body  as  well  developed  and  robust  as 
possible,  and  this  no  one  can  do  who  does  not  pay  proper  attention 
to  these  matters,  for  they  do  not  come  of  their  own  accord  and  un- 
sought." 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     281 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 
IN  A  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

JULIET  V.  YEAKLE,  Superior. 

Purpose:  (a)  Educational  value,  (b)  To  help  the  student  keep 
and  acquire  a  sufficiently  well-developed  body  to  withstand  the  strain 
of  both  mental  and  physical  work,  (c)  To  give  the  student  a  work- 
ing knowledge  of  gymnastics. 

(a)  Educational  value:  — 

It  is  certain  that  no  one  more  than  the  physician  or  the  physical 
educator  is  impressed  with  the  close  relationship  existing  between 
mind  and  body,  the  mind  influencing  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  body  and  the  body  determining*' conditions  of  the  mind;  the  mind 
acting  as  an  intelligent  guide,  influencing  the  sensations,  the  move- 
ments, and  the  organic  functions  of  the  human  body;  while  the  body, 
through  well-directed  and  orderly  muscular  movements,  aids  in  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  constitution  and  condition  of  the 
motor  brain  centers. 

Through  the  cultivation  of  right  motor-habits  we  come  to  possess 
greater  accuracy,  less  fatigue,  and  an  economy  of  human  action. 

The  organism  that  is  well-trained  can  adjust  itself  to  every  possible 
condition  bf  action  and  circumstance;  power  for  self-direction  and 
self-control  is  developed  through  the  strengthening  of  the  will;  the 
individual  learns  to  inhibit  or  control  energy,  to  concentrate  his  at- 
tention for  strong  action  which  is  to  follow.  All  of  which  is  of  vast 
importance  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the  educational  value  brought 
about  through  physical  training. 

The  educational  value  of  systematized  muscular  exercise  is  now  de- 
manding a  larger  recognition  than  ever  before,  and  when  our  edu- 
cators, instructors,  and  trainers  arrive  at  a  further  realization  of  the 
beneficial  effects  to  the  mind  through  bodily  exercise,  then  will  our 
pupils  be  brought  nearer  to  the  acquirement  of  a  well-developed  body 
which  can  withstand  the  strain  of  both  mental  and  physical  work. 

The  late  Du  Bois  Reymond,  for  many  years  professor  of  physiology 
in  the  University  of  Berlin,  said, — "Man  is  adapted  to  self-improve- 
ment by  means  of  exercise.  It  makes  his  muscles  stronger  and  more 
enduring;  his  skin  becomes  fortified  against  all  injury;  through  ex- 
ercise his  limbs  become  flexible  and  his  glands  more  productive;  it 
fits  his  central  nervous  system  for  the  most  complicated  functions; 
it  sharpens  his  senses;  and  by  it  his  mind,  reacting  upon  itself,  is  en- 
abled to  augment  its  own  elasticity  and  versatility." 

It  is  very  evident  that  mental  health  and  power  are  developed 
through  muscular  exercise;  for  this  involves  motor-acts — voluntary 
muscular  movements — which  are  controlled  and  animated  by  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system;  and  we  know  that  our  motor-acts,  however  small, 
are  the,  result  of  volition,  judgment,  and  feeling. 

(b)  To  help  the  student  keep  and  acquire  a  sufficiently  well-devel- 
open  body  to  withstand  the  strain  of  both  mental  and  physical  work. 

Keeping  well  in  mind  the  educative  means  of  physical  training,  we 
come  more  fully  to  a  realization  and  a  recognition  of  the  hygienic  and 
corrective  ends,  the  strengthening  and  developing  of  the  whole  mus~ 


282  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

cular  system,  the  stimulatng  of  the  functonal  activities,  the  correc- 
tion and  prevention  of  tendencies  toward  abnormal  development,  and 
the  grand  result, — the  entire  body  developed  into  a  harmonious  whole 
under  the  perfect  control  of  the  will. 

Where  could  we  find  in  the  realm  of  argument  and  of  reason  a  more 
desirable  and  convincing  basis  upon  which  to  build  the  structure  of  a 
sound  and  thorough  education,  and  for  raising  this  branch  to  the 
dignity  and  privileges  of  a  co-ordinate  department  of  education? 

No  one  is  disposed  to  deny  the  efficacy  of  muscular  exercise  to  pro- 
mote general  bodily  health  and  vigor,  and  one  is  readily  convinced 
that  the  mind, — the  functioning  of  the  brain, — shares  largely  the  good 
results  obtained  through  this  muscular  effort.  . 

He  who  would  have  health,  would  have  exercise,  would  have  his 
whole  muscular  system  strengthened  and  developed,  would  recognize 
the  value  that  such  training  properly  conducted  has  upon  the  stimu- 
lating of  the  functional  activities,  not  only  of  every  group  of  muscles 
in  the  body,  but  of  every  organ.  Realizing  his  limitations,  found  not 
only  inherent  in  weak  organs,  in  weak  muscles,  and  in  inability  to 
correctly  co-ordinate  at  first  even  simple  movements,  he  would  seek 
for  causes  and  find  them  the  outcome  of  bad  and  awkward  motor- 
habits  which  had  grown  out  of  faulty  positions  in  sitting,  standing,  and 
in  walking;  thus,  being  awakened  to  the  full  consciousness  of  his  needs, 
his  deficiencies  would  present  themselves  more  in  the  light  of  actual 
deformities,  and  he  would  endeavor  to  correct  the  stooped  or  round 
shoulders,  or  the  curvature  of  the  spine.  He  would  see  himself  in  a 
clearer,  keener,  brighter  light,  and  this  would  add  new  interest  to 
the  otherwise  dull  or  mechanical  feature  formerly  associated  with 
"movements." 

Exercise  is  necessarily  monotonous  to  the  man  who  has  but  few 
muscles  to  use,  few  movements  to  make,  and  therefore  he  is  not  in- 
clined to  seek  exercise  where  he  lacks  volitional  control  of  many 
movements.  In  his  eager  pursuit  of  knowledge  to  be  obtained  from 
books,  with  his  time  limited  and  the  demands  upon  his  pocketbook 
great,  with  a  loss  of  the  natural  desire  and  love  for  movement  which 
he  felt  to  be  a  part  of  his  life  when  a  child,  he  is  apt  to  look  upon  the 
time  absorbed  from  his  dail  curriculum  as  a  loss,  if  spent  upon  a 
thing  he  can  obtain  incidentally.  He  argues  he  gets  enough  exercise 
coming  and  going  from  school,  in  walking  from  room  to  room  and  in 
going  up  and  down  the  stairs. 

Had  physical  training  been  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  from  which 
he  passed  from  grade  to  grade,  had  it  been  an  integral  and  necessary 
branch,  placed  upon  the  same  basis  as  the  "good,  poor  and  indifferent" 
work  of  his  mental  requirements,  which  formed  the  sole  purpose  of 
his  school-life,  he  would  not  have  arrived  at  his  twenty  years  with  an 
awkward  gait  or  hollow  chest,  health  impaired,  physically  lazy  and 
wholly  insensitive  to  the  demands  of  his  health,  and  disinclined  to 
take  even  the  moderate  amount  of  exercise  which  is  necessary  to  its 
maintenance. 

Such  a  mental  and  physical  state  in  th.e  form  of  a  "Normal  student" 
— especially  of  our  girls — presents  itself  as  a  problem  to  the  director 
of  physical  training. 

Not  all  are  of  this  weak,  indifferent  type;  there  is  the  healthy,  well- 
developed,  enthusiastic  girl,  who  has  always  had  much  physical  free- 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     283 

dom;  who  has,  consequently,  not  lost  her  natural  love  for  movement; 
and  who  has,  therefore,  never  been  sick;  she  has  .rowed,  played  tennis, 
golf,  and  basket-ball,  and  is  ready  and  anxious  to  demonstrate  her 
skill  in  the  gymnasium. 

But,  alack  and  alas!  she  drills  in  the  same  class  with  the  girl  who 
shows  the  opposite  tendencies  in  every  way;  whose  disapproval  of 
gymnastics  is  very  evident.  She  does  not  look  well  nor  strong,  and 
there  is  a  lack  of  interest  shown  by  the  very  expression  of  the  eye  and 
face.  She  has  a  headache  and  she  does  not  know  why.  Her  back 
aches  and  she  knows  less  about  that,  feeling  sure  that  all  that  is  to 
follow  will  only  add  to  her  discomfort.  If  she  can  make  up  or  con- 
jure the  slightest  excuse  with  a  plausible  ring,  she  is  most  content 
indeed. 

The  education  of  this  would-be  J:eacher, — the  Normal  graduate, — is 
evidently  very  deficient;  not  being  in  sympathy  with  this  branch  of 
instruction  in  the  Normal  school,  such  will  be  her  attitude  toward  the 
subject  afterwards.  She  will  have  before  her  only  the  improvement 
of  the  child's  mind;  and,  if  the  employment  of  physical  exercises  is 
left  to  her  discretion,  she  will  be  rather  inclined  to  leave  them  out  of 
the  daily  program. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  one  possessing  a  weak  constitution,  or 
functional  or  organic  derangement,  should  not  become  a  teacher  of 
the  young.  Her  weakness,  showing  itself  upon  feature  and  form,  hav- 
ing its  effect  upon  her  disposition  and  general  health,  must  have  its 
reaction  upon  the  members  of  her  class. 

She  looks  blank,  both  feature  and  form;  to  the  quick,  discerning  eye 
of  the  child  she  stands  without  a  message, — she  has  no  message  to 
convey  to  him  just  as  long  as  she  stands  there  hollow-chested,  pale 
and  inanimate,  putting  her  questions  in  a  weak  or  discordant  voice. 

Until  she  learns  how  to  stand,  and  to  do  so  possessed  of  healthy 
organs,  strong  and  enduring  muscles,  a  pleasant  look  upon  her  face, 
her  nervous  organism  well  under  control,  her  motor-habits  well-regu- 
lated 'and  showing  an  economy  of  muscular  force  and  action  in  grace- 
ful movements,  she  will  not  only  fail  to  gain  the  respect  of  her  class 
but  may  hold  herself  responsible  for  the  bad  reactionary  influence  her 
physique  has  had  upon  them. 

Emerson  says: — "How  can  I  hear  what  you  say  when  what  you  are 
is  thundering  in  my  ears?"  Another  writer  tells  us, — "The  tell-tale 
body  is  all  tongues."  And  Martha  Fleming  on  the  "Expressive  use  of 
the  body"  writes, — "Imitation  is  a  potent  factor  in  education,  and  ac- 
tion is  one  of  the  first  things  imitated.  Action  seen  in  the  body  of 
another  is  the  kind  of  stimulus  which  most  readily  produces  imitation. 
Gesture  is  truth  to  the  child.  He  does  not  hear  what  you  say;  he  sees 
what  you  do.  The  teacher's  habits  of  sitting,  standing,  walking, 
breathing,  habits  of  speech,  quality  and  use  of  voice  are  imitated  by 
the  child  and  become  permanent.  You  may  tell  a  child  to  sit  up,  to 
stand  up,  or  walk  erect,  but  if  you  do  not  sit  up,  stand  up,  or  walk 
erect  yourself,  your  precepts  fall  upon  deaf  ears." 

With  this  thought  in  mind,  I  believe,  as  far  as  possible,  such  stu- 
dents as  are  unable  to  take  part  in  the  program  of  gymnastic  work 
and  must  present  a  doctor's  certificate  of  inability,  should  be  excluded 
from  the  school.  The  work  there  is  not  for  them.  But,  to  one  who 
has  no  organic  trouble,  whose  muscular  organism  is  somewhat  de- 


284  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

pleted,  who  would  improve  under  influence  of  corrective  gymnastics, 
and  who  may  need  some  individual  attention,  including  the  usual  thor- 
ough examination  and  measurements  that  are  taken,  upon  such  a  one 
our  gymnastic  efforts  may  be  well  spent. 

The  instructor  should  be  the  confidante  of  the  student  and  advise 
her  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  her  personal  hygiene  and  health. 
There  should  be  such  an  intimacy  existing  between  them  that  the 
student  would  not  hesitate  to  seek  her  advice  upon  all  matters  of 
health,  especially  where  a  doubt  remains  as  to  the  advisability  of  the 
exercise. 

The  fnstructor  should  observe  closely  the  effect  of  the  exercise,  and 
not  only  watch  for  the  good  results  but  keep  in  mind  the  differences 
existing  in  constitution,  temperament,  ability,  nervous  organism  and 
general  control,  hereditary  tendencies  and  the  like,  which  make  up 
the  working  element  of  her  class,  noting  the  idiosyncrasies  of  each 
pupil.  She  should  know  the  number  of  studies  pursued  by  each  stu- 
dent and  see  that  she  is  physically  able  to  undertake  and  carry  out 
daily  such  a  program. 

(c)   To  give  the  student  a  working  knowledge  of  gymnastics. 

The  main  purpose  of  all  Normal  teaching  is  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  possible  teaching  power.  Each  department  works  with  greater 
success  when  the  co-operation  of  all  the  other  departments  is  in  evi- 
dence, when  it  has  full  recognition  and  advantages  of  equal  rank  with 
all  the  other  departments. 

Gymnastics,  like  any  other  branch,  involves  certain  theories  and 
methods,  and  the  student  should  not  leave  the  Normal  as  a  graduate 
without  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  aims  and  value  of  physical  train- 
ing. She  should  have  a  general  idea  of  the  means  to  be  used,  and  be 
able  to  show  an  intelligent  use  of  her  knowledge  by  practice  work  in 
the  school. 

It  is  certain  that  every  student  who  leaves  the  Normal  school  will 
not  engage  in  gymnastic  work  to  any  great  extent,  at  least,  not  with- 
out supervision,  but  every  teacher  should  be  trained  and  qualified  to 
teach  at  least  sucfi  physical  exercises  as  may  be  practiced  in  the 
schoolroom.  She  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health, 
hygiene  of  the  schoolroom  and  such  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  of 
gymnastics  as  is  absolutely  necessary  to  aid  in  a  practical  way. 

Scope: — 

We  find  that  muscular  exercise  is  used  for  various  purposes;  some 
resorting  to  its  use  merely  as  recreative,  others  as  educative  and  still 
others  as  a  corrective;  one  may  hold  each  and  all  of  these  purposes 
in  mind  and  combine  them  to  their  good;  but  the  motor  element  is 
the  means  employed,  and  the  end  sought  is  generally  so  far  reaching 
in  its  results  as  to  lay  the  foundation  for  a  healthier  mental  training 
through  a  sounder  bodily  training. 

We  find  various  forms  of  motor-activity  which,  if  included  under 
the  head  of  physical  training,  would  represent  more  of  the  specialized 
form.  The  introduction  of  the  military  drill,  manual  training,  and  of 
sloyd,  into  many  of  the  city  schools  has  been  the  means  of  developing 
physical  training  of  a  more  general  nature. 

Where  one  has  participated  for  any  length  of  time  in  any  one  line 
of  motor  activity,  the  result  has  been  disastrous,  and  such  should  not 
be  substituted  for  the  more  thorough-going  and  far-reaching  results  ob- 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     285 

tained  from  exercise  for  a  more  general  nature.  That  is  to  say,  gym- 
nastics, including  athletics,  should  be  practiced  as  well  as  the  manual 
training,  sloyd,  military  drill,  or  any  other  form  of  motor  activity  em- 
ployed in  a  special  or  professional  sense,  as  that  of  the  actor,  fencer, 
musician,  the  wood-chopper,  the  plowman,  or  certain  lines  of  work 
within  the  domain  of  the  housekeeper;  for  reason  and  experience  teach 
us  that  the  specialized  work  tends  to  produce  awkwardness  and  de- 
formity. 

Play,  of  itself,  forming  as  large  a  part  of  our  school-life  as  it  does, 
could  not  be  a  substitute  for  corrective  work  in  the  gymnasium. 
Play  is  apt  to  accentuate  the  deformity,  for  the  child  naturally  favors 
the  use  of  the  strong  muscles.  Yet  play  is  held  by  some  to  correct 
the  physiological  faults  resulting  from  schoolroom  work.  Is  this  so? 
and  to  what  extent?  *.. 

We  do  not  wish  to  gainsay  what  our  observations  and  those  of 
others  have  taught,  that  play  is  educative  to  the  child,  to  the  youth, 
to  anyone  when  rightly  participated  in.  I  thoroughly  agree  with  Dr. 
Fitz,  that  through  play  we  come  to  realize  a  better  preparation  for 
life.  He  says: — "In  play  the  child  is  the  unit  of  force;  he  initiates 
his  own  conditions.  His  limitations  are  self-imposed.  His  self-control 
lies  in  execution  rather  than  in  inhibition.  He  is  concerned  with  self- 
expression  rather  than  with  self-represson.  Play  thus  relates  itself 
to  the  truest  conception  of  education,  the  development  of  power,  the 
power  of  the  individual  to  act  as  a  self-directed  unit  in  civilization. 
The  self-control  gained  by  play  acts  immediately,  strongly,  and  hon- 
estly in  response  to  conditions  as  they  are  presented  in  life." 

The  child  must  be  busy,  and  if  something  is  not  planned  for  him  to 
<io  he  finds  his  amusement  in  the  resources  at  hand.  Experiment  has 
proven  that  much  of  the  energy  and  vital  force  expended  by  children 
in  an  immoral  or  destructive  way  upon  the  street,  when  turned  into  a 
public  playground  or  gymnasium  where  the  child  may  indulge  to  his 
heart's  content  in  building  and  in  tearing  down,  in  climbing,  jumping, 
running,  playing  games,  or  in  bathing  and  swimming,  the  discipline 
and  the  order  of  the  youngsters  when  upon  the  street  is  not  only  bet- 
ter but  the  child  himself  is  morally  and  physically  stronger. 

In  a  general  way  I  have  tried  to  cover  the  scope  of  this  work.  Its 
influence,  its  effects,  its  results,  its  field  of  work  and  its  principles 
cover  over  so  wide  a  range  it  is  difficult  to  define  the  limit. 

Plan:  — 

(a)  A  wiser  adjustment  of  program  to  the  best  working  hours. 
This   should   be   striven   for   and   arranged   as   nearly   as   possible. 

There  should  be  at  least  no  work  done  immediately  following  the  noon 
recess.  I  have  obtained  the  best  results  between  eleven  and  twelve, 
and  immediately  after  school,  or  the  period  just  before  dismissal. 

(b)  The  employment  of  such  methods  as  are  natural  and  appro- 
priate to  the  age,  sex,  and  individual  peculiarities. 

These  three  points,  age,  sex,  and  individual  peculiarities,  should  re- 
ceive more  or  less  consideration;  according  to  the  age  in  the  lower 
grades,  and  according  to  sex  and  individual  peculiarities  in  the  upper 
grades  and  Normal  department. 

In  the  lower  grades, — first  to  sixth, — begin  with  exercises  which  de- 
mand the  use  of  large  groups  of  muscles  with  very  simple  combina- 
tions; later,  expect  greater  accuracy  in  execution  with  more  difficult 


286  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

problems  in  co-ordination.  Sense-training  through  games  which  test 
the  sight,  hearing,  or  feeling.  Later  exercises  for  endurance,  skill, 
alertness;  plays  requiring  definite  actions,  especially  where  one  of 
several  actions  must  be  quickly  decided  upon. 

Systematic  marching,  and  running  with  exercises  given  to  improve 
volitional  control. 

In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  begin  work  upon  the  apparatus. 

The  work  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  distinguished  largely 
by  sex. 

The  boys  of  these  grades  seem  to  desire  to  work  for  strength,  with 
an  admixture  of  skill.  Quite  a  great  deal  of  apparatus  (heavy)  work 
may  be  used  in  the  boy's  classes,  but  the  progression  should  be  steady 
and  gradual,  never  to  the  point  of  fatigue.  Walking,  running,  breath- 
ing exercises,  and  exercises  witn  the  lighter  apparatus  should  form  the 
general  program  for  the  rest  of  their  work,  including  games  which  re- 
quire quick  definite  action  and  skill. 

The  girls  of  these  grades  should  be  given  the  lighter,  more  fanciful 
exercises  with  systematic  marching  and  running,  demanding  a  definite 
purpose. 

The  sexes  of  the  Normal  department  should  drill  in  separate  classes, 
as  their  work  differs  greatly.  Both  should  be  so  clad  as  to  allow 
absolute  freedom,  with  no  constriction  of  neck  or  waist,  the  collar  be- 
ing low  and  stays  left  off. 

I  am  inclined  to  favor  a  large  share  of  recreative  work  for  Normal 
students,  especially  for  the  girls;  for  the  student  has  been  under  a 
great  strain  of  attention  and  is  already  taxed  by  mental  work,  and  the 
very  fact  of  this  conscious  exercise  of  the  will  is  fatiguing;  to  apply  it 
further  would  partially  defeat  our  object.  For  this  reason  the  work 
should  be  planned  below  the  school  mental  intelligence. 

Normal  students  are  inclined  to  take  all  their  work  too  seriously; 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  make  the  gymnasium  a  place  where,  in 
coming,  they  are  led  to  forget  the  "all-important"  duties  which  engage 
the  majority  of  their  time  as  students.  The  instructor  herself  should 
not  fail  to  infuse  into  her  work  a  personal  element  of  interest  and  en- 
thusiasm. The  students  soon  catch  this  spirit  and  carry  it  away  with 
them. 

Under  the  head  of  "individual  peculiarities"  we  may  place  anthropo- 
metric  measurements,  obtaining  through  this  means  some  of  the  in- 
dividual and  personal  needs  of  the  student.  Not  only  should  each 
Normal  student  of  both  sexes  undergo  a  physical  examination,  but 
the  grades  as  well,  the  measurements  to  be  taken  twice  in  a  year  and 
plotted  upon  charts  for  that  purpose.  Each  student  should  be  given 
her  chart  and  where  necessary  individual  and  special  exercises  are 
given. 

It  is  not  a  difficult  task  to  interest  the  grades  in  this  part  of  the 
work;  they  love  to  make  comparisons  and  watch  for  the  change  or  im- 
provement in  one  another;  they  are  thus  led  to  observe  and  look  for 
faulty  positions  in  sitting,  standing,  and  walking.  The  regular  teacher 
herself  should  be  on  the  look-out  for  this  and  show  an  interest  in  their 
charts. 

Although  this  is  a  very  general  and  brief  outline  of  a  plan,  I  have 
endeavored  to  keep  before  me  the  improvement  of  the  individual,  and 
to  keep  in  mind  as  well  its  fitness  to  the  individual.  We  study  the 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.     287 

child  in  the  educational  world  today,  and  so  should  we  do  even  more 
of  this  in  our  physical  training. 

(c)  Grading,  as  in  any  other  branch:  — 

Here  we  are  confronted  by  many  difficulties.  Pupils  are  placed  to- 
gether, stand  side  by  side,  whose  degree  of  efficiency,  whose  natural 
ability,  natural  tendencies  and  constitutional  differences,  as  well  as 
age,  if  marked  to  a  standard  would  take  so  wide  a  range  as  0-100. 
Not  all  of  these  degrees  of  efficiency  could  come  under  consideration, 
nor  would  it  be  advisable  that  they  should,  had  we  the  choicest  periods 
of  the  day  and  nothing  to  interfere;  but  a  standard  of  progression 
from  term  to  term,  and  from  year  to  year,  could  be  much  more  logi- 
cally and  systematically  worked  out  and  lived  up  to  than  can  ever  be 
the  case  according  to  the  present  arrangement. 


WHAT  SHOULD  BE  THE  PURPOSE,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK 
IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  A  NORMAL  SCHOOL? 

,    ISABEL  F.  WALKER,    WHITEWATER. 

For  some  years  physical  training  has  been  establishing  its  claim  to 
be  a  real  educative  force,  and  as  such  has  been  given  a  more  or  less 
prominent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing and  the  public  schools  of  this  country  and  other  countries.  Its 
general  aim  is  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  well-being  and  develop- 
ment of  the  individual.  Apart  from  this  general  aim,  what  should  be 
the  purpose  of  the  department  of  physical  training  in  a  Normal  school? 
Should  it  differ  in  any  respect  from  that  of  the  college  or  other 
school?  The  answer  to  this  question  is  a  decided  affirmative.  The 
college,  in  all  its  training,  thinks  of  the  individual  student;  the  Nor- 
mal school  must  consider  the  student  not  only  as  an  individual  but 
also  in  his  future  relation  to  the  children  of  the  public  school  in  which 
he  is  preparing  to  teach;  and  this  is  no  less  true  of  the  department 
of  physical'  training  than  of  other  departments.  It  is  by  no  mean  the 
function  of  the  Normal  school  to  prepare  special  teachers  of  gym- 
nastics, but  since  exercise  is  so  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  grow- 
ing child,  and  since  it  is  impossible  to  place  a  trained  specialist  in 
every  school,  even  if  it  were  desirable  to  do  so,  the  students  should 
be  led  to  appreciate  the  value  of  physical  training  to  the  children  for 
whom  they  will  become  in  large  measure  responsible,  and  should  be 
able  to  instruct  them  rationally  in  some  course  in  free  gymnastics. 
The  purpose  ,of  the  department,  then,  is  seen  to  be  two-fold,  to  benefit 
the  individual  and  to  equip  him  for  teaching. 

The  scope  of  the  department  is  very  broad.  It  should  give  students 
such  a  knowledge  of  personal  hygiene,  supplementary  to  that  of  the 
regular  course  in  physiology,  and  so  influence  them  that  they  will  take 
better  care  of  their  health,  realizing  that  only  as  they  bestow  proper 
care  upon  their  bodies  can  they  hope  to  do  their  best  work  as  stu- 
dents, or  be  most  influential  as  teachers.  It  should  incite  to  active 
participation  in  athletic  sports  and  games  in  addition  to  the  regular 
prescribed  gymnastic  work.  It  should  call  their  attention  to  the  fact 
that  for  generations  the  sensory  system  has  been  receiving  special  at- 


288  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

tention  in  the  schools  at  the  expense  of  the  motor  areas  of  the  brain 
which  need  to  be  developed  for  the  improvement  of  the  executive 
powers.  It  should  show  that  judicious  exercise  will  counteract  many 
of  the  evil  effects  so  long  continued  sitting  and  help  to  conserve  the 
general  health;  that  it  will  rest  and  refresh  tired  and  listless  children, 
thus  improving  the  quality  of  their  mental  work;  and  that  it  will 
be  an  aid  in  the  discipline  of  the  school  by  affording  a  natural  vent 
for  the  superabundant  energy  and  animal  spirits  which  must  be  worked 
off  in  some  way,  legitimate  or  otherwise. 

To  realize  the  first  part  of  the  purpose,  i.  e.,  the  benefit  to  the  in- 
dividual student,  the  work  should  be  directed  primarily  towards  the 
improvement  of  the  carriage  of  the  body,  showing  the  pupils  at  the 
same  time  what  exercises  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  for  the 
children  to  come  under  their  care.  My  reason  for  placing  the  em- 
phasis on  this  phase  of  the  work  is  this: — In  the  correct  posture  each 
organ  of  the  body  is  in  its  proper  position  and  in  right  relation  to 
every  other  organ,  thus  permitting  the  natural  functions  of  the  body 
to  be  performed  with  the  greatest  ease.  This  is  not  true  in  the 
cramped,  distorted  positions  assumed  by  the  majority  of  the  students 
with  whom  we  come  in  daily  contact,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  evident 
that  the  organs  must  all  be  displaced  and  performing  their  work  under 
most  unfavorable  conditions  with  the  resultant  headaches,  backaches, 
and  other  aches  which  are  all  too  familiar  to  the  heads  of  physical 
training  departments.  If  we  can  correct  these  defective  standing  and 
sitting  positions,  we  have  helped  the  individual  to  make  great  progress 
towards  a  condition  of  restored  health  and  renewed  vigor,  because  the 
organs  are  again  free  to  perform  their  natural  functions  unimpeded. 

Not  only  does  improved  posture  react  favorably  on  the  general 
health  but  it  also  has  its  influence  upon  the  character  as  well.  It  is 
a  generally  accepted  fact  that  so  closely  are  mind  and  body  linked  to- 
gether that  the  body  becomes  in  time  the  external  manifestation  of  the 
mind,  and  the  mind  in  its  turn  is  affected  by  the  habitual  attitude 
and  actions  of  the  body.  This  being  true,  will  not  a  change  from  a 
careless,  shuffling  gait  to  an  habitually  free  and  decided  step  begin 
to  change  the  character?  In  at  least  this  one  particular  the  indi- 
vidual must  cease  to  be  careless.  If  we  can  train  a  person  whose  mo- 
tions are  angular  and  jerky,  with  corresponding  angularity  of  temper, 
to  rhythmic  activity  and  ease,  will  not  the  character  be  likely  to 
change  and  manifest  itself  in  calmness  and  repose  of  manner?  The 
consciousness  of  a  well-poised  body  whose  motions  are  completely  un- 
der the  control  of  the  will,  gives  one  self-confidence  and  a  sense  of 
dignity  and  moral  worth,  and  what  can  be  of  greater  value  to  a  young 
teacher  appearing  before  her  class  than  this  same  quiet,  unassuming 
self-confidence?  The  children  instinctively  feel  its  influence  and  have 
far  more  respect  for*  such  a  teacher  than  for  the  slovenly,  shuffling, 
awkward  one,  and  will  comport  themselves  accordingly,  thus  making 
the  teacher's  work  easier  from  its  inception. 

The  preparation  for  the  work  of  teaching  gymnastics  should  be  both 
practical  and  theoretical.  The  practical  part  should  acquaint  the  stu- 
dents with  a  large  number  of  exercises  suitable  for  use  in  the  school- 
room with  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  effects  of  these  exercises  and 
their  application,  and  also  with  a  number  of  games  and  plays.  It 
should  give  them  opportunity  to  observe  the  class-work  of  the  pupils 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  INDIVIDUAL  STUDENTS.       289 

of  the  model  school,  and  also  to  conduct  it  under  supervision.  In  the 
theoretical  work,  which  should  follow  the  work  in  elementary  physiol- 
ogy and  some  of  the  professional  work,  they  should  acquire  some 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  gymnastics,  of  the  location  and  action  of 
the  principal  muscles  of  the  body,  of  the  growth  and  development  of 
children,  including  the  relation  between  physical  development  and 
mental  ability,  of  the  common  physical  defects  of  children  and  the  ex- 
ercises best  adapted  to  overcome  them,  and  of  the  relation  of  plays 
and  games  to  education.  They  should  also  be  given  some  idea  of  the 
various  systems  of  physical  training  with  their  basal  principles,  and 
be  required  to  prepare  lesson  plans.  It  would  be  well  if  they  could 
also  acquire  some  knowledge  which  would  enable  them  to  deal  in- 
telligently with  the  common  emergency  cases  which  nearly  every 
teacher  must  meet. 

"If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  jvhat  were  good  to  do,  chapels  had 
been  churches  and -poor  men's  cottages  princes'  palaces."  This  is  an 
ideal  condition  far  from  being  realized  in  the  school  with  whose  work- 
ings I  am  most  intimately  acquainted.  If  it  is  ever  to  be  realized  there 
must  be  a  radical  change  in  the  course  of  study  which  shall  plan  the 
work  in  physical  training  on  the  same  basis  as  other  subjects  and 
make  it  a  requirement  for  certificate  or  diploma.  Until  this  is  done 
and  the  student  made  to  feel  responsibility  of  the  same  kind,  if  not  in 
the  same  degree,  for  his  gymnastics  as  for  his  Latin  or  geometry,  no 
satisfactory  progress  can  be  made.  The  exercises  should  be  carefully 
graded  and  faithfully  taught,  and  advancement  made  conditional  upon 
good  work.  Without  presuming  to  dogmatize  it  is  my  firm  convic- 
tion that  one  year  should  be  the  minimum  amount  of  time  devoted  to 
the  practical  work,  and  that  there  should  be  at  least  one  full  quarter's 
work  in  Theory  of  Gymnastics. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING.  TO  WHAT  EXTENT  MAY  THE  INDIVID- 
UAL NEEDS  OF  STUDENTS  BE  CONSIDERED  IN  THE  WORK 
OF  THIS  DEPARTMENT?  IN  WHAT  WAYS? 

EMMA  SSHRIEVES,  Milwaukee. 

What  is  commonly  recognized  as  individual  work,  can  find  little 
recognition  in  the  busy  hours  of  a  teacher  of  gymnastics  in  a  state 
Normal  school.  But  the  need  of  special  work  for  weak  students  and 
those  physically  defective,  appeals  strongly  to  the  trained  eye  of  the 
physical  teacher,  and  her  very  interest  in  the  matter  moves  her  to 
improvise  ways  and  means  of  meeting  the  necessity. 

The  needs  of  the  physically  weak  student  must  be  considered  to 
the  extent  of  excusing  her  from  any  exercise,  free  standing  or  an  ap- 
paratus, that  is  known  to  be  harmful  to  one  in  her  condition.  This 
period  of  exemption  may  be  long  or  short,  proportionate  to  the  malady, 
and  depending  on  the  interest  and  persistency  of  the  student  in  over- 
coming her  physical  weakness.  Those  excused  from  apparatus  work 
should  be  given  light  work  instead,  if  a  conductor  can  be  found  in 
the  number.  At  the  same  time  those  obliged  to  drop  out  of  the  run- 
19 


290  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ning  or  jumping,  the  girl  too  delicate  to  climb  a  rope  or  vault  a  box,  or 
those  lacking  the  endurance  for  even  the  simple  floor  work,  must  be 
made  to  deplore  her  miserable  physical  condition  (if  possible),  to  the 
extent  of  an  honest  effort  to  become  strong  and  robust.  I  am  often 
surprised  in  the  remedial  effect  of  the  general  exercise  on  particular 
troubles,  when  once  the  student  has  been  thoroughly  convinced  of  the 
efficacy  of  the  work.  On  running  over  a  record  of  ailing  girls  made 
while  taking  measurements  at  the  beginning  of  the  junior  year,  the 
teacher  may  find  much  consolation  for  long  hours  and  unappreciated 
solicitude  in  some  of  these  same  girls  who  have  grown  well  and  strong 
and  become  interested  in  all  kinds  of  gymnastics  and  games.  Many 
coming  to  be  excused  remain  to  be  cured. 

Several  individual  needs  are  so  common  to  the  whole  body  of  stu- 
dents in  some  degree  that  I  frequently  draft  the  individual  work  onto- 
the  regular  class  work,  for  instance,  poise.  Having  taught  the  prin- 
ciples of  good  poise  to  my  beginning  classes,  all  through  the  year, 
when  giving  the  commands  to  a  class  in  poise,  I  give  my  personal  at- 
tention to  the  pupils  that  are  particularly  deficient  in  this  first  and 
fundamental  step  in  physical  culture.  This  is  done  by  placing  one 
hand  on  the  chest  and  the  other  on  the  back,  when  the  pupil  is  stand- 
ing on  toes,  and  not  permitting  her  to  sink  onto  the  heels,  or  by  re- 
questing her  to  muscularly  raise  the  chest  till  it  touches  my  hand.  If 
she  cannot  get  the  position  by  either  the  class  work  or  by  this  indi' 
vidual  work  in  class,  and  she  is  not  sensitive  to  criticism,  I  some- 
times let  different  members  of  the  class  try  to  teach  her  poise,  and 
having  failed,  as  a  beginner  is  sure  to  with  a  difficult  case,  I  teach 
her  then  by  the  wall  process,  before  the  class.  When  all  other  meth- 
ods have  failed  in  poising  individuals,  I  teach  them  separately  be- 
fore the  mirror.  A  teacher  lacking  in  ambition  and  physical  ideals 
to  the  extent  of  standing  badly,  should  not  impose  herself  upon  child- 
hood with  its  imitative  tendencies.  Indeed  so  much  attention  is  given 
to  poise  that  the  appearance  of  the  instructor  in  hall,  public  place,  or 
street,  acts  as  an  electric  shock  in  straightening  spines. 

Again  the  flat  chest  is  so  common  that  I  have  selected  five  exer- 
cises for  the  correction  of  the  same,  and  explaining  their  purpose, 
proceed  to  teach  them.  When  learned,  I  have  requested  that  certain 
members  of  the  class  practice  these  exercises  every  day  or  better 
twice  a  day  for  a  certain  period  of  time.  In  the  same  way  the  round 
shoulders,  the  craned  neck,  badly  poised  head  and  crooked  knees  are 
prescribed  for.  At  various  times  I  make  inquiry  as  to  how  many  have 
complied  with  any  suggestions  for  the  physical  improvement  since  a 
certain  date,  if  they  have  responded  to  the  extent  that  they  might 
reasonably  expect  an  improvement,  if  they  feel  or  see  that  there  is  an 
improvement. 

The  girl  who  spends  energy  too  lavishly,  moves  with  needless  rapid- 
ity, in  a  dozen  needless  directions,  who  wears  an  extravagant  amount 
of  expression  in  the  face  and  dissipates  her  forces  to  little  purpose 
must  be  made  aware  of  this  purposeless  extravagance  and  be  taught 
to  concerve  these  energies  and  acquire  self-repose.  Largely  she  learns 
this  through  inhibition,  but  a  knowledge  of  repose  and  means  of  at- 
taining it  may  be  supplemented  by  such  books  as:  "Power  Through 
Repose,"  "Technique  of  Rest"  and  "Dynamic  Breathing." 

The  hysterical  girl  must  recognize  her  condition  as  one  of  weakness 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  INDIVIDUAL  STUDENTS. 

and  physical  degeneracy,  and  something  to  be  speedily  and  heroically 
lived  out  of  by  attention  to  physical  law,  by  will  power  and  some- 
times by  seeking  medical  aid.. 

The  meagre,  gaunt  individual  should  understand  that  a  proper  pro- 
portion between  the  ingredients  that  go  to  make  up  life,  is  not  reached 
in  her  case.  She  must  prune  down  the  protuberances  of  ambition, 
annex  possibly  hours  of  sleep  and  rest,  cultivate  happier  habits  of 
thought,  eat  the  things  her  fat  sister  eats,  dress  comfortably  and  cul- 
tivate healthful  habits.  She  must  recognize  the  real  value  of  a  nor- 
mal amount  of  flesh.  That  it  is  not  confined  to  the  realm  of  beauty 
alone,  is  usually  quite  a  surprise.  She  can  hardly  believe  that  the 
ten  or  fifteen  pounds  of  actual  fat  which  she  lacks  is  significant  of 
want  of  power,  want  of  energy,  and  indicate  tendencies  to  nervous- 
ness. 

The  surplus  fat  of  the  individual  is,  making  due  allowance  for  in- 
heritance, an  index  of  over  indulgence  in  sweets,  sleep,  or  sluggish- 
ness. It  is  only  an  occasional  student  that  has  the  persistency  to  diet 
and  exercise  till  the  excess  of  flesh  disappears.  It  is  such  an  unremit- 
ting thing,  and  requires  such  an  overpowering  will  force  to  out-grow 
acquired  habits  of  taste.  One  says — "I  would  do  it  if  it  would  only  stay 
done,  but  it  won't,  and  I  am  not  going  all  my  life  without  all  the  good 
things  I  like."  But  let  her  know  that  other  things  than  beauty  de- 
mand a  certain  limit  of  flesh,  and  she  has  a  greater  incentive  for  per- 
sistent effort  in  this  direction.  The  inconsistent  efforts  of  different  in- 
dividuals in  the  matter  of  reducing  flesh  is  most  amusing,  quite  as 
ridiculous  as  the  way  in  which  the  woman  followed  her  physician's 
prescription  for  dieting.  She  grew  stouter  and  stouter  and  returned 
to  her  physician  in  wrath,  telling  him  she  was  getting  fatter  and  fat- 
ter. "What  are  you  doing?"  he  asked.  "Just  what  you  told  me.  I 
eat  just  the  things  you  told  me  to, — after  every  meal."  The  nerves 
smothered  in  fat  lose  their  sensitiveness  to  impressions  and  grow 
negligent  in  muscular  response.  The  weak  back  can  in  most  cases 
be  traced  to  incorrect  dress  and  bad  posture  and  readily  strength- 
ened by  reform  in  these  matters.  The  cure  may  be  hastened  by 
massage  and  gymnastics. 

The  headache  and  bad  conditions  that  necessitate  frequent  or  pe- 
riodical absence  from  school  should  not  be  treated  as  accidental  and 
something  to  be  simply  deplored,  but  rather  as  symbolical  of  laws 
violated,  perhaps  unconsciously,  but  nevertheless  with  inevitable  re- 
sults. The  reasons  for  every  warning  pain  should  be  sought  out 
and  the  conditions  which  brought  about  this  pain  corrected.  This 
probing  for  the  cause  of  indisposition  or  chronic  trouble  is  quite  a 
new  idea  to  most, — the  old  tradition  that  sickness  is  a  wise  dispen- 
sation of  Providence  has  so  long  occupied  the  mind. 

Worry,  or  fear,  is  something  that  very  often  calls  for  individual 
consideration,  it  being  the  groundwork  of  so  many  ills.  Miss  A.  asks 
anxiously  for  "some  exercise  that  will  keep  that  lump  from  getting 
up  in  my  throat  every  time  I  get  up  to  recite."  She  finds  relief  in  a 
little  consideration  of  conditions  and  Fletcher's  Menticulture.  Many 
a  student  worries  and  frets  herself  into  a  state  of  utter  incompe- 
tency  over  lessons  that  could  be  mastered  if  she  could  only  apply 
the  mind  untrammeled  by  fear  and  doubt.  Let  us  believe  that  "God 


292  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

gives  us  sense  enough  and  strength  enough  to  do  all  that  He  would 
have  us  do/' 

The  anaemic  condition  of  many  pupils  renders  individual  work  im- 
perative. To  detect  the  cause, — whether  it  be  the  cold  lunch,  insuf- 
ficient or  improper  food,  curtailed  sleep,  anxiety,  irregular  habits, 
insufficient  exercise,  lack  of  out-of-door  life,  want  of  sun,  or  mental 
condition, — is  much  easier  than  to  bring  about  a  proper  change.  The 
approach  to  anaemia  is  so  gradual  that  the  student  does  not  realize 
her  weakened  condition  and  neither  does  the  teacher,  with  rare  ex- 
ceptions. The  anaemic  plods  on  with  brain  poorly  nourished  (as 
well  as  every  other  organ),  and  with  great  nervous  strain  and  a  cor- 
respondingly weakened  memory.  Thus  she  does  herself  the  greatest 
injustice,  even  though  she  does  not  totally  collapse  in  the  midst  of 
work.  The  environment  must  be  modified  and  controlled,  but  so 
often  the  pupil  wll  not  consent  to  readjust  her  habts  and  work  to 
produce  even  a  normal  amount  of  vigor  and  endurance,  or  go  to  the 
expense  of  proper  medical  attention.  And  why?  Because  she  does 
not  realize  the  awful  significance  of  pale  lips  and  listless  movements, 
and  she  must  not  lose  time  in  this  mad  pursuit  of  a  diploma.  Is 
negligence  or  ignorance  on  her  part  any  excuse  for  such  a  waste  of 
energy?  If  she  cannot  understand  the  enormity  of  her  conduct,  should 
she  not  be  restrained  by  those  who  do  consider  the  consequences 
of  broken  physical  law?  We  define  the  amount  of  work  for  the  nor- 
mally well  student, — why  not  for  the  physically  weak?  Two  girls 
are  now  excused  from  gymnastics  but  are  taking  the  regular  course 
of  study.  Each  is  in  a  bad  physical  condition,  and  each  postponed 
treatment  till  school  began,  instead  of  calculating  on  entering  in  good 
health.  If  each  were  sent  home  as  she  should  be,  or  much  limited 
in  amount  of  mental  work,  would  it  not  conduce  to  better  living  and 
better  thinking? 

The  low-spirited  or  self-conscious  must  be  sensibly  persuaded  or 
beguiled  into  regular  recreation, — tennis,  basket  ball,  or  systematic 
walking. 

The  students  found  on  examination  to  be  physically  defective  are 
instructed  in  the  corrective  work  and  the  causes  of  their  defects. 
Some  whose  troubles  are  beyond  their  own  treatment,  as  is  the  case 
with  double  curvature  of  spine,  and  curvatures  with  rotation,  etc., 
take  private  work  with  a  competent  medical  gymnastic  doctor,  who 
gives  us  special  rates. 

In  the  model  school,  one  usually  finds  a  strong  assistant  in  the 
mother.  She  is,  as  a  usual  thing,  only  too  anxious  to  accept  and  act 
upon  any  suggestion  for  her  boy's  or  girl's  welfare. 

The  individual  work  is  much  or  little,  as  other  work  crowds  or  not, 
but  that  it  is  important  cannot  be  doubted,  both  in  raising  the  standard 
of  health  and  preventing  sickness;  likewise  in  teaching  the  pupil  to 
regard  her  affliction,  be  it  slight  or  grave,  as  a  natural  result  of  many 
actions  making  up  the  "apperceptive  mass"  of  conduct. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  USE  IN  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS.     293 


IN  WHAT  WAYS  MAY  THE  MOST  EFFECTIVE  WORK  BE  DONE  IN 
DEVELOPING  THE  STUDENT'S  POWER  TO  CARRY  ON  PHYSI- 
CAL TRAINING  IN  HIS  OWN  SCHOOL,  UNDER  CONDITIONS 
WHICH  WILL  EXIST  IN  THAT  SCHOOL? 

FRANCES  MUSSELMAN,  Stevens  Point. 

This  question  attacks  the  subject  of  physical  training  from  a  purely 
utilitarian  or  professional  standpoint.  How  shall  we  best  prepare  our 
students  so  that  tney  will  go  out  into  the  schools  of  the  state  with  cor- 
rect ideas  of  this  work,  high  ideals,  abundance  of  material,  proper  ap- 
preciation of  the  importance  of  physical  training,  and  the  best  methods 
of  making  all  this  practical,  and  making  them  effective  teachers?  At 
the  outset  we  may  as  well  admit  that  they  will  not  all  be  successful 
teachers  of  physical  training,  any  more  than  they  will  all  be  success- 
ful in  any  other  specialty.  Nor  can  our  work  be  counted  inadequate  or 
a  failure  if  we  do  not  succeed  in  making  specialists  of  our  students, 
yet  much  can  be  done  to  make  them  effective  teachers. 

I  cannot  help  reiterating  nere  that  development  of  self  is  of  prime 
importance.  Example  is  more  potent  than  precept.  The  effective 
teacher  of  physical  training  must  exemplify  in  himself  the  theories  and 
principles  he  is  advocating  to  his  classes.  Children  are  keen  observers 
and  will  not  long  have  faith  in  the  words  of  a  teacher  who  talks  and 
talks  out  never  does.  To  preach  to  pupils  of  the  pernicious  effects  of 
malposition,  to  tell  them  that  they  can  grow  strong,  erect,  more  en- 
during, more  graceful,  more  healthful  by  means  of  proper,  systematic 
exercise  will  have  but  small  effect  coming  from  a  teacher  whose  every 
attitude  before  his  class,  whose  bloodless  face  and  lifeless,  listless  man- 
ner belies  his  words.  Be  sure  always  "There's  a  chiel  amang  ye  tak- 
in'  notes."  The  notes  are  not  always  to  the  credit  of  the  teacher.  A 
little  girl  from  our  third  grade  which  was  being  instructed  in  gym- 
nastics by  a  practice  teacher  one  quarter,  met  me  one  day  with  the  re- 
quest that  I  be  their  teacher  again.  On  being  asked  her  objection  to 
her  present  teacher  she  said,  "Oh,  she  doesn't  do  the  things  she  makes 
us  do;  why,  she  keeps  saying  to  us,  'heels  together'  and  she  never  puts 
her  own  heels  together!"  A  small  thing,  but  it  had  not  gone  un- 
observed by  those  sharp  eyes. 

Many  of  our  students,  most  of  them  in  fact,  come  to  us  from  the 
country  with  the  effects  of  previous  occupation  clearly  discernable 
in  walk,  carriage,  and  whole  physical  build.  As  effective  service  as  any 
we  can  render  them  is  to  assist  and  insist  on  correction  of  faults  of 
this  kind,  so  they  may  be  examples  to  their  students. 

Material. 

Equal  in  importance  in  this  professional  training  is  the  "what"  to 
teach,  the  material  for  use  in  their  own  schools.  The  literature  of 
physical  training  is  somewhat  meager.  In  comparison  with  the  quan- 
tity of  reference  material  we  have  on  most  other  subjects  it  is  de- 
cidedly scant.  Even  what  we  have  will  be  denied  our  students  when 
they  leave  the  Normal  schools  and  go,  as  most  of  them  do,  to  the 
smaller  towns  where  there  are  no  school  libraries.  Books  on  physi- 
cal training  are  not  found  in  most  libraries,  the  only  one  recommended 


294  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

by  the  State  Commissioners  for  use  in  the  schools  being  Blaikie's 
"How  to  Get  Strong,"  a  valuable  book  of  its  kind,  but  of  little  practical 
value  to  one  searching  for  gymnastic  material.  The  best  known 
works  on  this  subject  are,  "Progressive  Days,  Order  of  Swedish  Ed- 
ucational Gymnastics,"  by  Dr.  Enebusxe,  "Special  Kinesiology  of 
Swedish  Educational  Gymnastics,"  by  Baron  Posse,  "The  A.  B.  C.  of 
Swedish  Educational  Gymnastics,"  by  Hartvig  Nissen,  "German  Ameri- 
can Gymnastics,"  by  Stecher,  "School  Gymnastics,"  by  Miss  Jessie  Ban- 
croft, being  a  system  worked  out  and  used  by  Miss  Bancroft  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  a  very  valuable  work  because  practical 
for  schoolrooms,  and  "Gymnastic  Stories  and  Games,"  an  essentially 
primary  school  book,  but  brim  full  of  helpful  suggestions  for  making 
gymnastics  in  primary  grades  interesting,  joyous  and  helpful.  It 
would  pay  us  all  and  benefit  our  students  immeasurably  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  all  these  sources  of  gymnastic  material,  thereby  broaden- 
ing their  conception  of  this  subject,  by  giving  them  insight  into  all 
the  so-called  systems  of  gymnastics,  which  are  all  good,  but  which, 
taken  individually  and  separately,  can  not  wisely  or  without  challenge 
lay  claim  to  be  all  of  physical  training.  In  wisely  directing  the  use 
of  such  books  as  we  have  on  our  subject  regardless  of  system,  we  show 
ourselves  broad  minded  and  add  power  to  the  teaching  ability  of  our 
students. 

There  is  one  difficulty  in  putting  books  into  the  students'  hands,  i.  e., 
the  nomenclature  of  gymnastics  is  so  varied,  that  without  much  train- 
ing in  the  special  terminology  of  exercise,  the  books  are  perfectly  un- 
intelligible. To  the  novice  the  books  might  pretty  nearly  as  well 
be  written  in  Greek.  My  idea,  then,  is  that  although  such  works  as 
we  nave  are  valuable  as  guides  and  as  reference  books,  our  students 
must  be  trained  to  originality  and  ingenuity  in  making  material  for 
themselves.  "He  who  has  never  searched  for  or  practised  new 
exercises,  but  has  blindly  imitated  what  others  have  shown  him,  will 
never  master  the  materials  for  exercise."-  If  we  hope  to  make  our 
students  capable  teachers,  they  must  be  led  to  perceive  the  under- 
lying principles  of  educative  gymnastics,  understand  the  physiological 
laws  upon  which  exercises  are  based,  become  familiar  with  the  basal 
elements  of  all  movements  and  have  practice  in  combining  elements  to 
produce  variety  of  exercises  and  in  progressive  degrees  of  difficulty. 
They  must  learn  how  to  make  variety  and  change.  I  am  not  an  advo- 
cate of  set  drills,  cut  and  dried  lesson  plans;  endless  repetitions  of  the 
same  exercises  for  the  sake  of  perfection  I  believe  to  be  disgustingly 
tiresome  and  wholly  inefficacious.  There  are  probably  dozens  of  move- 
ments which  will  accomplish  the  result,  why  keep  dinning  away  on  the 
one?  Resourcefulness,  tactfulness,  a  never-failing  abundance  of  ma- 
terial are  necessary.  Nor  do  I  believe  that  this  particular  help  in 
making  one's  own  material  can  be  given  our  students  by  lecturing  to 
them,  by  teaching  them  theories,  or  by  studying  history  of  gymnastics. 
These  students  will  not  be  physical  training  specialists,  at  least  not 
without  further  training  than  we  give,  so  I  believe  this  work  can  be 
made  practical.  My  plan  is  to  question  the  students  after  they  have 
performed  some  movement,  on  the  purpose  of  that  movement — what 
part  of  the  body  would  it  develop?  What  are  the  parts  which  make 
up  the  complete  movement?  How  could  I  make  it  simple,  how  more  dif- 
difficult?  etc.,  etc.  I  don't  take  any  set  day  or  any  particular  hour  to 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  USE   IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.     295 

.give  a  lecture  of  this  sort  which  they  are  pretty  sure  to  never  associate 
with  the  practical  side  of  the  work,  but  in  the  resting  intervals  between 
exercises  we  talk  together  as  here  indicated.  I  find  it  bears  rich, 
fruit.  Then  I  have  my  students  keep  note  books  in  which  they  write 
all  the  exercises  which  they  have  had,  with  any  comments  that  they 
think  worth  remembering.  These  books  are  examined  and  corrected 
-at  intervals,  and  I  am  often  gratified  to  find  that  some  movements  we 
have  aone  have  suggested  others  to  them.  This  I  think  more  valuable 
than  putting  a  ready  prepared  book  in  their  hands,  because  they  are 
recording  things  they  have  done  and  therefore  understand,  because 
they  must  think  about  them  to  be  able  to  record  them,  and  they  gain 
greater  power  by  this  effort. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  free^  movements  as  being  those  which 
will  be  of  greatest  service  in  the  schoolroom,  but  it  does  no  harm  to 
show  that  dumb-bell  exercises  are  but  free  movements  with  the  bell  in 
the  hand  and  that  any  weight  easily  carried  would  answer  same  pur- 
pose, or  that  a  broomstick,  cut  short  enough  will  answer  every  pur- 
pose of  a  wand,  and  that  these  things  are  valuable  and  pleasing  changes 
in  tne  monotony  of  free  movements,  reviving  interest  and  adding  zest. 

Bring  the  students  to  observe  the  simple  movements  of  which  any 
part  of  the  body  is  capable  in  the  fundamental  standing  position; 
second,  what  combinations  of  these  movements  can  be  made;  third, 
which  of  these  simple  and  combined  exercises  can  be  brought  out  in 
positions  derived  from  the  fundamental,  i.  e.,  in  step  positions,  kneel- 
ing positions,  etc.  As  an  example,  1.  A  leg,  or  head,  or  trunk  exercise 
in  fundamental  standing  position.  3.  Combined  head,  arm  and  trunk 
movement  in  a  derived  position  as  a  step  position,  lunge  or  fall  out. 
When  one  has  mastered  these  underlying  laws  one  has  always  an  abun- 
dance of  systematic,  progressive  gymnastic  material. 

Method. 

Add  to  this,  numbers  of  games  suitable  for  schoolrooms  and  play 
ground,  games  for  small  children  and  for  the  larger  boys  and  girls, 
and  the  students  will  be  quite  well  equipped  as  far  as  material  goes. 

Method. 

To  give  a  lesson  in  gymnastics,  to  keep  a  class  working  together 
rhythmically  is  not  as  easy  as  it  looks,  nor  can  it  be  done  without 
practice.  Normal  students  see  how  it  is  done  every  day  in  the  gym- 
nasium. So  do  they  everyday  see  how  their  geography  teacher  "does 
it,"  but  this  is  not  a  guaranty  that  they  can  do  it,  too.  They  must  have 
practice  in  teaching  before  they  are  pronounced  capable.  This  practice 
in  teaching  gymnastics  a  very  few  get  by  teaching  the  grades  from 
the  model  school.  The  large  majority  have  no  such  opportunity.  For 
these  we  arrange  practice  in  teaching  groups  of  their  own  class,  and 
occasionally  conducting  the  entire  class.  One  or  two  lessons  each 
week  are  given  to  this,  those  who  are  to  teach  having  been  notified  a 
week  in  advance,  so  the  lesson  plan  may  be  properly  prepared.  The 
class  is  then  divided  into  squads  and  the  teacher  conducts  the  ex- 
ercise under  supervision  of  the  director.  This  plan  is  especially 
advantageous  for  large  classes,  it  being  possible  for  eight  or  ten  groups 
with  a  practice  teacher  for  each  to  work  at  the  same  time,  so  giving 
opportunity  for  each  to  have  frequent  practice  during  the  quarter.  I 
do  not,  however,  consider  this  as  really  valuable  as  teaching  the  classes 


296  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

from  the  grades  would  be,  for  children  often  call  for  a  display  of 
ingenuity  and  ready  accommodation  to  circumstances  which  is  unneces- 
sary in  classes  of  adults.  Moreover,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  one's 
classmates  children,  and  teach  them  as  such. 

I  am  constantly  having  some  skeptical  person  say  to  me,  "We  shall 
not  have  gymnasiums,  how  can  we  teach  gymnastics?"  This  objection 
comes  inspite  of  my  oft-repeated  assurance  that,  with  few  excep- 
tions, what  can  be  done  standing  in  a  line  on  the  gymnasium  floor, 
can  with  equal  facility  be  done  in  the  aisles  of  a  schoolroom.  To- 
eradicate  these  false  notions  and  convince  our  students  that  it  can 
be  done,  I  have  arranged  to  have  the  observation  classes  visit  school- 
rooms while  I  demonstrate  the  feasibility  and  practicability  of  school- 
room gymnastics  by  conducting  classes  there,  and  playing  games 
suitable  for  schoolrooms.  In  this  way  we  hope  to  effectually  asso- 
ciate gymnastics  with  the  schoolroom  and  make  lasting  impressions  on 
the  minds  of  the  students.  Later  on  we  plan  to  have  the  Normal 
students  do  some  of  this  work. 

Most  of  our  class  drill  is  done  with  piano  accompaniment.  There 
are  classes  in  which  it  seems  wiser  to  give  the  free  exercises  to 
command.  There  are  also  days  when  an  accompanist  can  not  be 
found.  In  this  emergency  rhythm  is  obtained  by  counting,  either  by 
the  director  alone,  or  by  the  entire  class  for  a  change.  Sometimes 
the  class  will  sing  or  hum  a  simple,  well  known  song  to  keep  the 
rhythm  of  the  exercise,  these  latter  devices  serving  a  triple  purpose, 
rhythm,  lung  exercise,  and  suggestion  for  varying  the  work  in  their 
schoolrooms,  where  they  will  assuredly  have  no  musical  instrument 
on  which  to  depend. 

To  prevent  lack  of  interest  and  falling  into  ruts  and  so  making  the 
work  tiresome  and  burdensome,  I  frequently  show  how  to  obtain  va- 
riety, make  old  exercises  appear  new  and  fresh  and  give  zest  to  falter- 
ing zeal  by  such  simple  devices  as  having  two  lines  face  each  other 
and  do  a  similar  or  dissimilar  exercise,  or  by  having  alternate  lines 
do  an  opposite  exercise,  as  line  one  back  bending,  while  line  two  does 
forward  bending  and  tnen  alternate,  etc.,  or  by  having  the  class  some- 
times stand  in  a  circle  instead  of  always  in  straight  lines.  In  this 
formation  all  do  same  exercise,  or  number  in  twos  and  do  a  dis- 
similar exercise.  By  these  simple  changes  and  easy  groupings  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  an  endless  variety  and  to  preserve  unflagging  interest 
in  ooth  teacher  and  scholars. 

Teachers  might  create  enthusiasm  and  arouse  the  spirit  of  emulation 
in  their  pupils  by  having  as  supplementary  reading  such  books  as 
give  accounts  of  sports,  uses  of  exercise,  Olympian  games,  how  to 
get  strong,  readable  and  practicable  stories  on  hygiene  and  physiology, 
and  by  many  such  devices  secure  an  interest  in  body-building  and 
health. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  our  professional  work  with  the 
students  is  greatly  hampered,  and  good  results  minimized,  by  the  lack 
of  consecutiveness.  The  four  quarters  of  required  gymnasium  work 
may  be  taken  at  any  period  during  the  course.  It  not  infrequently 
happens  that  a  student  comes  in  for  a  third  or  fourth  quarter,  the  first 
and  second  having  been  taken  two,  three  or  even  four  years  before. 
Any  teacher  of  physical  training  knows  that  this  means  total  incapa- 
bility to  proceed.  The  effects  of  that  previous  training  have  entirely 


RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  HEALTH  OF  PUPILS.  297 

disappeared  during  those  years  in  which  no  thought  has  been 
given  to  physical  development,  or  to  the  practive  of  gymnastics. 
A  further  great  defect  of  our  present  system  is  the  want  of  gradaticn. 
Students  who  have  no  other  occupation  at  an  hour  set  for  a  gym- 
nasium class,  enter  the  class  with  no  regard  to  physical  ability  or 
previous  amount  of  training.  So  we  have  the  weakling  working  be- 
side the  robust  girl,  the  one  who  has  never  been  inside  a  gymnasium 
before  in  the  same  class  with  one  who  has  nad  anywhere  from  one 
quarter  to  four  quarters,  or  as  many  years'  work,  if  she  has  come 
up  through  the  grades  of  the  practice  school.  The  result  of  this 
arrangement  is  a  limitation  of  the  amount  which  can  be  accomplished 
and  tne  beneficial  results  which  would  certainly  be  yielded  were  con- 
ditions more  propitious,  for  if  it  is  true  "a  chain  is  only  as  strong  as 
its  weakest  link,"  it  follows  our  wo*k  must  be  based  on  the  ability  of 
the  weakest  student  in  the  class;  unless  we  disregard  risks  and  hygienic 
considerations,  one  of  two  things  must  happen;  either  we  hold  back 
the  strong  and  robust  to  the  level  of  their  weaker  classmates,  or  we 
force  tne  weaKer  to  exertion  beyond  their  physical  capacity.  In  either 
case  we  are  forced  to  work  against  our  better  judgment  and  to  dis- 
regard hygienic,  physiologic  and  pedagogic  laws.  If  we  can  as  a  result 
of  time  spent  in  these  meetings  formulate  a  systematic  plan  to  replace 
the  present  inconsistent,  irregular  methods  in  our  department,  it 
would,  I  feel  sure,  be  productive  of  great  good,  and  immeasurably 
increase  our  earnest  efforts  to  approach  the  physical  ideal  in  the 
Normal  students  and  make  them  capable,  effective  teachers  of  this 
branch.  Instruction  in  the  essentials  of  hygiene  must  accompany  the 
practice  of  gymnastics.  This  should  include  personal  and  school  hy- 
giene. The  student  should  know  the  laws  of  health,  should  know  some- 
thing of  the  kinds  of  food  and  their  preparation,  how  to  dress  hygienic- 
ally  so  that  he  may  conserve  his  own  health  and  guide  his  pupils  in 
the  right  path. 

Simple  laws  of  school  hygiene  must  also  be  considered.  The  students 
should  have  correct  ideas  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  schoolroom, 
also  of  seating  tne  pupils  in  regard  to  any  defects  of  sight  and 
hearing  which  may  exist,  and  with  regard  to  the  size  and  height  of 
the  desk  and  seat.  Knowledge  of  these  things  must  go  hand  in  hand 
with  the  practice  of  gymnastics  if  we  hope  to  reap  the  best  results 
of  our  work  and  make  of  the  students  effective  and  capable  teachers 
of  physical  training. 


TO  WHAT  EXTENT  IS  THE  DIRECTOR  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 
RESPONSIBLE  FOR  THE  HEALTH  OF  PUPILS  COMING 
UNDER  HER  DIRECTION? 

NINA  A.  PAGE,  Platteville. 

Health  as  defined  by  the  Standard  Dictionary,  is  "A  condition  of 
soundness  of  any  living  organism." 

It  is  the  product,  in  a  general  way,  of  (1)  right  habits  of  exercise, 
physical,  mental  and  moral,  of  rest  and  sleep,  of  recreation,  of  eating, 
of  personal  cleanliness,  of  sitting,  standing,  lying,  and  walking,  of 
the  avoidance  of  the  use  of  harmful  things  as  liquors  and  tobacco  or 


298  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

over-eating,  of  clothing  tight  enough  to  interfere  with  the  workings 
of  the  body  and  of  inappropriate  dress;  and  (2)  of  right  conditions 
of  air  and  temperature  of  living  rooms,  sleeping  rooms,  schoolrooms, 
and  of  their  lighting  and  cleanliness,  including  freedom  from  disease 
germs,  etc.,  of  suitable  and  adaptable  school  furniture,  of  the  right  re- 
lations or  order  of  studies.  This  presupposes  a  normal,  sound  body, 
including  eyes  which  are  either  normal  or  are  supplemented  by  ade- 
quate artificial  aid. 

Does  the  formation  of  these  habits  or  the  existence  of  these  condi- 
tions or  both  belong  to  the  responsibilities  of  the  director  of  physical 
training,  and  if  so,  Avhat?  and  how  far?  seem  to  be  the  questions 
before  us. 

In  that  recent  and  eminently  practical  book,  "A  Manual  of  Personal 
Hygiene,"  edited  by  Dr.  Pyle,  these  subjects  are  discussed:  Hygiene  of 
the  digestive  apparatus,  hygiene  of  the  skin  and  its  appendages,  hy- 
giene of  the  ear,  hygiene  of  the  eye,  hygiene  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system,  physical  exercise.  This  seems  to  be  to  very  satisfactorily  In- 
clude under  personal  hygiene  all  of  those  essentials  to  health  which 
would  not  in  the  strictest  sense  be  included  under  school  hygiene 
proper. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience,  then,  I  shall  make  the  distinction  be- 
tween personal  hygiene  and  school  hygiene,  the  latter  to  include  ventila- 
tion, heating,  lighting  and  cleanliness  of  schoolroom,  and  their  fitting 
with  furniture  adapted  to  occupants. 

On  whom  lies  the  responsibility  of  such  instruction  that  the  right 
habits  necessary  to  personal  hygiene  are  formed?  On  whom  that  of 
presenting  and  maintaining  the  right  conditions  of  school  hygiene? 

Childhood  is  admitted  to  be  the  most  plastic  age;  habits  are  then 
most  easily  iormed  and  the  main  parts  of  personal  hygiene  cannot 
be  too  early  inculcated.  The  child  who  is  old  enough  to  attend  school 
is  old  enough  to  be  taught,  for  example,  that  he  should  not  wear  his 
rubbers  indoors;  that  there  are  consequences  following  the  eating  of 
much  candy;  of  rocking  the  ankles,  etc.  If  all  mothers  and  nurses 
were  wise,  educated  women,  having  the  child's  best  good  at  heart, 
perhaps  all  of  the  main  lacts  of  personal  hygiene  would  be  instilled 
by  precept  and  example,  and  such  replies  given  to  the  active  minded 
child's  continuous  "why?"  that  he  would  grow  up  with  these  con- 
ditions of  health  met  by  long  established  habits.  We  must  admit  that 
this  is  not  the  common  home  condition  and  mother  love  is  not  neces- 
sarily wise.  There  is  no  question  as  to  who  snail  lead  the  child  along 
these  lines.  It  is  the  regular  teacher  who  can  seize  the  right  time  and 
occasion  for  pressing  some  given  point  and  make  the  practical  applica- 
tion, and  who  in  her  influence  at  some  stage  of  the  child's  life  rivals 
the  mother.  It  is  the  same  teacher  who  has  the  best  opportunity  to 
see  that  the  working  position  at  desk,  the  standing  for  recitation,  etc., 
is  always  in  accordance  with  hygienic  conditions,  and  to  detect  de- 
fective vision  or  hearing  and  advise  child  or  parent. 

So  far  as  personal  hygiene  in  the  grades  is  concerned,  then,  the  di- 
rector of  physical  training  has  this  to  do:  (1)  To  see  that  the 
children  are  given  as  a  part  of  their  educational  training  a  certain 
amount  of  exercise  under  proper  conditions  which  shall  serve  as  pre- 
ventive and  corrective  of  at  least  some  of  the  bad  effects  on  health 
charged  to  school  life.  (2)  That  from  time  to  time  she  takes  ad- 


RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  HEALTH  OF  PUPILS.  299 

vantage  of  an  opportunity  to  discuss  the  purpose  of  a  given  exercise, 
or  the  reason  why,  tor  example,  it  is  not  well  to  stand  with  the  weight 
one  one  foot  and  the  other  thrust  out  sideways,  getting  the  reasons,  so 
far  as  possible,  from  the  class  and  the  same  time  their  co-operation 
in  more  effectual  application  at  all  times  and  under  all  conditions  of 
the  principles  and  habits  she  is  striving  to  inculcate. 

As  to  what  I  have  included  under  the  general  head  of  school  hygiene 
the  director  of  physical  training  can  be  consulted  if  need  be,  but  the 
combination  of  heating  and  ventilating  large  buildings  is  a  question 
for  experts.  If  there  is  not  some  such  scientific  plan,  the  class 
teacher  must  of  necessity  take  charge  of  its  regulation  as  well  as 
of  the  arrangement  for  seating,  etc.,  the  director  of  physical  training 
perhaps  being  consulted. 

The  students  of  the  Normal  department,  according  to  the  kind  of 
teachers  they  have  been  under,  differ  widely  in  their  knowledge  and  ap- 
plication of  personal  hygiene;  some  of  them  receiving  "standing"  on  en- 
tering school  for  work  done  in  the  high  school  in  physiology;  others 
have  taken  ten  weeks  in  the  Normal  on  that  subject;  still  others  have 
done  no  formal  work.  Physiology  as  a  study  in  our  public  schools  is  gen- 
erally and  rightly  regarded  as  including  hygiene,  and  on  the  whole,  a 
means  towards  understanding  the  principles  or  laws  concerned  in  what 
I  have  included  under  personal  hygiene.  If  in  the  Normal  school, 
in  its  division  of  labor,  this  subject  is  given  to  the  directors  of 
physical  training,  but  not  as  a  part  of  this  laiter,  I  am  disposed  to 
think  it  a  good  arrangement.  Her  business  primarily,  however,  has 
to  do  with  but  a  portion  of  personal  hygiene,  that  which  deals  es- 
pecially with  exercises  and  recreation.  Connected  with  it,  however, 
there  must  be  the  application  of  principles  concerning  dress,  cleanli- 
ness, of  avoiding  taking  cold  by  proper  precautions,  etc. 

The  students  not  only  differ  in  the  degree  of  their  knowledge  of 
personal  hygiene  but  in  the  physical  condition.  Tnere  is  no  health 
limit  debarring  a  student  from  the  Normal  but  the  possession 
of  an  infectious  disease.  The  rule  of  the  Board  of  Regents  re- 
quires "good  bodily  health"  as  a  condition  to  admission  to  a  Nor- 
mal school.  Nevertheless  somes  few  present  a  physician's  cer- 
tificate to  the  effect  that  they  are  incapaciated  for  taking 
physical  exercise,  and  in  every  class  there  is  one  or  more  who  falls 
short  of  possessing  that  average  degree  of  health  essential  to  school 
work  and  most  essential  to  the  future  teacher.  Spartan  though  the 
idea  may  be,  would  not  a  system  of  medical  examination  as  a  test  of 
physical  fitness  for  the  business  of  teaching  be  more  just  towards 
pupils  and  taxpayers  than  to  turn  loose  on  the  public  schools  weak- 
bodied,  weak-nerved  teachers  who  as  a  natural  consequence  are  rela- 
tively poorly  equipped  mentally? 

These  weak  ones  enter  classes  with  others  who  are  strong  and  robust. 
The  conditions  of  the  problem  make  it  impossible  to  separate  the  weak 
from  tne  strong.  The  director  of  physical  training  must  accept  the 
responsibility  of  seeing  that  the  weak  ones  are  not  overtaxed  and  that 
so  far  as  may  be  are  strengthened.  She  is  not  ordinarily  a  physician, 
but  can  usually  get  at  some  notion  of  the  cause  of  the  weakness  after 
being  on  some  sort  of  friendly  footing  and  using  tact  in  the  matter. 
Advice  will  not  always  be  followed  but  can  at  least  be  given.  Some- 


300  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

times  it  will  be  in  the  nature  of  urging  the  student  to  consult  a 
physician,  sometimes  urging  a  point  of  personal  hygiene. 

Responsibility  also  extends  to  eliminating  certain  forms  or  kinds 
of  exercise  which  for  any  reason  are  unsuited  to  any  individual,  but 
it  falls  short  of  permitting  anyone  with  organic  heart  trouble  or 
hernia  to  do  the  class  work. 

The  time  for  a  gymanstic  lesson  cannot  rightfully  be  given  to  any 
extended  instruction  on  personal  hygiene  and  fulfill  the  purpose  of 
such  a  lesson.  The  effects  of  exercise  and  kindred  topics  are  taken 
up  in  the  term  devoted  to  the  theory  of  gymnastics.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  mix  the  two. 

Undoubtedly  the  director  of  physical  training  must  be  responsible 
for  health  of  students  so  far  as  it  may  be  affected  by  condition  of  gym- 
nasium as  to  ventilation,  temperature,  cleanliness,  and  safety  of  ap- 
paratus. Yet  she  is  seriously  handicapped  on  one  of  these  points  in 
particular,  namely  cleanliness,  when  the  janitor's  service  is  of  necessity 
limited  to  sweeping  and  dusting  twice  a  week,  and  thoroughly  cleaning 
twice  a  year. 

All  reasonable  precautions  should  be  taken  against  accidents;  yet 
when  the  gymnasium  contains  three  iron  posts  across  the  middle 
which  support  the  floor  above,  there  is  always  a  source  of  danger  in 
the  playing  of  basket  ball  and  all  running  games  though  their  presence 
may  be  a  means  of  cultivating  self-control. 

The  extent  of  the.  responsibility  of  the  director  of  physical  training 
for  the  health  of  the  students  under  her  direction  seems  to  me  to  be 
reduced  to  this: 

(1)  She  should  assume  no  responsibility  of  organic  heart  trouble  or 
hernia,   nor   serious   functional  disturbance. 

(2)  None   of   improper   dress,   but   insist   that   directions   shall   be 
followed  out. 

(3)  She  snould  give  the  girls  special  instruction  about  exercise. 

(4)  Should  advise  and  instruct  on  the  matter  of  taking  cold  while 
heated. 

(5)  On  the  special  need  of  bathing  after  exercising  freely. 

(6)  On  the  use  of  cold  shower  bath. 

(7)  She  should  see  that  due  supervision  is  given  individuals  below 
par. 

(8)  Tnat  the  condition  of  the  gymnasium  is  the  best  possible  for 
the  work,  and  last,  but  not  least, — 

(9)  Should  by  tact  and  consideration    win    the    confidence    of   the 
students  so  that  she  may  give  the  friendly  word  of  advice  along  any 
line  having  to  do  with  their  well  being. 

At  the  risk  of  appearing  to  deviate  from  the  topic  of  this  paper, 
I  wish  to  add  that  while  the  usual  course  of  study  in  public  schools 
calls  for  instruction  on  more  or  less  of  the  facts  of  personal  hygiene; 
and  that  while  this  is  supplemented  by  a  more  formal  study  under  the 
head  of  physiology;  and  although  with  reference  to  their  work  as 
teachers  our  Normal. students  in  the  study  of  school  management  re- 
ceive further  instruction  on  the  principles  of  ventilating  and  warming 
schoolrooms,  etc.,  and  in  psychology  learn  something  of  the  effect  of 
mental  work  and  what  constitutes  a  well  ordered  daily  program,  etc., 
yet  there  is  nowhere  any  adequate  provision  made  for  instruction 
in  sanitary  science. 


DIFFERENT  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS. 

I  mean  by  that  term  to  include  a  teacher's  working  knowledge  of 
what  Dr.  Newsholme,  in  his  excellent  little  book  on  School  Hygiene 
or  the  Laws  of  Health  in  Relation  to  School  Life,  calls  communicable 
diseases  in  schools,  and  shool  accidents;  also  the  general  principles 
of  drainage,  as  many  of  our  students  will  teach  in  places  where 
such  a  knowledge  would  be  very  practical;  of  dietetics  that  he  may 
give  some  wise  advice  on  the  connection  of  the  school  lunch  consisting 
of  pie  and  pickles  with  quality  of  brain  work  in  the  afternoon. 

Surely  the  teacher  ought  to  know  that  if  he  sees  patches  of  skin 
peeling,  as  we  say,  on  a  child's  hands,  though  that  child  may  have 
been  out  of  school  but  a  few  days,  it  is  possibly  the  result  of  scarlet 
fever,  and  if  so  may  occasion  by  the  scattering  of  this  skin,  a  severe 
case  of  the  same  disease. 

He  ought  to  know  how  to  proceed  with  a  simple  case  of  fainting. 

He  ought  to  know  that  greatest  car*-  must  be  exercised  that  sewage 
may  noc  contaminate  the  drinking  water  anywhere  in  its  course. 

Admitting  that  many  of  the  points  involved  are  brought  up  else- 
where, still  it  seems  to  me  that  the  subject  is  sufficiently  important 
and  far-reaching  in  its  results  to  warrant  its  having  a  place  in  the 
course  of  study,  distinct  and  yet  allied  with  school  management,  physi- 
cal training  and  physiology. 


SHOULD  THE  WORK  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  THE  BOYS 
DIFFER  FROM  THAT  FOR  THE  GIRLS  IN  A  NORMAL 
SCHOOL?  IF  SO,  WHY  AND  HOW/  IF  NOT,  WHY  NOT? 

SUSAXNE  A.  LOOK,  Oshkosh. 

It  is  true  that  the  function  of  physical  training  is  primarily  health 
but  more  than  that,  as  a  science  the  director  of  such  work  sees  its 
relation  to  complete  education,  the  all-around  development  of  the  in- 
dividual. The  subject  is  as  broad  as  the  nature  of  the  child,  in- 
volving many  important  and  far-reaching  questions  which,  as  yet,  have 
remained  unsolved. 

The  subject  of  my  paper  leads  me  to  consider  the  Normal  school 
child  during  three  different  periods:  (a)  3rd  to  7th  year,  (b)  7th  to 
llth  year,  (c)  llth  to  17th  year. 

1.  The  period  from  3  to  7  is  the  time  of  great  activity  when  im- 
pressions received  through  the  senses  are  expressed  through  the  child's 
motor  ability.  Some  authorities  on  education  have  said  that  less 
than  one  fourth  of  the  young  child's  school  time  should  be  spent  at  his 
seat.  All  the  rest  of  his  life  must  bring  in  his  motor  activities.  It 
is  the  thoughtful  teacher's  object  to  direct  this  activity  by  movements 
(in  exercise  and  games)  which  involve  the  larger  groups  of  muscles; 
the  trunk,  shoulders,  arms  and  legs,  e.  g.,  children  in  earlier  grades 
in  learning  to  write  should  be  using  their  arms  writing  on  the  black- 
board, instead  of  their  fingers  writing  on  slate  and  paper.  Any  expres- 
sion which  calls  for  the  use  of  fine  muscles  and  for  delicate  coordina- 
tion is  known  to  be  harmful.  A  short  period  of  recreation  should  fol- 
low every  protracted  exercise.  Freedom  and  joy  in  all  they  do  are 
at  the  basis  of  both  work  and  play.  The  little  ones  at  their  play  give 
you  an  opportunity  to  study  the  "real  child  as  he  is  and  not  as  he 


302  INSTITUTE   OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

would  gladly  seem."  The  interests  and  manner  of  expression  are  very 
much  the  same  in  boys  and  girls,  so  it  seems  to  me  the  teacher  should 
proceed  along  the  same  lines  for  both. 

2.  Period  from  7  to  11. 

As  the  growing  child  is  made  to  sit  still  a  greater  part  of  the  day 
(often  in  an  unsuitable  desk  and  in  a  stooped  position  over  his  work) 
do  we  realize  his  breathing  is  hampered  by  these  cramped  postures,  the 
circulation  in  his  arms  and  legs  is  interferred  with  and  his  spine  is 
bent  or  twisted  into  an  abnormal  state?  These  unnatural  muscular 
habits  if  not  counteracted  will  cause  not  only  spinal  trouble  but  dis- 
placement and  compression  of  internal  organs  and  cripple  the  individ- 
ual for  life. 

Statistics  show  that  spinal  curvature  in  920  cases  out  of  1,000  among 
school  children  in  Germany  occurs  between  the  ages  of  six  and  four- 
teen, which  is  a  tremendous  evidence  of  the  unhygienic  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  schoolroom.  If  mental  training  introduces  this  abnormal 
physical  environment,  how  can  we  strive  to  remedy  and  prevent  these 
faults  and  deformities?  Systematized  exercises  based  on  scientific 
principles  should  be  given  daily  to  every  child  as  an  essential  part  of 
his  development.  We  can  also  see  that  posture  is  an  indication  of 
habitual  modes  of  thought,  e.  g.,  drooping  head  shows  consciousness- 
of  weakness  either  mental,  moral,  or  physical;  swaying  limbs  express 
lack  of  self-control.  William  Hawley  Smith  tells  us  of  a  teacher  who, 
with  hanging  head  as  though  ashamed,  said  that  she  "taught  in  the 
country."  "Look  up!  Look  up!  There  are  few  places  of  influence 
within  the  teacher's  grasp  equal  to  a  country  school."  He  felt  that  a 
change  in  her  bodily  attitude  would  cause  a  better  state  of  mind.  Prof. 
James  says:  "Sit  all  day  in  a  moping  posture,  sigh  and  reply  to  every- 
thing with  a  dismal  voice,  and  your  melancholy  lingers."  If  this  is 
applicable  to  the  teacher  how  much  more  so  to  the  growing  child!  We 
should  pay  special  attention  to  head,  shoulders,  chest,  back,  and  spine. 
It  is  true  that  the  body  is  not  only  a  revealer  of  character  but  helps  to 
form  it,  for  a  change  in  bodily  attitude  often  has  its  effect  on  the 
moral  nature,  e.  g.:  Change  a  boy's  or  girl's  shiftless  gait  to  a  firm, 
definite  tread,  and  I  believe  his  or  her  character  is  altered.  Evil  in- 
fluence and  intemperance  of  all  kinds  must  more  easily  affect  weak, 
inactive,  and  untrained  bodies  than  strong  ones. 

We  can  readily  see  the  valuable  effect  of  physical  training  on  the 
mind,  since  the  brain  receives  the  benefits  of  energetic  circulation, 
good  digestion,  deep  breathing,  etc.  Then,  too,  when  physical  train- 
ing is  a  carrying  out  of  definite,  accurate  action,  it  is  a  training  in  vo- 
litional control,  which  is  especially  important  during  the  growth  pe- 
riod. But  I  cannot  dwell  upon  these  important  facts.  The  conclu- 
sion to  be  drawn,  however,  is  that  these  factors  are  most  important 
in  the  development  of  children,  therefore  physical  training  is  as  much 
needed  for  our  girls  as  for  our  boys;  and  since  until  the  age  of  puberty 
the  masculine  and  feminine  mind  is  very  much  the  same,  except  as  it 
has  been  influenced  by  the  training  of  parents,  I  believe  that  the  work 
in  physical  training  at  this  age  should  be  practically  the  same.  In  ref- 
erence to  games  at  this  period,  one  of  our  modern  thinkers  says:  "Boys 
play  games  in  which  competition  is  more  intense,  muscular  coordina- 
tion more  accurate,  the  constructive  work  more  definite  and  logical." 
It  is  the  constructive  period  when  boys  delight  in  whittling,  building 
boats  and  all  sorts  of  things.  These  natural  tendencies  can  be  led 


DIFFERENT  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.    303 

through  Normal  work  to  train  the  hand  to  perform  what  the  mind 
h'as  conceived,  thus  preventing  that  helplessness  so  common  among 
learned  men. 

3.  Period  from  11  to  17. 

Here  we  reach  the  age  of  early  adolescence.  I  have  suggested  that 
physical  training  up  to  this  time  be  practically  the  same  for  boys  and 
girls.  It  is  now,  however,  that  the  work  for  the  two  sexes  should  dif- 
fer. At  this  period  the  whole  being  is  changing,  mentally,  morally, 
and  physically.  "It  is  the  period  that  marks  both  the  hights  and 
depths  of  the  soul's  strivings."  Tables  for  average  growth  for  hight, 
weignt,  and  girth  of  chest,  calculated  from  the  data  of  thousands  of 
school  children  in  different  cities  show  that  the  figures  for  boys  and 
girls  are  very  different  at  the  age  of  adolescence.  This  is  worthy  of 
our  closest  attention.  The  girl's  period  of  rapid  growtn  is  from  12  to 
14,  the  boy's  from  14  to  16.  That  physical  training  should  be  adapted 
to  suit  the  varied  needs  and  interests  of  each  is  hardly  to  be  doubted. 
During  this  time  there  is  increased  energy  and  activity  of  the  child, 
tendency  to  wander  (often  to  run  away),  preference  for  solitude,  and 
hereditary  traits  often  make  themselves  known  at  this  period.  Dur- 
ing auolescene  the  calibre  of  the  arteries  is  greatly  increased  (about 
1-3),  also  the  size  of  the  heart.  The  rapid  building  up  of  the  body 
makes  it  more  excitable.  Activity  in  some  direction  should  relieve  this 
tension  and  this  activity  should  point  to  present  and  future  happiness. 
All  the  senses  become  keener,  the  child  is  more  awkward  because  more 
self-conscious,  also  because  of  lack  of  motor  control.  His  self-con- 
consciousness  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  wishes  to  be  in  solitude, 
or  "to  show  off."  His  heavy,  pounding  tread  gives  proof  of  this  awk- 
wardness. Dr.  Stanley  Hall  says:  "Adolescence  is  nature's  last  effort 
to  be  generic."  Many  more  centers  of  the  brain  are  called  upon  to  act 
which  naturally  enlarges  the  field  of  interest  of  the  child  and  urges 
him  to  activity,  at  times  mentally,  at  times  physically.  The  boy  shows 
evidence  of  the  growing  man  in  his  desire  to  throw  off  all  restraint. 
Fatigue  and  strain  with  him  are  much  less  dangerous  than  with  the 
girl.  He  demands  an  outlet  for  this  increased  natural  activity.  These 
grave  results  of  fatigue  and  strain  with  girls  after  puberty  must  be 
recognized.  When  we  observe  all  these  changes,  physiological  and 
psychological,  do  we  still  advocate  the  same  work  for  boys  and  girls? 

The  "play  instinct"  at  this  period  is  quite  different.  The  games  are 
no  longer  those  of  individual  play,  but  may  be  characterized  as  altru- 
istic: team  games,  in  which  the  individual  sacrifices  himself  for  the 
whole;  cooperation  for  a  common  end,  involving  courage,  self-control, 
e.  g.,  baseball,  football,  lacross,  etc.  The  spirit  in  girls  is  not  the 
same.  The  boy  is  especially  fond  of  fishing,  camping.  Life  at  this 
age  increases  his  strength  and  endurance  and  1  believe  makes  him  cap- 
able of  more  sustained  and  harder  work. 

Aesthetic  gymnastics  as  a  means  of  training  for  a  more  graceful  and 
better  carriage  in  both  boys  and  girls  should  not  be  neglected,  because 
fancy  steps,  positions  and  movements,  have  their  place  in  physical 
training  as  well  as  gymnastics  and  games.  We  appreciate  that  to  over- 
come awkwardness  or  to  gain  grace  is  not  wholly  for  the  sake  of  ap- 
pearance when  we  realize  that  awkwardness  is  simply  the  wrong  way 
of  doing  things.  Moreover,  grace  promotes  simplicity  and  the  most 
economical  use  of  physical  strength.  Children,  who,  at  the  growth 
period  are  accustomed  to  making  many  movements,  to  using  many 


304:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

muscles,  are  apt  to  accomplish  work  with,  the  least  effort,  the  body  be- 
comes more  supple,  consequently  the  individual  is  apt  to  be  less  self- 
conscious.  "Through  the  muscular  sense  the  pupil  becomes  conscious 
of  his  inherent  power  and  also  his  control  of  this  power — the  conscious- 
ness of  self  which  takes  away  self-consciousness."  This  lays  the  foun- 
dation for  repose,  therefore,  power. 


LEADER'S  REPORT. 

It  was  decided  by  the  section  that  the  papers  should  represent  the 
ideas  of  each  physical  trainer  and  that  in  view  of  the  different  condi- 
tions existing  in  the  different  schools  it  was  not  desirable  to  attempt  to 
formulate  any  common  "purpose,  scope,  and  pain  of  work." 

RESOLUTIONS     ADOPTED    BY    THE    PHYSICAL    TRAINING    SECTION. 

Resolved: — 

1st.  (a)  That  there  should  be  placed  in  every  student's  hands  an 
outline  regarding  the  hygiene  of  school  and  living  rooms,  recreation, 
dirt,  rest,  etc. 

(b)  That  no  boarding  place  for  students  should  be  recommended  for 
students  until  it  has  first  been  visited  by  a  committee  of  the  faculty, 
are  pronounced  satisfactory  in  regard  to  heating,  lighting,  ventilating, 
and  general  sanitary  conditions. 

(c)  That  the  members  of  the  faculties  be  requested  to  often  talk 
with  students  concerning  their  hours  of  study  and  those  things  set 
forth  in  (a)  above. 

2nd.  That  no  person  should  be  permitted  to  coach  foot  ball,  base  ball, 
or  basket  ball  teams,  or  train  students  in  track  or  field  athletics,  who 
is  not  competent  to  judge  of  the  physical  condition  and  endurance  ,of 
the  pupil. 

3rd.  That  no  person  who  is  not  aole  to  take  the  work  in  physical 
training,  should  be  permitted  to  do  full  work  in  the  course  in  which  he 
is  at  that  time  classified. 

4th.  That  the  Board  of  Regents  be  requested  to  employ  a  resident 
physician  who  shall,  at  the  request  of  the  Physical  Trainer,  with  the 
approval  of  the  President,  determine  the  fitness  of  the  student:  —  (a) 
To  enter  the  school,  (b)  To  do  full  work  in  the  school,  (c)  To  re- 
main in  school. 

Resolved,  That  one  term  of  ten  (10)  weeks  be  given  to  the  theory  of 
gymnastics,  because:  — 

A..  (1)  It  is  essential  for  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  phys- 
iological and  psychological  effects  of  exercise. 

(2")  It  is  an  invaluable  aid  in  bringing  about  a  practical  application 
of  the  laws  of  hygiene. 

(3)  It  makes  vital  to  the  pupil-teachers  as  in  no  other  way  the  work 
she  is  to  do  with  her  future  pupils. 

B.  It  is  impossible  for  pupils  who  come  to  the  gymnasium  for  an 
average  of  from  1*4  to  2  hours  per  week  to  get  the  amount  of  exercise, 
recreation  and  professional  training  necessary  to  conserve  health,  un- 
less all  the  time  we  have  now  is  devoted  to  that  purpose. 

Resolved,  That  we  endorse  the  following  plan  in  Theory:  — 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  ADMINISTRATIVE  'WORK.  305 


FIRST   FIVE   WEEKS. 

(1)  Effect  of  exercise  upon  circulation,  digestion,  respiration,  and 
the  brain. 

(2)  Aim  and    effect,    physical,    physiological,    and    psychological  of 
each  class  or  type  of  exercise. 

(3)  Aim  and  effect  of  individual  movements. 

(4)  The  essentials  of  hygiene. 

SECOND   FIVE   WEEKS. 

The  interpretation  of  commands  and  the  practice  of  the  same  under 
criticism  of  each  other  and  the  director. 

W.  H.  CHEEVEE,  Leader. 


PRESIDENTS  AND  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 
Leader,  A.  E.  THOMPSON,  Oshkosh. 


ADMINISTRATION. 

a.  What  administrative  work  must  the  President  keep  in  his  own 
hands? 

b.  What  may  be  entrusted  to  his  clerk  and  to  members  of  his  faculty? 

c.  Modes   of   organizing   administrative   work   most   effectively   and 
with  greatest  economy  of  time  and  effort. 

R.  H.  HALSEY,  Oshkosh. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  President  should  keep  in  his  own 
hands  such  administrative  work  as  (1)  helps  to  determine  the  general 
policy  of  the  school,  and  (2)  such  as  most  intimately  concerns  the  wel- 
fare of  the  individual  students.  For  instance,  if  that  vital  problem 
in  school  management  is  under  consideration,  whether  a  system  of  stu- 
dent self-government  shall  be  substituted  for  the  usual  form  of  con- 
trol of  schools,  inasmuch  as  the  censure  in  case  of  failure  will  inevita- 
bly fall  upon  the  President,  and  a  close  supervision  must  necessarily 
l)e  exercised  by  him,  it  must  follow  that  the  President's  voice  should 
eventually  determine  what  plan  shall  be  followed.  Should  a  question 
arise  as  to  the  course  of  study  in  the  model  school,  inasmuch  as  the 
policy  of  the  school  is  involved  and  the  President  is  responsible  there- 
for, his  voice  must  finally  decide  tne  question  at  issue. 

When  a  student  is  deliberating  as  to  the  course  that  he  shall  pursue, 
he  is  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  discussing  the  question  freely  and 
fully  with  the  President.  Should  the  student's  work  be  of  such  quality 
that  grave  doubts  are  entertained  by  members  of  the  faculty  as  to  his 
ability  to  continue  with  his  work,  the  President  must  be  the  one  to 
diagnose  the  case  and  finally  to  have  the  deciding  voice  in  determining 
whether  the  student  shall  withdraw, from  the  school  or  not,  although 
the  advice  of  the  faculty  will  always  be  sought  on  such  occasions.  In 
l)oth  of  these  cases  it  is  the  vital  interest  of  the  student  concerned  that 
makes  necessary  the  President's  attention.  There  is  danger  that  the 
President  may  be  imposed  upon  in  the  effort  to  give  personal  attention 

20 


306  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

to  the  needs  of  each  student  by  s&me  who  appeal  to  him  upon  matters 
that  are  trivial.  And  yet  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  President  often 
gives  valuable  time  in  this  manner  for  which  there  is  no  satisfactory 
return,  we  cannot  afford  to  deny  to  the  individual  student  the  privilege 
of  easy  and  frequent  access  to  him,  lest  we  find  ourselves  in  the  posi- 
tion of  those  larger  schools  in  our  sister  states  where  the  number  of 
students  in  attendance  is  so  great,  according  to  our  Wisconsin  stand- 
ards, that  the  individuality  of  the  average  student  is  swallowed  up  in 
the  mass,  and,  except  in  rather  unusual  cases,  the  President  finds  it 
impossible  to  individualize  in  his  judgment  upon  and  treatment  of 
the  different  students.  May  the  time  never  come  in  our  Wisconsin 
schools  when  they  shall  reach  such  a  condition.  It  would  seem  to  me 
that  when  one  of  our  schools  has  a  membership  of  more  than  five  hun- 
dred students  in  attendance  at  one  time,  it  has  reached  the  danger 
point.  Even  if  it  were  true  that  a  greater  number  than  this  could  be 
properly  cared  for  during  their  stay  in  the  school,  it  is  not  true  that 
they  could  be  followed  in  their  work  after  leaving,  and  if  the  Normal 
school  is  to  subserve  the  highest  interests  of  the  state,  it  must  not  by 
any  means  cease  to  care  for  and  advise  with  its  students  when  they 
have  severed  their  immediate  connection  with  the  school.  You  will 
all  bear  me  out  in  the  statement  that  your  greatest  difficulty  in  plac- 
ing teachers  is  not  in  finding  proper  persons  for  the  average  positions 
that  require  no  unusual  qualifications,  but  in  selecting  persons  to  rec- 
ommend for  the  more  responsible  positions  about  which  your  advice  is 
asked.  You  do  not  know  with  sufficient  definiteness  just  what  your 
graduates  are  doing, — how  rapidly  they  have  grown  professionally 
since  their  graduation,  unless  by  frequent  correspondence  or  visits 
you  come  into  close  touch  with  their  work.  With  the  increasing  num- 
ber of  graduates,  this  problem  becomes  more  and  more  difficult,  and 
unless  we  can  devise  some  method  of  conducting  this  correspondence 
so  that  it  will  not  fall  entirely  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  President,  we 
cannot  hope  to  conduct  satisfactorily  what  might  be  called  this  "school 
of  correspondence"  for  the  improvement  of  our  graduates. 

In  the  hands  of  the  clerk  should  rest  the  responsibility  for  all  rec- 
ords of  students,  and  she  should  be  clothed  with  authority  as  great  as 
the  President  has  when  she  seeks  to  secure  from  teachers  who  are  de- 
linquent the  records  of  their  students.  Much  of  the  correspondence  in 
the  office  can  of  course  be  turned  over  to  her  without  further  thought 
on  the  part  of  the  President;  for  instance,  requests  for  catalogs,  rec- 
ords, data  with  regard  to  the  school,  etc.  She  should  be  a  person  who 
has  a  sufficiently  intimate  knowledge  of  the  working  of  the  school  and 
sufficient  judgment  to  answer  the  numerous  circular  letters  from  "dear 
detestable  friends"  who  wish  data  with  regard  to  various  parts  of  the 
school's  mechanism.  The  records  of  attendance  she  should  be  respon- 
sible for.  In  most  schools  it  seems  to  me  that  we  may  well  expect  the 
clerk  to  take  charge  of  the  money  paid  fdr  tuition,  book  rent,  etc.,  to 
keep  tne  books  showing  the  receipts  and  expenditures,  and  in  short  to 
take  charge  of  the  purely  clerical  work  of  the  office. 

Much  help  in  administrative  work  may  be  given  by  members  of  the 
faculty,  with  sensible  relief  to  the  President,  and  benefit,  I  believe,  to 
the  persons  undertaking  the  work.  Unless  something  of  this  kind  is 
provided  for  by  the  President,  it  is  my  belief  that  he  is  not  doing  all 
that  he  ought  to  be  doing  to  help  in  the  development  of  the  members  of 
his  faculty.  Many  of  the  latter  have  little  conception  of  the  multifari- 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  ADMINISTRATIVE   WORK.  397 

ous  administrative  duties  of  the  President,  and  it  is  not  until  they  are 
assigned  some  definite  piece  of  work,  as  for  instance,  the  supervision 
of  a  portion  of  the  building  as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  janitor's  work, 
or  of  tne  engineer's  work  in  maintaining  an  even  temperature  through- 
out the  building  (making  weekly  reports  thereon  to  the  President), 
that  they  have  a  realizing  sense  of  what  the  President  must  do  to  be 
omnipresent  in  the  building,  and  so  gain  the  power  that  they  need  in 
school  management.  In  such  a  matter  as  the  inspection  of  boarding 
places  for  students,  the  members  of  the  faculty  may  become  most  use- 
ful, and  may  help  to  gain  that  sense  of  unity  and  harmony  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  faculty  without  which  no  Normal  school  can  expect  to  pros- 
per. For  this  purpose  it  seems  to  me  that  some  piece  of  administra- 
tive work,  however  small,  should  be  definitely  assigned  to  each  of  the 
members  of  the  faculty  that  they  may  grow  to  feel  that  it  is  only  when 
they  work  together  as  one  harmonious  whole  that  the  greatest  efficiency 
of  the  school  may  be  obtained. 

In  the  determination  of  credits  to  be  given  to  students  for  work  done 
in  high  schools  or  colleges  it  seems  to  me  that  the  advice  of  the  faculty 
should  be  sought.  Although  it  is  probably  true  that  the  President 
has  a  better  opportunity  of  knowing  the  work  done  in  individual  high 
schools  than  any  other  member  of  the  faculty,  unless  it  may  be  the  in- 
stitute conductor,  yet  we  should  encourage  each  head  of  department 
to  become  as  well  acquainted  as  possible  with  the  teachers  of  their  sub- 
jects in  the  neighboring  high  schools  to  the  end  that  both  the  high 
schools  and  the  Normal  school  may  be  helped  by  the  more  intimate 
knowledge.  And  yet  after  the  credits  have  been  assigned  by  individual 
members  of  the  faculty,  it  is  necessary  that  the  whole  findings  be  re- 
viewed by  the  President  in  order  that  no  injustice  shall  be  done  to  the 
entering  student. 

In  the  choice  of  books  for  the  library,  the  recommendation  of  heads 
of  departments  should  largely  guide  the  selection,  but  since  it  is  the 
President  who  has  in  mind  the  total  amount  to  be  expended,  and  there 
must  be  some  one  to  see  that  a  right  proportion  is  maintained  among 
the  different  departments,  here  again  the  President  must  finally  deter- 
mine what  books  shall  be  ordered. 

We  have  found  in  the  Oshkosh  school  two  methods  of  organization 
in  our  work  that  have  proved  especially  beneficial.  One  of  these  is  a 
system  of  faculty  committees,  which  supervise  some  of  the  adminis- 
trative work;  and  another,  a  system  of  faculty  advisers  for  students. 
Under  the  first  system  there  are  faculty  committees  appointed,  having 
charge  of  various  lines  of  work.  There  are  committees  on — Individual 
Welfare  of  Students,  Social  Life,  Christian  Work,  Literary  Societies, 
Athletics,  Student  Records,  Course  of  Study,  New  Business,  Graduation, 
School  and  Platform  Entertainments,  Student  Contests. 

The  Committee  on  Individual  Welfare  attends  to  such  matters  of  de- 
tail as  inspection  of  the  places  where  rooms  are  rented  to  students,  the 
boarding  clubs,  and  any  other  matters  that  have  to  do  with  the  life  of 
the  students,  during  that  portion  of  the  day  when  they  are  not  en- 
gaged in  school  work. 

The  Committee  on  Social  Life  acts  as  an  advisory  body  to  the  stu- 
dents in  preparation  for  class  receptions,  or  receptions  of  the  various 
student  organizations. 

The  Committee  on  Christian  Work  acts  in  conjunction  with  the 
Students'  Christian  Association,  and  brings  to  the  consideration  of  the 


308  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

faculty  various  matters  from  time  to  time,  that  have  to  do  with  the 
moral  welfare  of  the  individual  members  of  the  school. 

The  Committee  en  Athletics,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  an  advisory 
body  with  the  student  organization,  whose  object  is  to  recommend  reg- 
ulations governing  the  eligibility  of  students  who  desire  to  engage  in 
athletic  sports.  This  committee  also  considers  ways  and  means  in 
conjunction  with  the  student  body,  for  securing  the  revenue  necessary 
for  carrying  on  these  sports. 

The  Committee  on  Student  Records  meets  weekly  to  consider  any 
cases  of  delinquent  students  reported  by  members  of  the  faculty.  These 
reports  ai*e  handed  to  the  chairman  of  this  committee,  on  blanks  spe- 
cially prepared  for  this  purpose,,  are  considered  by  the  committee  in 
session,  and  tne  case  of  the  student  is  then  referred  to  the  President, 
or  some  member  of  the  faculty,  as  the  circumstances  seem  to  indicate. 

The  Committee  on  Course  of  Study  has  considered  modifications  of 
the  course  of  study  for  the  Normal  department,  and  also  has  revised  to 
a  certain  extent  the  course  of  study  of  the  model  department. 

The  Committee  on  School  and  Platform  Entertainments  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  committee  from  the  body  of  city  teachers,  during  the  past 
two  years,  has  carried  on  a  series  of  lectures.  This  committee  acts 
also  as  an  advisory  body  to  such  organization  of  the  students  as  may 
desire  to  give  dramatic  entertainments,  or  engage  in  some  form  of  lit- 
erary entertainment. 

The  Committee  on  Student  Contests  was  organized  specially  for  the 
purpose  of  superintending  the  matter  of  oratorical  contests  with  other 
Normal  schools  of  the  state,  and  debates  whi^h  may  be  held  between 
the  representatives  of  this  school  and  other  Normal  schools. 

We  have  found  that  this  system  of  faculty  committees  has  operated 
beneficially  in  that  it  has  made  individual  members  of  the  faculty  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  the  administrative  work  of  the  school,  and  has 
saved  the  time  in  faculty  meetings  by  having  such  matter  as  would 
naturally  be  presented  to  the  faculty,  carefully  digested  in  a  commit- 
tee before  the  faculty  acts  upon  it. 

The  system  of  faculty  advisers  for  the  student  body  is  one  that  has 
"been  organized  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  careful  personal  super- 
vision of  each  member  of  that  body  by  some  member  of  the  faculty. 
The  students  are  divided  into  groups  of  from  15  to  20  each,  and  each 
member  of  the  faculty  has  charge  of  one  group.  In  so  far  as  is  prac- 
ticable, the  faculty  Committee  on  Individual  "Welfare  has  assigned  the 
members  of  the  student  body  to  different  members  of  the  faculty  in 
accordance  with  tne  expressed  preference  of  the  latter.  The  students 
feel  in  this  way  that  there  is  one  member  of  the  faculty  in  particular 
to  whom  they  may  go  in  case  advice  is  needed,  and  who,  in  one  sense 
is  more  immediately  responsible  for  their  welfare  than  any  other  per- 
son in  the  faculty.  Frequently  the  cases  of  delinquent  students  are 
referred  by  the  Committee  on  Student  Records  to  the  faculty  adviser  of 
the  individual  student,  for  conference  and  assistance.  The  students 
are  made  to  feel,  however,  that  they  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  consult 
with  the  President,  or  any  other  member  of  the  faculty,  at  any  time, 
without  reference  to  the  group  to  which  they  may  be  assigned. 

It  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  advantages  of  this  system  of  faculty  ad- 
visers for  the  students  may  be  very  greatly  multiplied,  if  we  shall  con- 
sider the  relation  to  extend  beyond  the  time  of  the  student's  immedi- 
ate connection  with  the  school.  A  correspondence  might  be  divided  in 


SUPERVISION  OF  TEACHING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

this  way,  which  need  not  be  burdensome  to  the  members  of  the  faculty, 
and  will  help  to  continue  indefinitely  the  interest  which  the  students 
feel  in  tne  welfare  of  the  school,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  personal  in- 
terest which  the  members  of  the  faculty  feel  in  the  individual  students 
will  be  maintained  tnrough  a  period  of  years,  on  the  other. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  any  system  which  serves  to  increase 
the  reeling  01  responsibility  on  the  part  of  members  of  the  faculty  in 
the  students  as  individuals  must  be  productive  of  good,  both  to  fac- 
ulty and  students. 


SUPERVISION  OF  TEACHING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

ALBERT  SALISRURY,  Whitewater. 

This  theme  has  been  assigned  to  me  with  no  consent  of  mine.  It 
is  one  concerning  which  I  should  be  a  learner  and  not  a  teacher.  I 
have  a  sort  of  intuition,  or  suspicion  at  least,  that  I  am  thought, 
in  high  quarters,  to  be  a  little  lame  in  this  matter  of  faculty  super- 
vision. Therefore,  I  did  not  take  very  kindly  to  my  assignment.  But 
while  I  protested  to  the  conductor  of  this  institute  against  this  dis- 
position of  the  topic,  yet  I  did  not  absolutely  balk  at  it.  I  am  as  will- 
ing to  become  a  target  for  my  respected  colleagues  as  I  am  to  en- 
gage in  target  practice  on  occasion. 

If  President  Albee  of  revered  memory  were  with  us  on  this  occa- 
sion in  the  flesh  as,  for  aught  we  know,  he  may  be  in  the  spirit, 
he  should  be  the  one  to  instruct  us  on  this  important  subject.  He 
of  all  our  number  from  the  beginning,  showed  greatest  power  in  the 
direction  of  molding  a  body  of  teachers  into  his  own  image,  so  to 
speak;  into  an  appreciation  and  acceptance  of  his  own  ideals.  And 
it  is  surely  matter  for  deep  regret  that  we  cannot  have  from  his 
lips  a  relation  of  his  unique  and  remarkable  experience  in  this  diffi- 
cult department  of  executive  work,  the  supervision  of  instruction  and 
instructors.  But  he  has  been  called  to  a  higher  council  than  this, 
and  we  must  do  as  best  we  can. 

(a)  "What  time  is  necessary  for  the  supervision  of  class  work  by 
members  of  the  faculty  in  the  Normal  school?" 

The  answer  depends,  among  other  things,  on  what  the  head  of 
the  school  aims  to  accomplish  through  this  supervision.  If  he  dreams 
of  keeping  close  watch  of  all  that  is  taught  and  done  by  each  teacher, 
all  his  time  will  not  be  half  enough.  The  question  provokes  re- 
statement, viz.:  "Is  it  necessary  to  supervise  Normal  school  teach- 
ers? If  so,  how  much?"  Or,  better:  "What  time  can  be  afforded 
for  such  supervision?"  It  is  a  relative  matter,  after  all.  How  much 
the  head  of  the  school  should  supervise  depends  on  what  else  he 
has  to  do,  what  else  he  must  keep  under  his  own  hand. 

The  teaching  in  a  school,  even  a  Normal  school,  even  the  profes- 
sional teaching,  is  not  the  most  important  thing  there.  The  spirit 
of  the  school,  enthusiasm  for  the  work  of  teaching,  loyalty  to  its 
aims  and  standards,  rank  above  the  class  teaching,  though  not  wholly 
separable  from  it.  And  these  things  come  not  by  class  supervision. 
Pres.  Albee  did  all  these  things,  thought  out  with  philosophic  mind 
the  problems  of  education,  fired  his  school  with  loyalty  and  enthusi- 


310  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

asm,  molded  his  students,  and  made  his  teachers  over  again;  but 
Pres.  Albee  is  dead.  There  are  limits  to  any  man's  strength.  And 
few  men  are  so  wise  and  strong  as  to  have  the  right,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  ability,  to  impose  their  own  ideals  and  purposes  so  absolutely 
upon  a  faculty  and  school. 

The  head  of  a  Normal  school  has  many  things  to  do  besides  super- 
vising class  teaching.  He  is  President  not  simply  of  the  faculty, 
but  of  the  whole  school.  He  has  no  right  to  put  himself  into  such 
relations  to  the  teachers  that  he  will  have  little,  or  too  little,  rela- 
tion to  the  students  as  individuals. 

1.  He  is  charged  with  the  general  management  of  the  institution. 
He  must  face  in  no  uncertain  way  towards  the  Board  of  Regents  and 
the  higher  powers.     He  must  know  the  vital  needs  of  his  school,  ma- 
terial  and   professional.       He   must  have   plans   and   visions   of  the 
future,  must  find  continually  new  needs,  or  stagnate.     He  must  stand 
to  the  outside  world  as  the  head  and  representative  of  the  school; 
he   must   travel   some,   lecture    some,   correspond   much,   and    take   a 
laboring  oar  in  the  educational  movements  of  the  commonwealth. 

He  must  so  organize  his  faculty  that  they  will  not  need  his  con- 
stant presence.  The  principle  of  division  of  labor  must  prevail.  Of  all 
the  work  in  a  great  school  there  is  none  which  can  be  so  safely  handed 
over  to  others,  so  far  as  its  successful  accomplishment  goes,  as  that 
of  teaching.  The  executive  work  of  the  school  cannot  so  well  be 
divided  or  distributed.  Here  the  rule  holds:  "If  you  wish  a  thing 
done  satisfactorily,  do  it  yourself." 

2.  The  executive  must  have  much  and  intimate  contact  with  the 
students  of  the  school  in  formative  ways.     He  cannot  fruitfully  deal 
with  them  at  arm's  length.     If  he  is  such  a  personality  as  the  posi- 
tion requires,  he  has  no  right  to  withdraw  himself  from  student  ken 
and  work  only  as  a  sort  of  deus  ex  machina  through  the  teachers. 
The  President's  office  should  never  be  locked.     It  should  not  be  a 
sanctum  sanctorum.     But    the    formative    influence    of    the    President 
cannot  be  wholly  accomplished  in  the  office.     The  morning  exercises 
are  his  great  opportunity;   the  morning  platform  is  his  forum.     His 
best  thought,  pedagogical  and  otherwise,  his  enthusiasm  and  profes- 
sional  zeal,   his   public   interest   and   outward   look   upon  the   world, 
must  find   expression  here.     This  means  that  much  of  his  strength 
and  vitality  must  go  into  the  morning  exercises. 

3.  He  must  teach,  for  his  own  sake.     I  feel  that  even  the  Presi- 
dent of  a  college  loses  greatly  in  not  appearing  before  his  students 
as  a  teacher.     But  far  more  does  the  Normal  school  President  need 
to  "keep  his  hand  in"  as  a  teacher.     There  is  no  other  way  so  effective 
for  knowing  one's  students  and  coming  into  fruitful  relations  with 
them  as  that  of  direct  teaching.     And  this  is  a  point  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  general  discipline  of  the  school. 

Furthermore,  I  believe  that  the  President  should  teach  those  sub- 
jects which  are  most  vital  to  the  professional  result  of  the  school, 
not  general  literature  or  political  economy  or  any  other  odds  and 
ends  of  general  culture-subjects.  Neither,  in  my  opinion,  should  his 
teaching  be  confined  to  the  senior  class  or  some  small  section  of 
the  school.  He  should  get  hold  lower  down,  meeting  students  near 
the  doorway  of  their  professional  course. 

4.  He  should  be  the  ready  and  effective  leader  of  a  frequently  and 


SUPERVISION  OF  TEACHING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

regularly  recurring  faculty  meeting.  To  save  this  meeting  from  be- 
coming a  dreary  jumble  of  administrative  odds  and  ends,  or  a  place 
for  threshing  old  straw,  or  a  perfunctory  rehearsal  of  commonplace 
and  chronic  platitude, — to  some  acquaintance  with  all  which  things 
I  myself  plead  guilty, — consumes  time  and  energy.  When  all  these 
necessary  functions  have  been  decently  fulfilled,  how  much  time  and 
energy  has  a  President  left  for  the  work  of  supervising  class  teach- 
ing? I  do  not  mean,  at  all,  to  imply  that  this  function  should  take 
only  what  is  left  when  all  others  are  discharged;  but  we  now  reach 
again  the  question:  What  share  of  the  whole  time  may  it  rightfully 
claim? 

Before  this  question  can  be  rightly  answered  there  is  yet  another 
which  must  be  duly  considered,  viz.:  What  is  the  net  result  and 
profit  of  such  supervision  when  performed  as  faithfully  as  the  cir- 
cumstances allow?  And  here  I  may  as  well  confess  that  I  cannot 
divest  myself  wholly  of  the  suspicion  that  good  time  may  be  wasted 
in  this  exercise,  and  that  the  results,  when  rightly  measured,  may 
sometimes  prove  to  be  disappointingly  small.  There  are  at  least 
limitations  upon  its  success.  I  allow  myself  to  borrow,  here,  from 
another  paper  which  I  am  to  present  at  a  section-meeting  later  in 
the  week: 

"Aside  from  the  limitations  of  the  time  and  strength  of  the  ex- 
ecutive, with  the  multitude  of  important  duties  which  he  cannot  del- 
egate to  others,  there  are  also  the  limitations  of  the  situation.  Even 
Normal  school  teachers  are  liable  to  be  easily  disconcerted,  and  their 
pupils  are  still  more  so.  The  head  of  the  school  is  held  in  so  much 
awe  (for  want  of  a  better  term),  under  these  circumstances,  that  he 
seldom  sees  a  fair  sample  of  their  work.  And,  even  at  the  best, 
he  gets  little  idea  from  visitation  of  classes  of  the  sequence,  con- 
tinuity, and  articulation  of  the  work  of  the  teacher. 

"Again,  the  question  what  to  do  with  what  he  does  see  is  always 
a  difficult  one.  There  is  a  sacred  tradition  that  he  must  not  criti- 
cise or  interfere  with  work  on  the  spot;  while  criticism  in  cold  blood, 
afterwards,  seems  often  too  serious  and  formidable.  If  the  super- 
vising head  remains  silent,  that  is  likely  to  be  construed  as  a  sul- 
len disapproval;  he  is  expected  rather  to  praise  than  to  criticise.  But 
the  giving  of  'taffy'  seems  to  him,  usually,  as  'stale,  flat,  and  un- 
profitable.' " 

One  must  consider  also  what  effect  much  class  visitation  may  have 
upon  the  attitude  of  students  towards  their  instructors.  Does  it  not 
raise  dangerous  questions  in  their  minds? 

The  question  arises,  furthermore,  how  far  the  ends  sought  in  cla^s 
supervision  can  be  attained  through  other  channels  or  agencies,  more 
indirect  in  character.  The  executive,  without  encouraging  the  spirit 
of  gossip  or  fault-finding  may  learn  much,  does  learn  much,  from  the 
comment  of  students  outside  the  classroom  upon  their  handling. 
These  student-views  are  of  the  greatest  value  as  clues  to  further 
investigation.  Secondly,  the  President  will  learn  much  from  the  un- 
conscious revelations  of  the  teacher  through  contact  outside  the 
classroom  and  in  office  consultations,  which  should  always  be  en- 
couraged, and  for  which  free  opportunity  should  be  provided. 
Thirdly,  there  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  requiring  written 
reports  from  the  teachers  of  the  work  being  done,  with  occasional 


312  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

submission  of  lesson-plans,  both  of  lessons  just  given  and  of  lessons 
about  to  be  given.  All  such  indirect  means  of  keeping  track  of  the 
teacher's  work  tell  a  truer  story,  as  far  as  they  go,  than  does  per- 
sonal visitation  by  the  chief. 

But  I  am  doubtless  making  myself  misunderstood.  I  am  not  try* 
ing  to  deny  any  value  to  class  supervision,  nor  even  to  minimize  its 
value,  but  only  to  be  honest  with  you  and  myself  in  the  effort  to  find 
its  true  place.  When  all  has  been  said  or  suggested  by  way  of 
limitation,  it  still  remains  that  supervision  of  class  teaching  can- 
not safely  be  dispensed  with.  "Supervision  is,  after  all,  needful  in 
order  to  adequately  know  what  teachers  are  teaching,  what  heresies, 
misconceptions,  or  shallow  conceptions  are  being  promulgated.  It 
must,  at  least,  supplement  all  the  other  avenues  of  knowledge  open 
to  the  chief  on  these  points.  And  it  often,  very  often,  gives  clues 
to  discoveries  which  are  completed  by  other  means.  The  presiding 
officer  must  school  himself  to  discharge  this  duty  faithfully  and  as 
graciously  as  possible;  and  teachers  and  pupils  must  learn  to  taka 
his  visits  as  part  of  the  business,  and  not  flinch  from  the  useful  or- 
deal, welcoming  every  suggestion  as  a  means  to  a  greater  unity,  and 
so  to  greater  efficiency,  in  the  common  work." 

The  question  recurs,  what  part  of  a  President's  time  should  be  set 
apart  for  supervision  of  class  teaching?  Not  to  "beat  the  bush" 
longer,  I  will  venture  to  say  that,  indispensable  as  it  may  be  for  some 
purposes,  the  head  of  a  Normal  school  cannot  wisely  give  to  this  func- 
tion more  than  sixty  minutes  of  any  school  day;  and  often  he  must 
omit  it  from  the  day's  work  altogether. 

(b)  "How  can  this  supervision  be  done  so  as  to  secure  the  most 
intelligent  judgment  as  to  merits  and  defects  of  teachers;  as  to  unity 
of  ideals  and  effort  in  professional  work?" 

Under  this  head,  it  does  not  occur  to  me  that  I  am  qualified  or  en- 
titled to  say  very  much.  I  suppose  the  question  is  wholly  one  of 
method,  or  procedure.  Such  questions  as  these  will  arise,  viz.:  Shall 
the  supervising  officer  make  short  visits  or  long?  Shall  he  drop  in 
on  the  teacner  often  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  to  catch  the  move- 
ment and  sample  the  pedagogical  atmosphere;  or  shall  he  stay 
through  a  whole  recitation,  to  get  the  continuity  of  things,  and  visit 
less  often,  as  he  then  must? 

Shall  he  allow  himself  to  "mix  in,"  during  the  exercise,  by  way 
of  covert  suggestion  to  teacher  or  class,  or  shall  he  preserve  a  judi- 
cial silence  throughout? 

Shall  needed  suggestion  or  criticism  be  made  to  the  teacher  im- 
mediately at  the  close  of  the  exercise,  or  later  and  elsewhere? 

Wherein  lies  the  greatest  danger, — in  praise,  criticism,  or  non-commit- 
ment? How  far  shall  one  dull  the  edge  of  criticism  through  fear  of 
wounding  the  pride  or  sensitiveness  of  teachers? 

In  my  experience  as  a  Superintendent  at  the  South,  I  was  almost 
driven  to  the  "mixing  in"  procedure  by  the  teachers  themselves. 
They  construed  silence  as  ominous  of  disapproval,  and  were  discon- 
certed and  depressed  by  it.  But  I  find  that  members  of  a  Normal 
school  faculty  sometimes  protest  against  any  participation  by  the 
visitor  in  the  exercise.  They  regard  it  as  interfering  with  and  ob- 
structing if  not  thwarting  their  own  purposes  in  the  recitation.  Was 
it,  then,  a  bad  habit  that  I  formed? 


SUPERVISION  OF  TEACHING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.       3^3 

I  am  well  aware  that  I  am  proposing  questions  and  leaving  them 
unanswered.  I  humbly  take  my  seat  as  a  learner. 

(c)  "What  means  should  be  employed  to  remedy  defects  of  teach- 
ers and  to  secure  unity  of  action  where  it  is  lacking?" 

Here,  again,  I  fear  that  I  shall  fail  to  exhibit  any  fertility  of  coun- 
sel. I  certainly  have  no  novelties  to  suggest  in  the  direction  indi- 
cated and  shall  venture  only  a  few  propositions. 

The  first  and  chief  means,  I  would  say,  of  furthering  the  ends 
specified  is  that  of  personal  conference  with  teachers,  whether  by 
way  of  interrogation,  suggestion,  or  definite  criticism.  The  President 
should  take  care  to  keep  himself  accessible  to  every  teacher.  Office 
conference  with  any  teacher  desiring  it  should  take  precedence  over 
almost  any  other  demand  on  the  executive  attention;  though  it  must 
be  admitted  that  some  teachers  wilt  abuse  their  privileges  and  ob- 
trude trivial  questions  and  difficulties  which  they  should  be  able  to 
handle  for  themselves.  But  this  is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule; 
and  the  President  should  often  be  the  questioner  and  not  always  the 
questionee.  The  accessibility  to  teachers  will  call  for  special  effort 
by  the  executive  to  establish  such  a  habit  on  his  own  part,  and  to 
encourage  teachers  in  the  practice  of  seeking  conference  on  questions 
connected  with  their  plans  and  methods  of  work. 

Another  agency  for  rectification  is  the  stated  faculty  meeting. 
Many  questions  can  there  be  raised  in  an  impersonal  way,  and  poli- 
cies urged,  more  or  less  authoritatively,  which  will  lead  to  office  con- 
sultation by  teachers,  or  will  even  obviate  the  necessity  for  such 
consultation.  Twenty  heads  are  better  than  one;  and  if  the  President 
is  a  man  of  open  mind  he  will  learn  as  well  as  teach,  will  both  im- 
press and  be  impressed  through  faculty  discussions.  But  he  must  be 
the  leader  of  these  discussions,  and  not  let  them  drift  whither  they 
will,  as  accident  or  caprice  may  determine.  He  should  have  a  pur- 
pose in  the  starting  of  any  discussion,  and  endeavor  to  bring  forth 
some  result  besides  mere  discussion.  Faculties  are  somewhat  prone 
to  thresh  old  straw,  and  to  reiterate  old  propositions  through  mere 
force  of  habit.  In  this  there  can  be  no  profit. 

But  too  much  must  not  be  expected  of  the  President  in  the  way 
of  reducing  chaotic  elements  to  intelligent  unity.  He  must  not  be 
required  to  make  bricks  without  straw.  Neither  is  it  his  proper  duty 
to  reorganize  and  regenerate  inapt  and  unteachable  teachers.  As  I 
have  said  before,  the  principle  of  division  of  labor  must  obtain,  the 
President  must  leave  some  responsibility  on  others;  and  the  state, 
through  its  representatives,  must  see  that  assistants  who  do  not  as- 
sist and  subordinates  who  cannot,  or  do  not,  co-ordinate,  are  elimi- 
nated without  too  much  delay.  And  the  responsibility  for  this  elimi- 
nating process  should  not  be  thrown  wholly  upon  the  President  of 
the  school.  It  is  not  enough  even  to  give  him  carte  blanche  in  the 
selection  of  his  staff.  Being  only  human,  he  is  bound  to  make  some 
errors  in  the  selection  of  teachers,  no  matter  how  great  his  caution; 
and  he  should  not  be  tied  to  the  wheel  of  his  own  mistakes.  The 
Committee  on  Teachers  ought  not  to  be  simply  a  mechanism  for  the 
saving  of  money;  but  it  should  be  .a  wholesome  and  helpful  agency  in 
this  very  direction  of  securing  unity  and  efficiency  in  the  instructional 
forces  of  the  schools. 

The  President  of  a  Normal  school  under  our  Wisconsin  system  and 


314:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

perhaps  under  any  system,  has  great  opportunity  and  great  responsi- 
bility. His  labors  are  manifold  and  his  burdens  heavy.  To  accom- 
plish all  that  is  laid  upon  him  and  attain  the  standards  rightly  set 
for  him,  he  needs  to  be  of  a  calibre  not  too  common  in  the  world. 
But  whatever  his  calibre,  he  will  have  abundant  occasion  in  view  of 
all  his  opportunity  and  all  his  responsibility,  and  all  his  liability,  to 
exclaim:  "Who  is  sufficient  for  these  things?" 

The  truth  is  that  he  has  more  on  his  hands  than  one  man  can  do 
with  a  full  measure  of  success;  and  I  have  sometimes  thought  that 
a  large  Normal  school  should  be  a  sort  of  "double-header,"  that  there 
should  be  a  sort  of  vice-principal  or  associate  principal,  who  should 
be  charged,  as  his  sole  duty,  with  this  very  business  of  class  super- 
vision and  the  securing  of  unity  in  the  professional  work  of  the 
school.  There  would  unquestionably  be  some  dangers  connected  with 
such  a  mode  of  administration;  but  perhaps  no  more  serious  dangers, 
after  all,  than  attend  the  present  system.  But  while  we  are  waiting 
for  some  such  solution  of  the  difficulty,  we  must  push  along  as  best 
we  may,  depending  upon  Regents  and  State  Superintendents  to  stim- 
ulate and  quicken  us  by  all  the  methods  within  their  reach,  includ- 
ing such  stimulation  as  this  present  convocation  affords. 


FACULTY  MEETINGS. 

(a)  How  can  these  meetings  be  made  most  beneficial  to  the  school? 

(b)  How  often  should  they  be  held? 

THERON  B.  PRAY,  Stevens  Point. 

The  purposes  to  be  served  and  the  character  of  business  usually 
brought  before  these  meetings  may  be  considered  in  two  general 
classes:  administrative  and  pedagogical. 

Administrative. — 

I.  Distinctly  official  business;  such  as 

(a)  Making  of  programs,   with   due   reference  to   the   interests   of 
large  and  small  classes   (i.  e.,  groups  of  students  reciting  together), 
distribution  of  recitations  through  the  school  day,  recesses,  etc. 

(b)  Variations   from  regular  program,   due  to   rhetorical  or  other 
school  exercises,  examinations,  library  classes. 

(c)  Friction  in  movement  of  classes  or  relations  of  any  teachers 
or  pupils  growing  out  of  (a)  or  (b). 

(d)  Social  affairs,  society  meetings,  athletics. 

II.  Discipline,  including  consideration  of  failures  and  successes  of 
students,  their  general  conduct  and  character.    What  influences  may 
be  brought  to  bear  upon  students  for  their  improvement,  and  how? 

III.  Classification,   promotion,   and  graduation  or  dismissal  of  stu- 
dents. 

IV.  Consideration  of  strength  and  weakness  of  the  school  organiza- 
"tion,  its  needs,  material  and  otherwise,  and  the  possibility  or  desira- 
bility of  further  development  or  profitable  change  in  any  particular. 

Pedagogical. — 

1.  The  increase  of  interest  in  pedagogy,  with  confirmation  and  uni- 
fication of  sentiment  and  practice. 


BEST  USE  OF  FACULTY  MEETINGS. 

II.  The  comparison  of  aims,  processes  and  results  reached  in  prac- 
tice department  and  Normal  classes,  with  a  view  to  elucidation  of 
method. 

III.  A   study   of   general   pedagogy,   of   principles    and    practice   in 
teaching,  of  tendencies  and  currents  of  educational  thought  as  shown 
in  literature  or  recent  studies. 

The  above  scheme  is  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive,  but  may 
serve  to  show  some  of  the  ways  in  which  meetings  of  the  en- 
tire faculty  of  the  school  may  be  found  necessary  and  useful.  While 
it  may  easily  happen  that  some  cases  presented  to  the  faculty  con- 
cern persons  wholly  unknown  to  certain  teachers,  it  is  quite  as  like- 
ly to  be  true  that  a  closer  approximation  to  fair  and  wise  decision 
is  reached  after  consideration  of  facts  known  to  and  offered  by  teach- 
ers not  directly  concerned.  Especially  is  it  desirable  that  teachers 
of  model  school  departments,  who  have  best  opportunity  to  observe 
and  note  disposition  and  characteristics  of  teaching  students,  and 
many  evidences  of  character  not  to  be  tested  by  examinations,  be 
present  whenever  such  matters  are  considered.  By  Sec.  1,  Art.  VII 
of  the  By-Laws  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  the  facuicy  of  each  school 
is  composed  of  all  the  teachers  of  that  school.  This  is  certainly  a 
wise  and  just  provision,  securing  for  every  teacher  an  opportunity 
to  be  heard  in  the  determination  of  any  matter  of  policy,  practice 
or  pedagogy,  in  which  he  or  she  may  be  interested;  and  securing  for 
the  school  action  based  upon  experience,  wisdom  and  ripest  judgment 
of  the  entire  teaching  body. 

That  such  result  may  be  realized  in  actual  practice,  a  few  simple, 
fundamental  conditions  must  be  observed:  (1)  Regular  attendance 
of  all  members  of  the  faculty.  (2)  Mutual  trust  and  consequent  frank- 
ness of  statement  of  fact  and  opinion.  (3)  Extreme  readiness  to  give 
as  well  as  receive  and  to  test  fact,  opinion,  principle  or  method.  (4) 
Outside  of  the  meeting  closed  lips  on  all  matters  of  discipline  or 
difference  except  on  the  part  of  those  authorized  or  required  to  speak 
or  act.  On  no  other  condition  can  unity  of  sentiment,  belief  or  prac- 
tice grow.  In  no  other  way  can  effective  co-operation  and  the  pro- 
fessional spirit  develop  in  the  faculty,  and  so  come  to  exist  in  the 
school. 

Weekly  meetings  are  not  too  frequent  to  maintain  interest  and  con- 
tinuity in  pedagogical  discussion  or  investigaton,  and  to  take  prompt 
and  timely  notice  of  current  facts  in  the  life  of  the  school.  Quite 
rigid  observance  of  time  limits  both  for  beginning  and  ending  the 
sessions  win  avoid  any  undue  demand  upon  the  time  of  the  teacher, 
or  undue  interference  with  the  numerous  varied  duties  and  obliga- 
tions of  teachers  to  themselves,  the  school  and  society.  It  may  be 
found  advisable  to  divide  each  session,  within  well  denned  limits  of 
time,  between  the  two  main  divisions  of  our  subject  noted  above,  ad- 
ministrative and  pedagogical,  thus  providing  for  prompt  action  on  one 
class  of  topics  and  continuity  of  interest  and  thought  as  related  to  the 
other  class. 


316  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

TEACHERS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS. 

Leader,  J.  I.  JEGI,  Milwaukee. 

(First  Day.) 


In  the  Supervision  of  Practice  Teaching,  how  secure  the  maximum 
of  spontaneity  under  the  control  of  Pedagogic  Law? 

ROSE  C.  SWART,  Oshkosh. 

Teaching  that  possesses  spontaneity  and  at  the  same  time  conforms 
to  pedagogic  law,  is  high  grade  teaching,  and  is  doubtless,  in  gen- 
eral, the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  We  are  asked  in  this  dis- 
cussion to  consider  how,  in  the  case  of  Normal  graduates,  it  may  be 
made  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 

At  the  risk  of  seeming  to  beg  the  question,  I  am  going  to  say  that 
not  all  students  who  enroll  in  a  Normal  shcool  can  be  made  into  such 
high  grade  teachers;  and  that  in  order  to  make  such  teachers  the 
school  must  find  in  the  student,  to  a  promising  degree,  at  least  four 
qualities: 

1.  A  naturally  good  mind,  clear,  vigorous,  and  sound  in  its  workings. 

2.  Moral  earnestness  of  character  and  a  sense  of  responsibility. 

3.  The  natural  sympathy  with  children  that  enables  him  in  matters 
of  learning  and  of  conduct  to  take  the  child's  point  of  view. 

4.  Natural  qualities  of  leadership;   that  is,  he  should  give  promise 
of  the  ability  to  inspire  his  pupils  with  worthy  ambitions  and  ideals, 
to  stimulate  them  to  undertake,  and  to  direct  and  control  them  in 
dong  what  they  undertake.       These  natural  qualities  constitute  the 
student's  possibilities  out  of  which  the  Normal  school  may  confident- 
ly hope  to  develop  a  high  degree  of  teaching  power.     The  public  may 
very  properly  demand  to  be  protected  from  Normal  graduates  who 
have  not  shown,  either  in  general,  or  in  some  special  line,  these  nat- 
ural qualifications  for  which  there  is  no  substitute. 

The  question  whether  or  not  such  natural  qualities  exist  in  a  given 
student  should  not  be  left  wholly  to  his  practice  work  to  determine, 
because  it  comes  comparatively  late  in  his  course,  and  because  the 
model  school  should  be  protected  from  practice  which  is  unworthy* 
of  its  opportunities;  but  the  entire  faculty  of  the  Normal  school 
should  work  together  from  the  beginning  to  test  and  to  develop  the 
student's  fitness  for  teaching.  It  will  help  the  Normal  class  teachers 
to  hold  in  mind  the  object  of  their  teaching, — namely,  to  make  schol- 
ars in  the  branch  in  order  that  they  may  make  teachers  of  it. 

Heads  of  departments  in  the  Normal  school  proper  should  rank 
members  of  their  classes  with  respect  to  promise  for  teaching  the 
branch  as  well  as  capacity  for  learning  it;  and  in  determining  the 
student's  worthiness  to  continue  his  professional  course  these  rank- 
ings should  be  considered  with  those  of  scholastic  attainment. 

So  much  being  granted,  how  may  the  supervisor  secure  the  maxi- 
mum of  spontaneity  under  the  control  of  pedagogic  law  and  thus 
enable  the  practice  teacher  to  realize  his  own  highest  possibilities? 

First. — The  practice  teacher  should  not  be  deluged  with  methods- 


SPONTANEITY  IN  PRACTICE  TEACHING.  3^7 

and  processes.  It  is  possible  to  focus  his  attention  upon  them  so 
early  and  so  persistently  as  to  cause  him  to  lose  sight  of  the  end 
for  which  they  exist.  He  may  even  be  led  to  think  that  in  the  way 
of  doing  a  thing  lies  the  virtue  of  doing  it.  Hence,  both  the  super- 
visor and  the  practice  teacher  should  distinguish  between  the  end 
sought  and  the  means  to  the  end.  The  end  sought  is  the  mental  and 
moral  improvement,  the  social  training,  and  the  physical  well-being 
of  the  children  taught;  the  effect  of  the  teacher  and  the  teaching  upon 
the  children  is  the  real  proof  of  the  quality  of  the  work.  If  the 
teacher  interests  the  children  in  their  school  work,  makes  them  well 
bred  in  manner,  helpful  and  considerate  in  spirit,  diligent  in  well- 
doing, widens  their  knowledge  and  deepens  their  insight  a  little,  day 
by  day,  and  trains  them  to  use  what  they  know  in  finding  out  some- 
thing else,  or  in  working  out  their  own  ends,  the  work  is  good,  no 
matter  by  what  particular  device  or  general  method  is  was  accom- 
plished. It  will  not  do  to  try  to  substitute  for  these  solid,  beneficent 
results  the  means  by  which  they  are  sought  to  be  secured.  In  other 
words,  it  will  not  do  to  magnify  the  tool  above  the  work  which  it 
aids  us  to  perform. 

Second. — Since  the  end  sought  is  the  improvement  of  the  children, 
the  attention  of  the  practice  teacher  should  be  fixed  upon  the  chil- 
dren as  the  center  of  his  thought.  He  should  be  trained  to  take  note 
daily  of  the  condition  of  each  child,  mental,  moral,  and  physical,  to 
consider  whether  the  child  is  moving  forward  or  backward,  and  to 
examine  into  the  causes  of  the  latter  condition  if  it  be  found  to  exist. 
He  should  be  trained  not  to  rest  satisfied  until  every  pupil  under  his 
charge  is  growing  better,  gaining  some  added  grace  and  strength  of 
spirit,  mind,  and  body.  He  should  be  taught  in  school  management, 
in  theory,  in  psychology,  in  the  science  of  education,  and  in  practice, 
to  study  the  nature  of  children,  to  come  into  sympathetic  touch  with 
their  needs,  to  project  himself  in  imagination  into  their  future  and 
realize  the  difference  it  will  make  to  them  what  kind  of  future  it  be- 
comes. 

Third. — The  practice  teacher  should  make  an  intensive,  purpose- 
ful study  of  the  subject  he  is  teaching,  and  in  the  classes  where  it 
is  treated  academically  and  professionally,  as  well  as  in  his  practice 
work,  he  should  be  taught  to  look  upon  it  as  a  tool  with  which  lie 
is  to  work  out  for  his  pupils  some  definite  result.  He  should  learn 
to  know  and  to  appreciate  its  educational  values  and  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  children's  needs.  In  this  way  only  can  he  obtain  a  scien- 
tific basis  for  the  selection  of  material  and  become  spontaneous  In 
respect  to  what  to  teach.  He  should  know  the  logical  order  in  which 
the  topics  within  the  branch  unfold  and  the  psychological  order 
which  should  often  be  substituted  for  it.  He  should  know  the  dis- 
tinguishing ideas  of  the  subject  which  differentiate  it  from  all  other 
subjects,  and  the  relation  of  those  ideas  to  the  mental  condition  of 
his  class. 

Fourth. — The  apprehension  of  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  children 
and  the  appreciation  of  the  nature  and  values  of  the  subject  taught, 
will  bring  the  practice  teacher  to  a  realizing  sense  of  his  need  of 
method.  His  sight  will  be  so  clear  and  his  necessity  so  great  that 
if  no  methods  existed  he  would  invent  them,  as  the  mechanic  invents 
a  tool  or  a  machine  fitted  to  his  purpose.  Here  is  the  supervisor's 


318  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

opportunity  to  preserve  and  develop  spontaneity  in  conformity  to 
pedagogic  law.  Skilled  supervision  should  help  the  practice  teacher 
to  see  the  situation,  to  establish  the  aim,  to  .bring  all  previous  train- 
ing and  knowledge  to  bear  upon  the  choice  of  means,  to  make  a  plan, 
to  try  it,  to  judge  of  its  results,  to  decide  upon  the  cause  of  failure, 
to  rectify  the  plan  and  try  again.  In  all  this,  since  spontaneity  is  the 
quality  of  acting  from  native  impulse,  the  impulse  and  the  idea  so 
far  as  possible  should  come  from  the  practice  teacher  himself  ana 
he  should  seek  the  counsel  of  the  supervisor  and  submit  his  aims 
and  his  choice  of  means  to  the  judgment  of  the  supervisor  as  to  one 
who  has  had  greater  experience  and  larger  opportunity  to  know  than 
himself.  The  attitude  of  the  supervisor,  so  far  as  is  consistent  with 
the  reasonable  welfare  of  the  children  practiced  upon,  should  be 
such  as  finds  expression  in  terms  like  these:  Try  it  and  see;  I  think 
you  will 'find  it  will  affect  your  pupils  thus  or  so;  if  you  are  not 
satisfied  with  the  results,  come  and  tell  me  and  try  to  be  clear  as 
to  which  portion  of  your  plan  failed,  why  it  failed,  and  to  think  out 
by  the  light  of  this  experience  a  plan  that  will  be  better. 

This  is  no  impossible  picture.  I  am  sure  that  every  supervisor  has 
practice  teachers  in  charge  who  work  this  way,  and  recognizes  in 
them  the  teachers  that  are  learning  to  combine  spontaneity  with  con- 
formity to  pedagogic  law. 

Fifth. — In  order  to  work  in  this  way,  the  practice  teacher  must  be 
respected  and  supported  in  his  position.  He  should  be  put  in  full 
charge  of  the  class  and  feel  that  he,  and  he  alone,  is  responsible  for 
the  results  obtained.  We  may  all  be  assured  that  whatever  is  ac- 
complished in  any  real  way  in  that  class  under  his  administration, 
he  will  secure  by  virtue  of  his  own  personality.  All  things  that  build 
him  up  in  self-respect,  that  give  him  confidence  in  himself,  that  make 
him  feel  the  dependence  of  the  children  upon  him  and  his  correspond- 
ing responsibility  to  them,  will  help  him  meet  the  situation. 

At  this  point  the  supervisor  needs  to  understand  tne  nature  and 
office  of  criticism.  The  art  of  criticism  is  the  art  of  judging  of  the 
quality  of  a  piece  of  work  in  the  light  of  principles.  Scientific  criti- 
cism is  therefore  characterized  by  reference  to  principles.  The  office 
of  criticism  is  to  discriminate  between  those  qualities  of  work  which 
are  worthy  of  preservation  and  permanence,  and  those  which  are  un- 
worthy. Scientific  criticism  is  characterized  by  thoroughness.  The 
act  of  criticism  should  be  unfaltering  and  just,  and  should  subordi- 
nate the  personality  of  both  the  critic  and  the  criticised  to  considera- 
tion of  the  principles  and  purposes  that  govern  the  work.  The  effect 
of  criticism  should  be  inspiring.  It  should  clarify  aims,  simplify 
problems,  induce  ingenuity  in  devising  ways  and  means,  establish 
right  points  of  view,  point  out  better  modes  of  approach,  rather  than 
enlarge  upon  defects.  Nothing  is  more  dampening  or  unprofitable 
than  to  contemplate  forever  one's  faults  and  failures.  Better  look 
upon  them  as  the  doorways  through  which  we  may  gain  visions  of  bet- 
ter things  to  do  and  be.  Spontaneity  thrives  best  in  an  atmosphere 
of  hope. 


DISCUSSION. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Emery — You  stated  in  your  paper  that  the  practice  teacher 
should  have  the  entire  control  of  the  class  for  the  time  being.  Would 
you  tnen  as  supervisor  of  practice,  at  any  time  take  this  class  from 
the  hanas  of  the  practice  teacner  and  teach  it  yourself,  or  call  atten- 
tion to  tne  errors  of  the  practice  teacner  before  the  class  that  he  was 
teaching? 

Miss  Swart — I  should  do  both,  Mr.  Emery.  That  may  seem  to  be  in- 
consistent, but  I  do  not  think  it  is.  However,  I  think  that  the  person 
who  takes  the  work  out  of  the  hands  of  the  practice  teacher  should  al- 
ways take  it  out  of  his  hands  in  such  a  way  that  both  the  teacher  and 
the  class  shall  feel  that  it  is  done  for  the  purposes  of  illustration,  not 
in  a  spirit  .of  criticism,  not  in  condemnation,  but  purely  for  purposes 
of  illustration. 

Now  there  is  this  that  I  think  every  supervisor  learns  by  experience, 
and  which  has  been  discussed  here  at  great  length  already, — that  you 
cannot  always  make  a  person  understand  what  you  mean  by  words. 
You  may  tell  a  practice  teacher  a  number  of  times  a  good  way,  as  it 
seems  to  you,  to  do  a  thing,  and  think  that  he  understands  you,  and 
then  find  that  it  is  not  practiced  in  the  recitation;  that  the  recitation 
is  not  conducted  upon  the  pian  that  you  had  before  the  practice 
teacner.  it  is  simply  because  he  is  not  able  to  build  up,  construct  in 
his  own  imagination,  and  put  into  actual  practice  the  suggestion  of  the 
scheme  that  you  gave  him.  The  only  way  to  get  him  to  do  it  is  to  let 
him  see  it  done.  If  you  put  it  into  operation  and  he  sees  you  do  it, 
then  he  can  do  it.  But  he  cannot  translate  the  words  into  action.  I 
think  that  is  the  time,  perhaps  the  only  time,  when  the  supervisor  of 
practice  is  justified  in  taking  the  class  from  the  practice  teacher. 

Mr.  Emery — Do  you  approve,  then,  of  frequent  interruptions  by  the 
supervisor  of  practice? 

Miss  Swart — No,  sir,  I  do  not.  Frequent  interruptions,  I  think,  are 
bad. 

Mr.  Jegi — The  discussion  of  this  subject  is. to  be  opened  by  Professor 
Gentle. 

Mr.  Gentle — One  point  at  the  close  of  the  discussion  suggested  itself 
to  me.  It  seems  to  me  that  an  interruption  of  a  teacher  before  his 
class  is  about  as  bad  as  an  interruption  of  a  pupil  when  he  is  on  his 
feet  making  a  recitation.  I  think  it  was  brought  out  yesterday  that 
he  ought  to  be  allowed  to  go  through  his  recitation  without  interrup- 
tion. 

I  find  myself  in  hearty  accord  with  Miss  Swart  in  the  ideas  that  she 
has  put  forth.  I  have  been  particularly  pleased  with  the  stress  that 
she  puts  upon  the  individuality  of  the  teacher  and  also  the  fact  that 
it  is  his  influence  upon  the  child  which  is  to  determine  how  much  of 
a  success  he  is  in  his  work.  The  question  for  discussion,  of  course, 
puts  this  matter  of  spontaneity  into  the  hands  of  the  supervisor;  but 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  beginning  of  the  work  goes  far  back  into  the 
Normal  school  course,  and  although  that  is  a  little  outside  of  the  ques- 
tion, I  want  to  consider  it  for  a  few  moments. 

It  seems  to  me  that  spontaneity  grows  out  of  a  conviction  that  the 
thing  one  is  doing  is  just  the  thing  to  do,  is  the  right  thing  to  do. 
This  spontaneity  is  conviction  and  conviction  should  grow  out  of 


320  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

knowledge.  We  might  call  it  an  intelligent  emotion.  When  we  can 
get  the  student  into  such  a  condition  that  he  is  convinced  that  he  is 
doing  the  right  thing  in  a  practice  school,  then  much  of  what  he  does 
will  be  spontaneous.  Of  course,  there  is  the  element  of  the  child  in  it 
that  he  has  not  perhaps  gotten  in  his  theory;  but  a  proper  theory  of 
instrucnon  looks  constantly  to  the  welfare  of  the  child  under  instruc- 
tion. If  we  may  look  for  a  little  while  at  the  aim  in  the  Normal 
school  to  give  him  this  theory,  we  shall  find  that  it  starts  sometime 
bacK  in  the  course.  Pernaps  the  first  part  of  the  spontaneity  comes 
from  his  early  worK  in  psychology.  It  is  there,  perhaps,  that  the  basis 
is  given  for  the  theory  of  instruction  that  it  is  intended  he  shall  carry 
out.  But  not  all  of  his  psychology  is  to  be  used  there, — only  that  part 
perhaps  which  shall  form  a  basis  for  intelligent  notion  of  what  con- 
stitutes instruction,  and,  perhaps,  of  that  larger  term,  education.  But 
the  work  does  not  stop  there.  We  have  in  the  school  course  no  better 
place  in  which  to  attempt  to  bring  the  student  a  little  bit  closer  to  the 
subject-matter  under  consideration,  to  bring  child  and  subject-matter 
closer,  than  in  the  course  in  psychology  and  general  method.  It  is 
followed  in  many  places  by  some  work  in  observation,  where  students 
are  allowed  to  see  the  children  for  the  first  time  in  any  official  way. 
Here  it  is  that  this  theory  is  brought  closer  to  him  than  ever  before. 
He  is  in  touch  with  his  children,  in  very  close  touch  with  them  by  this 
time.  This  is  a  step  toward  that  conviction  which  I  think  is  funda- 
mental to  spontaneity  of  instruction.  We  advance  a  step  further. 
Perhaps  in  the  next  course  we  can  bring  the  theory  more  into  practice 
than  it  has  been  before. 

It  seems  to  me  that  spontaneity  in  the  first  work  as  practice  teacher 
can  oest  be  brought  about  by  his  being  given  charge  of  but  one  class 
for,  say,  one  recitation  a  day  in  the  beginning.  That  is  the  case  I 
presume  in  most  schools,  and  while  he  is  at  that  work  it  does  not  seem 
to  me  right  for  the  supervisor,  or  critic  teacher,  to  call  his  attention 
to  and  insist  that  he  keep  in  mind  all  the  principles  of  practice  that  he 
has  learned  in  the  theory  classes;  call  his  attention  to  one  at  a  time 
until  ne  is  able  to  carry  it  out  unconsciously.  I  do  not  mean  that  the 
rest  shall  be  allowed  to  go  in  any  direction,  nor  do  I  think  that  that 
will  happen  in  a  well  organized  theory  of  instruction.  As  he  goes  on 
increase  the  number  of  principles  to  which  he  is  to  pay  attention,  and 
increase  also  the  amount  of  practice  work  that  is  required  of  him.  In- 
stead of  having  one  recitation,  increase  the  number.  Give  him  control 
of  the  class  for  a  quarter  of  a  day.  It  would  seem  now  that  the  dif- 
ficulties will  greatly  increase,  but  there  has  been  developed  ability  to 
meet  these  difficulties  and  an  increased  spontaneity  in  carrying  them 
out,  because  there  is  constantly  growing  in  him  this  conviction  that 
the  work  he  is  doing  in  the  Normal  classes  and  that  in  his  practice  are 
coming  closer  together. 

It  seems  to  me,  as  Miss  Swart  so  clearly  put  it,  that  a  large  element 
in  this  spontaneity  is  due  to  the  manner  of  the  critic  teacher  or  super- 
visor toward  the  student.  We  very  well  know  that  some  of  the  criti- 
cism is  not  calculated  to  awaKen  spontaneity.  It  throws  cold  water 
upon  the  aspirations  and  inspirations  that  he  has.  I  have  in  mind  a 
case  where  a  child  said  to  me:  "I  felt  very  sorry  for  the  teacher  to- 
day. She  cried."  I  am  quite  sure  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  spon- 
taneity will  be  aroused  in  that  case.  If  the  recitation  is  so  poor  that 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  321 

it  ought  never  to  have  taken  place,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  critic  teacher 
or  supervisor  ought  to  seek  out  some  redeeming  feature  and  hold  that 
up  first.  It  will  make  the  impression  of  what  he  will  say  later  all  the 
more  striking  and  certain. 

I  do  not  think  I  have  anything  more  to  suggest  along  this  line  until 
the  discussion  has  gone  further. 

Mr.  Jegi — The  question  is  open  for  discussion.  I  wish  you  would  no- 
tice carefully  the  wording  of  the  question, — "how  to  secure  the  maxi- 
mum of  spontaneity,"  and  keep  to  that  question.  If  you  have  some- 
thing to  contribute,  put  it  pointedly  and  in  a  few  words. 

Mr.  Mitchell — Sometimes  in  the  course  of  the  work  in  the  Normal 
school  the  student  has  a  very  fine  idea  of  the  theory  of  the  subject, 
and  that  is  about  all  he  has.  I  want  to  know  if  these  people  can  de- 
velop great  spontaneity  in  the  mode^  school  or  anywhere  else? 

Mr.  Swart — I  understand  you  to  refer  to  the  theory  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject. 

Mr.  Mitchell— Yes. 

Miss  Swart — Does  the  teacher  who  comes  with  a  large  amount  of 
theory  concerning  the  presentation  of  a  subject  make  a  spontaneous 
teacher  when  he  does  not  have  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
subject? 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  have  reference  to  high  school  graduates  who  come 
to  the  Normal  school  to  get  some  theory. 

Miss  Swart — I  think  the  paper,  answers  the  question  so  far  as  my 
view  of  it  goes.  I  said  in  the  beginning  that  he  should  not  be  deluged 
with  methods  and  processes,  but  he  must  go  to  his  practice  work  with 
his  mind  centered  on  the  child,  and  then  he  should  have  knowledge  of 
the  subject  and  knowledge  of  what  that  subject  will  do  for  that  child, 
and  then  the  real  presentation  of  the  subject  should  come  afterwards. 
And  I  believe  that  there  will  be  a  greater  spontaneity  if  that  is  the 
order  of  procedure  and  the  mode  of  approach  than  there  will  if  we 
come  to  it  in  the  opposite  direction.  Does  that  answer  your  question? 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  do  not  understand  the  answer.  I  want  to  know,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  Miss  Swart,  whether  high  school  students  who  come 
into  the  Normal  school  and  get  a  smattering  of  ten  weeks'  professional 
review,  in  some  cases,  five  weeks,  if  they,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  do  de- 
velop spontaneity. 

Miss  Swart — I  would  say,  No. 

Miss  Shultes — Is  your  student  to  learn  his  method  of  teaching  read- 
ing, for  instance,  while  he  is  practicing  teaching  reading?  Is  that 
your  iaea? 

Miss  Swart — My  idea  is  this, — that  he  should  come  to  the  teaching 
of  reading  with  as  comprehensive  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  we 
have  been  able  to  give  him  and  of  what  it  means  to  teach  reading, — the 
purposed  of  teaching  reading  and  what  it  will  do  for  the  child,  and 
then  make  methods  or  means  of  bringing  these  two  together,  but  I 
would  not  deluge  him  with  methods  about  teaching  reading  before  he 
understood  in  a  large  and  definite  way  what  are  the  purposes  of  teach- 
ing reading  and  what  teaching  reading  will  do  for  the  child, — what 
he  snail  do  for  the  child  wheii  he  teaches  him  reading, — teaches  him 
to  read.  I  would  have  him  brim  full  of  purpose  when  he  comes  to  the 
study  of  the  "how." 
21 


322  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  McKenny — Am  I  to  understand  that  the  majority  of  failures  in 
your  practice  school,  or  the  majority  of  students  who  lack  spontaneity 
lack  it  because  they  have  not  academic  training,  academic  preparation 
for  their  work? 

Miss  Swart — I  should  dislike  to  answer  that  question  with,  Yes,  and 
also  I  should  dislike  to  answer  it  with,  No. 

Mr.  McKenny — Let  me  put  the  question  differently:  Is  it  a  lack  of 
what  we  call  academic  training,  or  a  lack  of  organization  of  what  they 
already  know  and  application  of  it  to  the  particular  work  they  have 
in  hand? 

Miss  Swart— It  is  a  lack  of  the  latter.  I  think,  President  McKenny, 
it  is  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  situation, — a  lack  of  power  to  imagine 
something  to  be  done  and  a  way  of  doing  it. 

Mr.  McKenny — Would  academic  training  save  a  person  from  that 
situation? 

Miss  Swart — In  this  way:  Academic  training, — academic  teaching 
may  be  so  done  as  to  fill  the  person  who  is  studying  the  subject  with  a 
profound  love  for  and  a  deep  interest  in  it,  and  this  inspires  him. 

Mr.  McKenny — But  in  the  third  grade, — in  the  fifth  grade  where 
geography  is  to  be  taught, — I  would  like  to  ask  if  the  academic  teach- 
ing is  so  done  that  the  teacher  will  know  how  to  apply  it  to  a  fifth 
grader? 

Miss  Swart — I  should  say  not. 

Mr.  McKenny — Then  the  failure  is.  not  so  much  in  the  lack  of  knowl- 
edge as  the  lack  of  organization  of  that  knowledge  for  that  particular 
end, — in  the  fifth  grade,  for  instance? 

Miss  Swart — It  is  still  both  in  my  experience. 

Mr.  McKenny — True,  but  which  the  larger?  I  press  the  question  for 
information. 

Miss  Swart — I  think  the  larger  is  the  latter, — lack  of  ability  to  or- 
ganize what  he  knows  and  to  present  it  in  an  adaptive  way. 

Mr.  McKenny — That  is  my  experience. 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  asked  a  class  of  high  school  graduates  the  difference 
in  the  direction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  New  Jerusalem.  They  did  not 
know  a  thing  about  it.  I  asked  them  the  width  of  the  equatorial  cur- 
rent in  the  Pacific  ocean.  I  got  answers  running  from  four  rods  to- 
five  hundred  miles.  Not  a  single  soul  came  within  twenty-five  hundred 
miles.  I  asked  the  width  and  length  of  the  Mediterranean  and  got 
answers  running  from  five  to  twelve  miles, — five  thousand  miles  wide 
and  150  miles  long.  What  spontaneity  can  a  practice  teacher  develop 
under  conditions  like  that?  Her  only  saving  grace  there  is  that  she 
does  not  develop  very  much. 

Mr.  McKenny — We  do  not  get  enough  of  it  in  our  Normal  schools. 
We  have  too  many  ten-weeks'  subjects.  Still,  my  position  is  simply 
this:  That  any  high  school  graduate  who  has  been  in  the  Normal 
school  two  years  should  develop  power  to  get  hold  of  enough  informa- 
tion to  teach  fifth  grade  geography,  if  he  knows  what  is  wanted  in  that 
particular  grade.  In  other  words,  while  I  emphasize  the  academic 
training,  I  feel  that  where  our  teachers  fail  most  is  in  the  recognition 
of  what  the  child  needs  in  that  particular  grade.  I  stand  by  the  aca- 
demic training  and  back  of  Mr.  Mitchell  in  all  that  he  says.  I  was  not 
depreciating  that  by  emphasizing  the  other  point. 

Mr.  McNeill — How  may  the  practice  teacher  be  inspired  with  the 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


323 


greatest  amount  of  hope?  What  does  him  the  most  good,  to  point  out 
his  errors  sharply,  or  to  point  out  the  way  he  should  go  and  keep  push- 
ing him  on  in  that  direction? 

Miss  Swart— I  should  say  the  latter,  decidedly.  I  have  had  two  pe- 
riods, perhaps  more,  in  my  experience  as  supervisor  of  practice  (and 
I  am  not  sure  that  I  nave  had  much  training  as  a  supervisor  of  prac- 
tice, so  the  practice  teachers  themselves  have  taught  me  most  of  what 
I  know,  and  that  is  not  much) — but  I  believe,  as  I  have  said  in  this 
paper,  that  there  is  nothing  so  inspiring  to  a  person  as  to  see  the  thing 
done,  see  the  way  he  is  to  do  it,  see  the  value  of  it  when  it  is  done  and 
the  importance  of  doing  it,  and  so  I  believe  that  a  person's  error,  or 
failure,  whatever  it  may  be,  should  be  shown  him;  he  should  be  made 
to  see  that  it  is  wrong,  but  not  in  a  spirit  of  reproach.  He  has  done 
it  and  it  has  passed  and  gone.  Hejsan  remedy  it.  If  it  is  simply  a 
false  idea,  it  is  not  serious  because  he  can  change  it  the  next  day.  If 
you  can  get  him  to  see  that  it  is  wrong,  why  it  is  wrong,  and  wherein 
it  is  wrong,  and  get  him  to  lay  it  aside,  his  failures  will  become  step- 
ping stones  and  not  weights  to  drag  him  down.  He  rises  above  them 
and  they  are  actually  the  ladder  by  which  he  climbs  to  something 
higher. 

Mr.  Patzer — Do  you  require  your  students  to  make  careful  prepara- 
tion before  you  permit  them  to  teach  a  particular  subject? 
Miss  Swart — They  make  lesson-plans. 

Mr.  Patzer — Do  these  lesson-plans  that  these  students  are  required 
to  make  cover  any  particular  period  of  time? 

Miss  Swart — They  are  usually  made  out  for  a  certain  portion  of  a 
subject  and  the  portion  is  a  unit  of  some  sort  in  the  treatment  of  the 
subject.  «j 

Mr.  Patzer — Then  some  days  before  he  is  to  take  up  the  work,  he  has 
planned  that  work.     Does  he  always  manage  to  do  on  a  certain  day 
what  he  has  specified  in  his  preparation  he  was  to  do? 
Miss  Swart — I  should  be  sorry  to  confine  it  to  that. 
Mr.  Patzer — You  allow  latitude  in  that  direction. 
Miss  Swart — All  they  need. 

Mr.  Patzer — Suppose  these  students  have  taught  a  subject  well  for 
a  few  weeks,  would  you  allow  them  to  organize  some  unit  of  work  in 
a  general  way,  and  then  give  them  charge  of  the  class  with  these  di- 
rections: "Do  as  we  teachers  in  the  Normal  school  do.  Teach  today 
and  in  the  light  of  your  experience  in  today's  work  assign  your  lesson 
for  tomorrow  and  make  your  preparation  for  tomorrow's  work.  That 
is  what  we  do."  Would  not  that  encourage  spontaneity? 

Miss  Swart — I  should  let  them  always  do  it.  They  may  say:  "I 
have  not  used  the  plan  as  I  had  planned."  "What  is  the  reason?" 
They  give  their  answer.  I  would  say:  "I  am  glad  you  did  not."  A 
plan  should  always  be  subservient  to  the  judgment  of  the  practice 
teacher. 

Mr.  Patzer — This  illustrates,  then,  a  point  which  Supt.  Harvey  made 
in  his  first  address,  Monday  morning. 
Miss  Swart — I  think  it  does. 

Mr.  Patzer — And  if  for  some  reason  or  other  we  insist  upon  the  stu- 
dent's carrying  out  to  the  letter  the  plans  made  for  the  next  week,  we 
may  have  mechanical  teaching? 

Miss  Swart — I  think  it  would  be  a  certainty. 


324:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  am  a  little  in  trouble  about  taking  a  practice  class 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  practice  teacher  upon  occasion.  I  can  see  that 
the  supervisor  may  take  this  class  in  the  kindest  way,  without  hurt- 
ing him,  but  can  it  be  done  without  hurting  his  standing  in  the  minds 
of  the  children?  Is  it  possible  for  the  supervisor  to  take  the  practice 
class  and  .not  have  it  count  as  a  condemnation  of  the  practice  teacher 
in  his  work? 

Miss  Swart — I  believe  it  is  entirely  possible.,  i  believe  it  is  entirely 
possible  to  do  it  in  such  a  way,  and  to  so  talk  about  what  you  have 
done  and  to  so  present  the  whole  matter  before  the  class  as  to  lead 
them  to  think  even  more  of  the  teacher  than  before. 

Mr.  Lough — It  seems  to  me  that  these  points  should  be  considered: 

1st.  The  particular  purpose  of  the  lesson.  2nd.  The  subject-matter 
to  be  used.  3rd.  The  mental  operations  which  the  child  must  go 
through  to  use  this.  I  can  use  the  same  material  for  judgment,  for 
reason,  for  memory  work  and  so  on,  and  I  can  choose  which  of  these 
operations  I  shall  have  take  place  in  the  child's  mind.  The  failure 
which  most  often  taKes  place  in  teaching  is  the  failure  to  recognize  the 
end  of  education,  or  what  this  particular  lesson  is  to  do.  Is  it  a  failure 
to  recognize  what  is  the  appropriate  or  proper  or  possible  mental  oper- 
ation to  be  performed  at  that  time,  or  is  it  a  failure  to  present  the 
proper  subject-matter?  Where  does  the  teacher  usually  fail,  and  where 
would  you  like  the  greatest  amount  of  spontaneity?  I  think  they  fail 
as  often  as  anywhere  in  the  selection  of  the  means  by  which  the  men- 
tal operation  is  to  be  brought  about.  I  do  not  think  they  have,  as  a 
rule,  so  clear  an  idea  of  what  mental  operations  are  required  as  they 
should  have,  and  I  suspect  that  they  do  not  have  in  mind  in  any  reci- 
tation the  end  of  education.  I  think  they  do  have  in  mind  quite  clearly 
the  purposes  of  the  recitation,  but  I  think  that  they  do  not  always  have 
in  mind  the  mental  processes  that  must  be  performed  in  order  to  se- 
cure tnat  end,  and  they  are  not  skillful  in  securing  the  material  which 
will  bring  about  these  operations.  Because,  whether  they  have  a  con- 
scious notion  of  the  mental  operations  or  not,  they  have  an  unconscious 
one,  and  in  order  to  select  the  proper  means  for  this  operation  they 
have  to  be  conscious  in  the  selection  of  the  means.  Professional  re- 
views are  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  pupils  with  the  proper 
means  of  producing  that  mental  operation  in  a  given  grade,  and  the 
pedagogical  department  has  for  its  purpose  the  teaching  of  what  men- 
tal processes  take  place  at  different  times.  I  think  that  the  reason 
why  they  do  not  know  so  much  about  the  means  is  because  they  do  not 
as  a  rule  have  the  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  which  they  ought 
to  have.  They  do  not  see  the  possibilities  in  the  subject-matter. 

We  were  talking  a  great  deal  this  morning  about  the  essentials  in 
psychology,  i.  e.,  the  science  of  thinking.  We  all  claim  that  the  chief 
business  of  the  teacher  is  to  teach  the  child  to  think.  We  all  claim 
that  thinking  is  the  seeing  of  relations.  Practice  teachers  rarely  recog- 
nize relations.  They  do  not  know  the  kind  of  relations  that  exist. 
Therefore,  they  are  unable  to  get  the  child  to  see  a  relation  which  they 
themselves  do  not  see.  The  reason  why  they  do  not  see  relations  is 
partly  because  they  have  not  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  child  and 
partly  because  they  have  not  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter. 
Mr.  Salisbury — Concerning  high  school  graduates,  do  you  find  that 
previous  experience  on  the  part  of  the  high  school  graduate  makes  him 
any  more  ready  for  your  work,  the  practice  work? 


RELATION  OF  TEACHERS  TO  MODEL  SCHOOL.    325 

Mies  Swart — Yes,  I  think  so. 

Mr.  Salisbury — Does  he  need  to  spend  any  less  time  in  practice 
worK? 

Miss  Swart — He  has  something  which  a  person  without  experience 
does  not  have. 

Mr.  Salisbury — Blunders,  perhaps.  Would  it  not  take  more  time  to 
correct  his  mistakes? 

Miss  Swart — No,  I  do  not  think  so.  The  people  who  come  with 
blunders  that  are  troublesome  are  the  people  who  have  taught  many 
years  in  a  bad  way.  Young  teachers  are  not  so  fixed  in  their  blunders. 
If  ne  had. taught  only  ten  weeks,  he  would  have  a  better  apperceiving 
mass  than  if  he  had  no  experience. 

Mr.  Rock  wood — More  conscious  of  difficulties? 

Miss  Swart — Yes. 

Mr.  Cary — I  want  to  confirm  that  from  my  own  experience.  I 
would  vastly  rather  have  a  person  with  three  months'  experience  in 
teaching  for  training  as  a  teacher.  It  does  count,  even  if  it  has  been 
full  of  blunders. 

WORK  IN  MODEL  SCHOOLS. 

Mr.  Cary — I  have  written  a  very  brief  paper,  partly  because  in  my 
judgment  papers  are  too  long  and  much  more  time  should  be  given 
to  discussion.  By  way  of  explanation  I  would  say,  whatever  may  ap- 
pear in  this  paper  that  I  am  to  read  that  may  seem  dogmatic  is  not 
written  in  a  dogmatic  sense.  I  have  not  expressed  myself  in  that 
way,  although  I  may  seem  to  have  done  so.  Furthermore,  I  have  not 
meant  any  criticism  upon  my  colleagues.  It  is  my  judgment  that  we 
are  working  under  rather  unfortunate  conditions.  We  are  trying  to 
do  with  these  high  school  graduates  three  or  four  years'  work  in  two. 
All  along  the  line  there  is  going  to  be  failure,  in  all  probability.  Just 
what  is  the  best  solution,  I  am  not  sure,  but  I  suggest  some  things 
here  that  may  possibly  be  worth  discussing.  May  I  ask  you,  while 
I  am  perfectly  willing  to  attempt  to  answer  questions, — may  I  ask 
that  you  discuss  this  paper  rather  than  question  me  as  to  what  I 
mean.  I  am  willing  to  answer  questions  that  may  arise,  as  it  seems 
to  be  the  fashion  of  the  meetings.  If  you  have  anything  to  say  that 
is  contrary  to  the  thing  I  have  said,  do  not  have  any  fears  that  you 
will  hurt  my  feelings  if  you  say  it. 

WHAT  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  WORK  IN  THE  MODEL  SCHOOL 
SHODLD  TEACHERS  OF  PROFESSIONAL  SUBJECTS  HAVE? 
WHY?  HOW  MAY  THIS  KNOWLEDGE  BE  SECURED?  HOW 
SHOULD  THIS  KNOWLEDGE  BE  UTILIZED? 

C.  R   CARY,   Milwaukee. 

If  "work"  as  used  above  is  to  be  interpreted  in  the  ordinary  sense 
and  psychology  is  to  be  taught  as  it  now  ordinarily  is,  there  is  little 
reason  that  I  can  see  why  the  teacher  of  psychology  need  know  any- 
thing about  the  work  of  the  model  schools.  This  subject  is  taught  in 
colleges  without  any  reference  to  children, — why,  then,  is  it  necessary 
in  Normal  schools?  Introspective  and  a  priori  work,  together  with 
some  reference  to  the  literature  of  investigations  carried  on  by  uni- 


326  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

versity  men  and  other  specialists,  seems  to  be  enough.  Psychology 
deals  with  the  ordinary  facts  of  consciousness,  and  of  course  the  facts 
and  principles  discussed  must  fit  the  pupils  of  the  model  schools,  or 
of  any  other  schools,  for  that  matter. 

The  teacher  of  pedagogy  may  be  just  about  as  independent;  for 
does  he  not  deal  in  the  main  with  general  principles,  rules,  and  max- 
ims? General  method  is  the  main  thing;  special  method  is  a  sort  of 
nuisance,  a  perplexing  and  annoying  thing  to  be  reduced  to  the  small- 
est possible  dimensions,  and  in  the  main  is  to  be  got  from  some  writer 
who  has  had  the  temerity  to  venture  into  the  field  because  he  had 
no  reputation  to  lose,  or  who  had  a  genius  for  details  rather  than 
generalities.  To  get  such  instruction  mixed  up  with  the  practical  af- 
fairs of  the  model  schools  might  result  disastrously  to  the  facts  of 
actual  experience. 

For  the  work  of  observation  and  the  discussion  of  the  same  there 
should,  it  is  evident,  be  some  knowledge  of  the  working  of  the  model 
.schools  and  of  the  course  of  study.  This  knowledge  can  be  obtained 
by  studying  the  model  schools  at  first  hand  and  by  questioning  tne 
critic  teachers  and  the  supervisors  of  practice.  This  may  in  some 
degree  be  done  in  connection  with  the  work  of  observation,  though 
some  preliminary  work  in  this  direction  would  doubtless  be  time  well 
spent. 

The  teachers  of  professional  reviews  should  know  the  work  of  the 
model  schools  at  least  sufficiently  well  to  point  out  differences  between 
their  work  and  that  of  the  model  schools,  if  such  differences  exist; 
and  similarities  where  those  exist. 

But  I  doubt  not  you  are  troubled  with  the  thought  that  this  is  a 
very  narrow  way  to  look  at  the  matter.  Granted.  But  is  it  not  the 
way  we  have  been  looking  at  the  matter  all  these  years,  if  one  may 
judge  by  the  actual  practice  of  the  schools? 

It  is  unnecessary  to  raise  any  question  as  to  the  value  of  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  general  laws  of  psychology  and  pedagogy.  The  Normal 
schools  should  teach  these  things  and  teach  them  well.  They  are 
practically  valuable  in  determining  what  not  to  do  if  not  in  determin- 
ing what  to  do. 

But  the  teacher's  trouble  comes  not  so  much  in  dealing  with  the 
general  facts  of  psychology  and  pedagogy  as  in  dealing  with  the  in- 
dividual problems  relating  to  the  treatment  of  John  and  Mary.  A  one- 
time teacher  in  a  Normal  school  and  a  graduate  of  a  Wisconsin  Nor- 
mal school  once  told  me  that  when  she  began  her  work  as  teacher 
«he  was  continually  burdened  with  her  psychology  and  pedagogy. 
She  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  either  in  view  of  the  concrete  prob- 
lems of  the  schoolroom.  Finally,  she  said,  she  cast  everything  theo- 
retical to  the  winds  and  sailed  into  the  work  on  a  common-sense  basis 
and  made  a  success  of  her  work.  Probably  this  teacher's  case  was 
similar  to  that  of  many  others  except  that  others  are  not  usually  so 
much  impressed  with  psychology  and  pedagogy  as  to  be  obliged  to 
make  a  conscious  effort  to  cut  loose  from  them.  But  when  we  stop 
to  analyze  the  thing  that  troubled  this  teacher  and  the  significance 
of  her  act  we  find  that  the  trouble  was  that  her  theoretical  training 
and  her  everyday  experience  had  not  made  a  chemical  combination, 
so  to  speak.  She  had  trained  up  a  theoretical  sense  and  a  practical 
sense,  and  they  would  not  work  together.  In  all  such  cases  practl- 


RELATION  OF  TEACHERS  TO  MODEL  SCHOOL.    327 

cal  sense  is  sure  to  win  out.  This  practical  sense  in  such  a  case 
is  mainly  unconscious  imitation  of  the  work  of  teachers  with  whom 
the  person  has  come  into  vital  contact. 

This  sort  of  a  divorce  between  theory  and  practice  is  bound  to  take 
place  in  some  degree  unless  provision  in  instruction  is  made  against 
it.  The  only  way  to  make  provision  against  it  is  to  study  the  child 
in  the  concrete  while  studying  the  general  principles  of  psychology 
and  pedagogy. 

What  we  want  most  of  all  is  to  develop  a  habit  in  the  person  who 
is  to  become  a  teacher, — a  habit  of  depending  upon  general  princi- 
ples only  for  very  general  guidance  in  the  management  and  instruc- 
tion of  pupils;  and  a  habit  of  studying  in  a  sympathetic  way  the  in- 
dividual pupils  with  a  view  to  discovering  their  tastes,  interests,  stage 
of  development,  and  other  individual  peculiarities,  and  condtions. 
In  short,  a  teacher  may  philosophize  ably  about  teaching  and  yet  un- 
derstand cnildren  but  little  and  succeed  miserably  in  his  efforts  at 
teaching  children. 

Barnett,  one  of  the  most  helpful  of  English  educational  writers  of 
the  present  day,  says  truly:  "The  endeavor  to  lay  down  rigid  rules 
of  procedure  in  teaching  is  a  serious  error  in  education.  It  would 
have  its  analogue  in  medicine  if  the  physician  prescribed  for  his  pa- 
tients without  seeing  them,  by  sending  a  printed  formula  of  directions 
in  reply  to  an  inquiry  by  post.  It  is  precisely  in  the  diagnoses  of  dif- 
ferent cases  and  in  the  variations  in  treatment  required  by  differ- 
ent individuals  that  medical  skill  does  its  most  characteristic  work." 
The  teacher's  special  work  calls  upon  him  to  take  more  serious  note 
of  diversities  than  resemblances.  The  philosopher  in  his  study,  the 
psychologist,  or  the  logician,  may  lay  down  the  general  laws  of  the 
growth  of  mind  or  the  conditions  of  valid  inferences,  but  the  teacher 
lias  to  keep  his  wits  alert  to  modify  his  treatment  from  time  to  time 
so  that  it  may  suit  Tom,  Dick  and  Harry  at  different  times,  in  dif- 
ferent places  and  with  different  subject-matter.  In  comparison  with. 
a  practiced  wit  and  sympathy,  mere  theorizing  is  naught. 

The  great  things  in  teaching  are  tact,  skill,  and  sympathy.  These 
things  are  worth  cart-loads  of  books  on  pedagogy  and  psychology,  and 
endless  hours  of  lecturing  on  the  part  of  doctrinaire  professors. 
Now,  tact,  skill,  and  sympathy  are  more  or  less  native  qualities,  yet 
all  of  them  can  be  cultivated  under  conditions,  and  one  of  the  indis- 
pensable conditions  is  frequent  and  friendly  contact  with  children. 
Sympathy  grows  with  the  understanding  and  insight  into  child  mind, 
and  with  sympathy  and  insight,  tact  develops.  These  factors  act  and 
react  upon  each  otner  in  a  vital  way.  Skill  comes  of  practice  under 
favorable  conditions, — that  is,  when  backed  up  by  insight  and  sym- 
pathy. 

Tact,  insight,  skill,  sympathy,  thorough  and  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  subject-matter, — these  are  the  things  that 
every  Normal  school  should  aim  to  secure  at  all  hazards,  and 
failing  in  any  one  of  these  the  failure  is  vital.  Nothing  else  is  vi- 
tally important.  Cut-and-dried  schemes  of  procedure  in  teaching, 
memorizing  the  formulated  rules  of  pedagogy  and  the  laws  of  psy- 
chology contribute  matters  of  doubtful  value.  In  fact,  the  result  is 
undoubtedly  evil  and  evil  only  if  handled  in  the  cock-sure  manner 
of  the  old-time  educational  dogmatist.  That  life  cannot  come  out 


328  INSTITUTE   OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

of  death  needs  no  argument.  Prof.  Royce  was  in  the  right  when 
he  contended  a  few  years  ago  that  "the  teacher  should  be  a  natural- 
ist, loving  and  as  far  as  may  be  comprehending  in  a  scientific  way  the 
life  of  childhood  and  youth,  just  as  other  naturalists  try  to  comprehend 
the  life  of  other  organisms."  Whenever  we  succeed  in  raising  up 
an  Ernest  Seton-Thompson  of  childhood  we  shall  have  an  educational 
philosopher  and  reformer  in  the  one  individual. 

But  you  ask,  what  are  the  changes  to  be  recommended?  I  reply, 
make  the  model  school  the  veritable  core  of  the  Normal  school. 
Make  it  what  the  laboratory  is  to  the  chemist  and  the  physicist.  So 
arrange  it  that  the  teachers  of  professional  subjects  shall  not  only 
know  what  work  is  done  in  the  model  schools,  but  shall  along  with 
their  students  know  the  individual  pupils  of  the  model  schools  as  sub- 
jects of  sympathetic  and  appreciative  study,  not  as  so  much  lifeless 
material  for  cold  scientific  investigation.  In  this  direction  only  lies 
the  salvation  of  the  teachers  of  professional  subjects  from  shriveling 
up  and  becoming  "hide-bound  pedants  without  knowledge  of  man's 
nature  or  of  boy's."  In  this  direction  alone  lies  the  safety  of  the 
Normal  schools  as  a  whole,  if  they  are  to  escape  the  danger  of  aping 
the  college  and  the  university.  The  Normal  schools  are  but  halt 
aware  of  the  fact  as  yet  that  it  is  their  specific  function  to  train 
teachers,  and  I  may  add,  to  train  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools. 
When  we  come  to  realize  our  true  function  and  direct  the  work  of 
the  schools  absolutely  from  that  standpoint  we  shall  succeed  as  we 
have  never  succeeded  before.  Briefly,  then,  to  summarize  my  answers 
to  the  questions  with  which  this  paper  began,  I  should  say  that  the 
teachers  of  professional  subjects  should  have  time  and  opportunity 
and  the  disposition  to  know  all  about  the  work  and  the  pupils  of 
the  model  schools  for  the  reason  that  it  is  indispensable  that  they 
should.  This  knowledge,  which  can  be  secured  only  by  by  treating 
the  model  schools  as  their  work-rooms,  should  be  utilized  in  their 
daily  work  of  instruction,  and  the  students  of  professional  subjects 
should  make  it  their  business  to  study  children  in  the  light  of  the 
discussion  of  the  lecture  room  and  should  interpret  the  lectures  of 
the  lecture  room  in  the  light  of  their  observations.  Observation  Is 
the  proper  starting  point  for  discussions  of  method  and  likewise  the 
point  of  return. 

Mr.  Jegi — The  discussion  of  this  topic  will  be  opened  by  Professor 
Bowman. 


DISCUSSION. 

G.  L.  BOWMAIST,  West  Superior. 

The  teacher  of  professional  subjects  in  a  Normal  school  ought  to 
know  what  kind  of  work  should  be  done  in  the  model  school  and  how 
to  do  it.  He  must  look  to  the  true  psychology  of  his  subject  for  his 
ideals,  because  a  subject  psychologically  taught  is  practically  taught. 
If  he  knows  what  ought  to  be  taught  and  how  to  do  it,  he  can  give 
force,  definiieness,  and  vitality  to  his  own  teaching,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  furnisn  a  high  type  of  right  teaching  to  his  own  pupils  who  are 
to  teach  later  in  the  model  school.  Besides  this,  he  will  secure  will- 


DISCUSSION.  329 

ing,  careful,  conscientious  preparation  and  recitation  from  them.  This 
has  a  direct,  wholesome  effect  on  the  ideals  of  the  practice  teacher 
in  the  model  work.  It  enables  him  to  be  strong  in  his  counsel,  clear 
in  his  suggestions,  and  wise  in  his  decisions.  He  ought  to  know  what 
is  done  in  the  model  school.  What  the  purposes,  plans,  and  methods 
are.  This  would  aid  him  to  adjust  his  instruction  to  fit  somewhat  the 
condition  under  which  the  pupil  will  likely  have  her  first  lessons  in 
the  practice  work  of  teaching.  Familiarity  with  the  work  of  the  prac- 
tice school  enables  him  to  cite  conditions  there  illustrative  of  the 
thought  in  his  classes.  Furthermore,  he  can  handle  intelligently  re- 
ports which  might  be  wisely  considered  in  connection  with  the  work 
of  his  own  classes. 

He  should  have  a  thorough  acquaintance  professionally  with  the 
practice  teachers  doing  the  model -work;  for  this  would  permit  of  a 
closer  touch  with  the  teacher  in  her  work,  a  better  understanding  of 
the  particular  difficulties,  and  would  result  in  greater  helpfulness  to 
the  student  teacher.  These  same  reasons  would  imply  the  necessity 
of  knowing  the  pupils  of  the  grades  well  enough  to  interpret  condi- 
tions rightly,  to  give  special  instruction  in  his  own  classes  to  meet 
any  special  adaptations  to  the  model  work. 

He  ought  to  know,  at  least  in  a  general  way,  what  the  lessons,  out- 
lines, and  plans  for  the  day  are  and  how  they  are  made  out.  I  do  not 
mean  that  he  should  have  this  knowledge  i'n  detail,  but  in  a  general 
way  so  that  a  little  inquiry  would  give  him  the  full  lesson  content  for 
the  day.  Knowing  this  he  could  send  special  committees  of  his  own 
class  to  observe  and  report  to  his  class.  I  can  see  two  good  things 
in  this.  Some  persons  can  learn  much  more  by  seeing  an  exercise 
after  the  principle  has  been  discussed  than  by  making  a  recitation  on 
imaginary  class  conditions.  Again,  students  who  are  specially  weak 
in  some  phases  of  the  professional  subjects  could  have  valuable  work 
of  a  supplementary  nature  given  them  in  the  written  reports  that  the 
teacher  could  arrange  for  them. 

He  ought  to  be  fairly  familiar  with  the  difficulties  that  are  coming 
up  from  day  to  day  in  the  model  work  and  should  know  of  any  special 
lines  of  strength.  This  would  keep  him  interested  in  original  investi- 
gation, the  trying  of  new  plans,  or  the  testing  of  new  devices.  The 
field  would  be  much  better  opened  to  him  in  some  of  his  own  investi- 
gations. Not  that  the  practice  school  is  to  become  the  hot  bed  in 
which  he  is  to  sprout  new  educational  theories,  but  a  field  where  he 
can  sift  the  tares  from  the  wheat  of  his  own  educational  thought  and 
practice.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  watch  some  one  else  try  to  use  your 
notions,  your  theories,  just  to  show  you  how  queer  they  are  when  un- 
der the  guidance  of  some  one  else.  A  close  study  of  his  work  as  it 
must  be  applied  in  the  model  school  would  rid  the  teacher  of  profes- 
sianal  subjects  of  many  educational  foibles.  We  learn  much  of  our- 
selves when  we  observe  how  our  pupils  play  school. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  the  discussion,  I  would  say  that  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  organization  and  operation  of  the  model  school  is 
indispensable  to  the  best  teaching  of  the  professional  subjects. 

Now  as  to  how  this  knowledge  is  to  be  obtained  and  what  is  to  be 
done  with  it  by  the  teacher  of  professional  subjects: — It  seems  to  me 
that  the  only  reason  for  the  teacher  of  the  professional  subjects  to 
know  anything  about  the  model  school  is  the  possibility  of  use  in  his 


330  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

own  teaching.  Therefore,  I  think  I  have  answered  the  question  as  to 
the  utilization  of  the  knowledge  as  well  as  I  can  when  giving  the  rea- 
sons why  he  should  know  the  several  items  cited  in  first  part  of  my 
discussion.  I  think  it  goes  without  saying,  the  model  school  is  the 
nearest  best  thing  to  keep  the  Normal  teacher's  memory  alive  to  the 
character  of  his  earlier  experience  as  a  teacher  in  a  similar  position 
to  that  of  the  practice  teacher.  I  should  say  then  for  this,  if  for 
no  other  reason,  he  should  know  much  about  the  model  grades  wherein 
his  students  are  to  make  their  first  attempt  to  make  a  practical  use 
of  his  teaching.  I  think  I  can  dismiss  that  part  of  the  diecussion 
at  this  point  and  pass  at  once  to  the  answer  of  the  question  of  the 
means  for  securing  proper  knowledge  of  the  work  of  the  model  school. 

I  believe  it  is  of  prime  importance,  at  the  outset,  to  have  in  perma- 
nent form  a  general  statement  of  the  leading  propositions  that  are 
to  constitute  the  subject-matter  of  the  professional  instruction.  This 
outline  should  be  the  joint  product  of  the  Normal  department  and  the 
practice  school.  It  should  contain  the  fundamental  principles  and 
propositions  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  logic  of  the  subject  and  the 
demands  of  the  practice  work.  It  ought  to  contain  the  book  refer- 
ences and  where  the  subjects  admit  of  it,  the  texts  valuable  for  col- 
lateral reading.  It  would  be  no  place  for  details  but  would  be  the 
platform  upon  which  the  teacher  of  professional  subjects,  the  super- 
visor of  practice,  the  critic  teacher,  and  the  practice  teacher  could 
meet  with  a  common  understanding.  Such  an  outline  carefully  worked 
out  woula  unify  effort,  save  time  and  energy,  besides  furnishing  a 
valid  and  intelligent  basis  for  criticism  and  direction.  Until  this  is 
done,  it  seems  to  me  that  all  subsequent  methods  that  I  can  suggest 
for  gaining  that  desirable  information  must  be  quite  unsatisfactory  if 
not  entirely  worthless.  I  can  see  no  valid  objection  to  having  such  a 
document  at  least  in  type-written  form.  The  first  draft  might  not  be 
the  best  thing  on  the  subject,  but  it  could  receive  modification  from 
time  to  time  as  good  sense  would  indicate  till  it  would  be  the  best 
expression  of  the  institution  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  that  sub- 
ject. Its  value  to  the  practice  teacher  whose  practice  must  come  at 
a  much  later  time  than  the  study  of  the  theory,  is  patent  to  all.  In 
the  case  which  frequently  happens  in  one  school  at  least,  that  the 
student  teacher  takes  her  practice  work  before  any  professional  work 
in  the  subject  is  done,  such  a  document  is  almost  indispensable  in 
securing  work  that  is  valuable  to  the  model  school  and  such  that  the 
Normal  school  ought  to  credit.  I  know  this  will  bind  the  school  to  a 
declaration  but  the  school  ought  to  declare.  Its  value  in  the  event  of  a 
change  in  the  faculty  must  be  clear  to  everyone. 

The  teacher  of  the  professional  subjects  ought  to  observe  the  work 
of  practice  teachers  as  far  as  possible  to  see  that  his  own  instruction 
is  rightly  interpreted.  To  this  end  he  will  need  to  have  a  clear  idea 
what  the  assignment  is,  should  see  the  entire  exercise,  and  then  per- 
haps further  discuss  it  with  the  critic  teacher.  He  could  make  any 
criticisms  that  might  occur  to  him  but  they  should  be  made  in  the 
presence  of  the  supervisor  of  practice,  or  the  critic  teacher,  or  both. 
I  think  that  criticisms  made  only  to  the  practice  teacher  and  in  pri- 
vate may  sometimes  be  of  more  harm  than  good.  A  statement  made 
to  the  critic  of  practice  would  be  better  than  anything  that  I  know  of 


DISCUSSION.  331 

for  that  would  still  retain  professional  direction  of  practice  where  it 
should  be — under  the  critics  of  practice. 

Frequent  conferences  between  the  practice  critics  and  teachers  of 
professional  subjects  ought  to  be  the  rule.  As  to  how  frequent  these 
ought  to  come  would  depend  upon  the  exigencies  of  the  case  in  hand 
rather  than  the  time  interval  between  meetings.  The  critics  of  prac- 
tice should  visit  the  professional  classes  often  enough  to  know  the 
spirit  and  method  of  instruction  for  out  of  this  would  come  the  possi- 
bility of  the  Normal  school  putting  itself  clearly  before  a  practice 
teacher — a  thing  the  Normal  school  sometimes  fails  to  do-. 

Visits  of  the  teacher  of  theory  to  the  meetings  of  the  practice 
teachers  with  their  critics  would  inform  him  of  the  spirit  and  con- 
tent of  the  suggestions  and  directions  given  by  the  critics  of  practice. 
This  would  furnish  an  excellent  means  for  that  information  that  would 
prevent  him  crossing  lines  with  the  practice  work  in  his  own  class  in- 
struction. He  could  later  make  a  much  more  intelligent  observation 
of  the  model  work  and  be  much  more  valuable  to  the  model  school  and 
the  pupils  of  his  own  classes. 

Of  course  there  is  implied  all  through  this  discussion  nothing  but 
the  highest  courtesy  to  those  associated  in  the  theory  and  practice  su- 
pervision. Each  will  respect  the  work  of  the  other,  looking  only  to 
the  good  of  the  institution  and  its  great  value  to  the  practice  teacher. 
I  can  see  where  there  might  be  some  chance  of  difference  of  opinion, 
difference  in  spirit  and  temperament,  but  with  a  wise  president  at  the 
head  to  adjust  and  modify  in  the  light  of  the  largest  problem  of  the 
school,  there  could  be  little  chance  of  any  serious  clash.  I  am  sure, 
as  time  went  on  and  these  associations  became  the  rule,  that  all  work 
wherever  it  might  be  planned,  would  take  into  consideration  all  the 
factors  that  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  proposition. 

If  former  outlines  of  specific  exercises  that  were  more  than  or- 
dinarily successful,  or  had  the  mark  of  originality  and  merit,  whether 
made  by  practice  critic  or  by  pupils,  could  be  preserved  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  other  pupils  in  the  classes  of  professional  subjects,  another 
means,  highly  valuable  to  all  interested,  would  be  secured.  I  am  sure 
these  are  of  value  to  those  pupils  who,  in  many  subjects,  traverse  the 
same  ground.  I  have  no  doubt  that  many  of  these  are  preserved 
by  the  practice  school  now  but  they  do  not  as  a  rule  come  to  the 
notice  of  the  teacher  of  theory.  The  preservation  of  that  meritorious 
practice  literature  would  serve  some  other  purposes  than  to  furnish 
certain  information.  It  would  have  a  tendency  to  induce  better  prep- 
aration by  pupils  in  the  professional  classes.  They  would  perceive  the 
ideals  to  which  former  pupils  attained  and  this  would  encourage  them 
to  put  forth  the  best  effort  of  which  they  are  capable.  It  would  in- 
duce pupils  in  the  practice  work  to  reach  for  the  best  that  is  in  them 
because  it  would  increase  the  tension  between  what  they  are  and  what 
they  believed  they  might  be.  I  have  no  doubt  it  would  open  the  pro- 
fessional eyes  of  the  teacher  of  theory  by  showing  him  new  possibili- 
ties and  by  rubbing  the  moss  off  of  some  old  pet  notions.  I  think  that 
this  would  be  one  of  the  best  means  within  our  reach  to  reflect  the 
life  of  the  practice  school  into  the  thought  of  the  professional  classes. 

I  have  purposely  left  out  personal  interviews  of  the  theory  teacher 
with  the  practice  teacher  for  information  on  questions  of  practice,  aa 
I  believe  such  interviews  lead  too  frequently  to  wrong  inferences  if 


332  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

not  closely  followed  up  with  the  procuring  of  information  from  sources 
where  the  generalizations  are  from  broader  views.  This  does  not  pre- 
clude those  discussions  that  are  of  frequent  occurrence  now  where  the 
pupil  seeks  an  answer  to  her  difficulty  from  the  largest  experience  the 
institution  can  afford.  But  even  here,  unless  the  member  of  the  fac- 
ulty has  his  share  in  the  institutional  intelligence,  he  may  so  conduct 
himself  as  to  bring  greater  confusion  into  the  thought  of  the  student 
than  was  there  before. 

I  shall  close  this  part  of  the  discussion  with  a  reference  to  the  illus- 
trative class  exercise  as  a  means  for  gaining  knowledge  of  the  model 
work.  I  believe  this  means  to  be  much  over  estimated  both  in  its 
power  to  impart  information  and  its  power  to  instruct.  In  the  first 
place  it  is  limited,  as  every  class  recitation  is,  by  the  conditions  un- 
der which  it  IB  held.  These  conditions  are  never  the  same  in  the  il- 
lustrative exercise  as  they  are  in  the  actual  school.  I  have  seen  such 
exercises  given  in  an  association  using  the  members  of  the  associa- 
tion as  pupils.  I  have  seen  its  possibility  of  variation  exhausted,  al- 
most, by  different  members  playing  the  part  of  the  naughty  boy,  the 
simpering  girl,  the  smart  "Alick"  boy,  the  bashful  child,  etc.  These 
exercises  are  so  frequently  misleading.  They  emphasize  form  and 
draw  attention  to  the  acting  so  much  that  they  serve  little  more  than 
to  amuse.  They  never  inspire,  they  seldom  present  high  ideals  either 
in  acting  or  in  teaching.  Even  when  the  children  are  actually  taken 
before  an  audience  to  perform  specially  there  are  so  many  unseen  ele- 
ments in  the  whole  situation  that  the  true  pedagogy  of  it  can  not  be 
estimated.  It  being  a  special  performance,  both  teacher  and  pupils 
are  under  different  psychical  conditions  than  in  the  everyday  work 
of  the  school.  Special  preparation  is  bound  to  be  made,  special  at- 
tention is  bound  to  be  given  both  to  plan  and  actual  presentation  so 
that  the  exercise  seldom  does  more  than  to  show  the  only  thing  it  can 
show,  that  is  type  or  ideal  results  of  some  previous  line  of  work.  For 
the  teacher  of  professional  subjects  to  go  down  into  the  practice  school 
once  in  a  while  to  take  a  class  would,  it  seems  to  me,  besides  being 
possibly  an  encroachment  upon  the  prerogatives  of  the  critics  of 
practice,  lead  to  some  harmful  results  in  leading  the  young  people  to 
think  more  of  the  form  that  appeals  to  the  eye  than  of  the  substance 
that  should  appeal  to  the  spirit.  Here  is  a  transposing  of  functions 
akin  to  that  when  two  ministers  exchange  pulpits.  There  may  be  a 
rest  to  the  ministers,  a  change  for  the  pews,  but  the  personal  element 
is  the  subject  of  comment  afterward  instead  of  the  sermon. 

I  have  sought  to  see  a  way  to  secure  this  information  and  use  it  to 
the  best  interests  of  the  school  without  increasing  the  number  of 
critics  per  practice  teacher.  I  have  sought  to  secure  a  more  far  reach- 
ing, a  more  definite,  and  a  more  up-building  criticism  through  a  union 
of  the  forces  in  the  school  as  they  appear  now,  and  through  harmony 
of  action  without  an  encroachment-  of  one  function  upon  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  another.  I  have  sought  a  way  by  which  the  criticism 
of  the  practice  teacher  should  come  from  the  institution  and  be 
recognized  as  the  criticism  of  the  institution  and  not  as  the  personal 
whim  of  some  dissatisfied  teacher.  Cross  lines  in  comments  on  the 
practice  teacher's  work  can  scarcely  avoid  giving  the  impression  that 
the  criticism  is  largely  personal  and  not  institutional.  I  have  believed 
that  this  will  interfere  less  with  the  spontaneity  of  the  practice 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  333 

teacher,  lighten  the  burdens  of  the  critics  of  practice,  and  lead  to  a 
fairer  interpretation  of  the  Normal  school  to  the  prospective  teacher. 

Such  an  arrangement  would  need  more  time  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  of  theory  and,  perhaps,  a  new  adjustment  of  program  in  or- 
der to  reach  the  ideals  expected  by  this  discussion,  but  I  believe  the 
change  would  not  be  great.  By  distributing  the  vacant  periods  as 
much  as  possible,  the  teacher  of  theory  could  reach  the  work  of  the 
practice  school  and  the  conferences  of  the  practice  critics  more  fre- 
quently than  if  his  vacant  periods  were  bunched.  It  would  necessi- 
tate more  time,  perhaps,  at  the  disposal  of  the  practice  critics  than 
at  present,  but  this  bringing  all  the  forces  of  the  school  to  bear  prop- 
erly on  the  question  in  hand  would  greatly  increase  the  time  by  avoid- 
ing the  duplications  that  must  occur  when  such  an  arrangement  is  not 
the  rule,  i  can  see,  I  think,  that  as  times  goes  on  there  will  be  less  need 
of  the  frequent  practice  teacher's  meetings  by  having  more  efficient 
ones  when  they  are  held. 

If  I  have  made  myself  clear  on  paper  as  I  have  tried  to  be  clear  in 
seeing  this,  then  my  discussion  stands  as  a  plea  for  a  union  of  effort 
through  a  common  or  institutional  intelligence  in  which  each  member 
,of  the  faculty  shall  have  his  rightful  share  and  by  which  the  pulse 
of  the  school  can  always  be  known. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Jegi — While  I  do  not  want  to  cut  off  discussion,  I  should  espe- 
cially like  to  hear  from  teachers  of  model  schools  on  this  question. 
What  do  you  think?  I  hope  you  will  be  perfectly  free  in  expressing 
yourselves. 

Mr.  Lough — It  seems  to  me  that  we  might  suggest  the  other  side  of 
the  question, — What  can  the  teachers  in  the  model  school  make  of  the 
work  in  the  professional  classes?  I  would  suggest  that  you  co-ordinate 
the  work  of  the  model  school  with  the  theory  in  the  professional 
course,  as  well  as  the  professional  course  with  the  model  school.  I  try 
in  my  work  to  go  half  way  to  the  model  work  and  I  would  like  the 
model  school  to  come  half  way  to  me.  I  should  like  to  have  the 
teachers  in  the  model  schools  use  what  theories  I  present,  or  give  me 
better  theories.  If  I  present  a  theory  I  should  like  to  see  that  car- 
ried out.  If  not,  show  me  a  better  one  and  I  will  accept  it  with 
pleasure. 

There  is  only  one  topic  I  would  like  to  suggest.  In  reply  to  some 
attacks  upon  psychology,  there  are  two  explanations, — one  suggested 
"by  a  story  I  heard  of  a  young  Englishman  who  was  speaking  of  the 
poor  manners  of  the  Americans  and  who  said — "They  eat  pie  with 
their  knives  over  there,"  and  was  met  by  the  answer: — "What  poor 
letters  of  introduction  you  must  have  had!"  The  other  is  illustrated 
"by  a  personal  experience  a  good  many  years  ago: — I  got  hold  of  some 
cream  pie  and  I  ate  sj  much  of  it  that  I  have  never  eaten  any  cream 
pie  since.  There  is  as  much  danger  in  reading  too  much  psychology  as 
there  is  in  reading  too  little. 

Mr.  McKenny — The  tendency  of  every  professional  teacher  is  to  work 
out  an  original  way  of  doing  a  thing.  I  recall  a  teacher  of  mathe- 


334  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

matics  in  Michigan  who  got  out  a  series  of  text-books  based  on  the 
methods  which  he  used  in  his  classroom.  So  far  as  I  know,"  they 
were  never  used  in  any  other  school  in  the  United  States.  Even  the 
teachers  under  his  tuition  could  not  put  the  text-books  into  practice 
successfully.  What  is  true  of  that  teacher  is  true  of  teachers  in  other 
schools.  They  look  at  professional  reviews  in  a  way  entirely  differ- 
ent from  the  way  the  model  teachers  look  at  them.  They  want  to 
get  some  original  way  of  organizing  this  material.  It  has  occurred  to 
me  that,  since  in  nine  tenths  of  the  schools  of  this  state — in  ninety- 
nine  out  of  a  hundred — the  work  of  the  teacher  must  be  organized  on 
the  basis  of  some  text-book  in  use,  our  professional  work  in  the  Nor- 
mal school  should  be  organized  on  the  same  basis.  If  the  teachers  in 
history  knew  how  to  take  a  text-book  in  history  and  use  it,  they 
would  be  worth  a  hundred  times  more  than  they  are  today. 

Instead  of  the  critic  teachers  going  half  way  to  the  professional 
teachers,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  professional  teachers  will 
have  to  go  nine  tenths  of  the  way  to  the  critic  teacher.  This  is  no  re- 
flection on  the  professional  teachers.  I  am  one  myself.  But  we  are 
not  in  daily  touch  with  these  boys  and  girls.  In  proportion  as  we 
are  away  from  the  model  school  we  are  disqualified  to  pass  upon  the 
method.  We  must,  as  teachers  of  psychology,  teachers  of  profes- 
sional subjects  and  teachers  of  pedagogy,  if  necessary,  go  all  the  way 
to  the  model  school  first.  We  must  get  down  there.  I  think,  while 
we  have  a  right  to  pride  ourselves  on  our  method  of  teaching  a  sub- 
ject, it  should  not  only  be  tested  in  our  own  classrooms,  in  our  own 
subjects,  but  by  the  average  teacher.  It  is  not  the  teacher  of  profes- 
sional subjects  who  must  try  this  plan.  It  is  for  the  average  teacher. 
We  must  make  our  plan  for  the  average  teacher.  The  professional 
teacher  must  know  what  the  average  work  of  the  average  school  is, 
not  simply  the  average  work  of  the  model  school.  He  should  know 
what  is  done  in  the  average  school  of  the  state.  Not  that  he  should 
descend  to  their  level,  but  he  must  start  at  that  point  if  he  hopes  to 
lift  them  up.  He  must  begin  there.  To  that  degree  must  the  pro- 
sessional  teachers  descend  before  they  can  actually  begin  to  do  safe 
work  in  the  school.  I  think  we  are  going  to  come  to  that  in  Wiscon- 
sin. I  think  it  is  a  just  criticism  upon  our  professional  teachers  that 
we  do  not  know  intimately  enough  the  work  of  the  average  teacher 
and  the  average  conditions  in  Wisconsin. 

Miss  Swart — I  believe  it  is  true,  thoroughly  true,  that  the  teachers 
of  professional  subjects  are  so  far  removed  from  actual  experience 
with  the  children,  with  the  actual  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  the 
children,  that  the  subject  is  not  so  well  handled  by  them  as  though 
they  were  brought  into  closer  contact.  It  is  also  true  that  the  teach- 
ers in  the  model  department  do  not  have  the  time  or  opportunity  to 
know  the  subject,  they  do  not  have  time  to  study  up  the  bibliography 
of  the  subject.  I  believe  it  is  the  duty  of  the  person  who  teaches  the 
work  upstairs,  the  one  who  has  these  professional  reviews,  to  do  two 
or  three  things  in  that  line  for  the  model  school.  One  is  to  determine 
what  is  the  true  order  of  topics  in  the  subject;  to  determine  what 
ought  to  be  known  in  that  subject;  to  determine  what  is  the  best 
literature  on  the  subject  up  to  the  last  day;  to  extend  that  informa- 
tion to  the  people  in  the  model  school  and  to  make  out  at  least  a 
provisional  course  of  study  in  that  model  school.  The  teachers  in  the 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  335 

model  school  may  know  about  the  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  the 
children,  but  the  progress  of  the  subject  in  the  field  they  do  not  know 
and  cannot  know.  They  do  not  have  so  good  art  opportunity  to  kncTf 
the  content  of  the  subject  and  the  order  of  the  content  of  the  subject  as 
people  do  who  spend  their  entire  time  on  the  literature  of  the  subject. 
From  the  subject-matter  side,  the  professional  teacher  upstairs  should 
come  half  way.  From  the  children's  side  the  teacher  downstairs  should 
come  half  way  and  there  the  union  of  the  subject  and  adaptation  can  be 
made.  And  no  one  person  can  know  both  of  those  sides  equally  well, 
it  seems  to  me. 

Mr.  Mitchell— It  is  all  right  to  take  up  a  text-book  and  outline  the 
work  and  indicate  the  method  that  should  be  followed  with  that  text- 
book, but  *********  you  have  to  work  on  what  is. 
You  cannot  work  on  what  ought  to  be. 

Mr.  Emery — Will  you  explain? 

Mr.  Mitchell — Yes.  If  I  should  go  to  work  and  name  any  text-book 
on  geography,  for  instance,  I  should  have  the  whole  school  book 
force  down  on  me. 

Mr.  Emery — I  believe  it  is  within  the  province  of  the  Board  of  Re- 
gents of  Normal  schools,  as  it  is  within  the  province  of  the  district 
board  or  board  of  education,  to  adopt  a  system  of  text-books  that  is  legal 
for  that  school.  The  trouble  is  that  it  is  so  frequently  not  done  legally. 
When  it  is  legally  done,  no  matter  about  the  clamour  of  book  agents. 

I  want  to  make  one  or  two  remarks  while  I  am  on  my  feet.  I  do 
not  know  that  they  are  germane  to  the  subject.  I  have  been  impressed 
this  afternoon  with  the  different  points  of  view.  I  have  heard  so  mucn 
about  lack  of  time.  That  is  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher.  From 
the  standpoint  of  one  administering  the  affairs  of  the  schools,  the 
criticism  is  likely  to  come  about  this  way:  "That  teacher  wastes  so 
much  time.  There  is  so  much  of  wasted  time  and  energy  in  the 
handling  of  that  subject  by  the  teacher.  Cut  this  down.  Eliminate 
non  essentials  and  get  at  the  core  of  the  matter."  There  is  the  differ- 
ence in  the  point  of  view. 

And  there  is  one  thing  more  I  want  to  say.  I  do  not  think  the 
work  of  the  critic  teacher  has  been  exaggerated  here  this  afternoon. 
The  critic  teacher  has  my  sympathy. 

Mr.  McKenny — I  get  a  teacher  in  history  from  a  Normal  school  and 
she  knows  absolutely  nothing  about  using  a  text-book  effectively.  In 
geography  it  is  the  same.  She  does  not  know  how  to  eliminate;  she 
does  not  know  how  to  bring  in  other  material  to  supplement  that  text- 
book. 

Mr.  Patzer — I  would  like  to  go  a  little  further.  If  these  teachers  of 
professional  subjects  are  to  assume  such  large  responsibilities,  it  does 
seem  to  me  that  those  subjects  which  they  teach  should  be  magnified 
just  one  little  bit.  For  three  years  in  the  Milwaukee  Normal  school, 
I  attempted  to  teach  professionally  that  broad  subject  of  geography  in 
four  weeks  and  a  day.  I  do  not  care  to  have  people  outside  of  Ml- 
waukee  judge  my  work  by  the  people  I  have  turned  out  who  have  had 
just  twenty-one  days  of  training.  I  believe  most  heartily  in  the 
thought  expressed  by  President  McKenny,  that  the  text-book  should 
be  the  center  of  instruction  and  that  we  should  build  around  it.  Then 
the  question  comes:  Is  every  text-book  to  be  used  in  exactly  the 
same  way?  I  say,  No.  I  believe  it  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 


336  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

people  present  that  we  should  not;  but  we  ought  in  our  work  to  cen- 
ter our  attention  upon  some  one  book  so  that  the  teachers  may  realize 
how  to  use  that  book  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  able  to  use  any 
book  in  any  school  where  they  may  at  anytime  teach. 

Mr.  Sims — I  wish  to  say  something  along  the  same  line  with  Mr. 
Patzer.  It  seems  to  me  that  in  using  any  text-book,  the  teacher  of 
professional  subjects  must  ever  strive  to  lead  to  the  better  organiza- 
tion of  the  material  in  that  text-book  and  we  certainly  ought  to  ad- 
vance these  ends. 

Mr.  Rockwood — Every  text-book  seems  to  be  in  need  of  revision  in 
order  to  suit  us.  That  is  because  we  did  not  write  it  ourselves. 

Mr.  Patzer — I  think  that  is  so,  and  if  I  were  tj  write  one  today, 
very  likely  I  would  revise  it  tomorrow. 

Mr.  Rockwood — Like  Robert  Collyer's  religion. 

Mr.  Patzer — I  believe  that  remark  of  yours  is  pertinent.  I  believe 
there  is  too  much  work  of  this  kind  going  on  in  the  schools  of  this 
country.  We  are  constantly  changing  our  text-books.  In  a  general 
way  it  is  well  and  good.  However,  shall  we  question  too  often  the 
declarations  of  the  book  we  are  using?  Shall  we  say: — "While  this 
definition  in  this  particular  book  is  all  right,  I  have  a  better  one? 
And  so  we  introduce  that  "better"  one  only  because  it  happens  to 
come  from  our  own  inner  consciousness.  And  we  try  to  improve  the 
next  one,  and  bye  and  bye  the  children  say: — "Well,  I  guess  our  text- 
book is  no  good.  I  guess  we  are  not  getting  very  much  out  of  it." 

Mr.  McGregor — It  seems  to  me  you  are  misinterpreting  what  is 
meant  by  the  term  "text-book."  If  we  look  back  at  the  evolution  of 
the  term  we  find  that  it  was  a  text  printed  with  wide  margins  and  wide 
pages  for  the  purpose  of  making  additions.  We  should  consider  it  as 
a  preacher  does  in  using  a  text.  Any  book  that  has  been  written  by 
any  qualified  man  or  woman  should  form  a  fair  basis  to  work  upon.  I 
am  not  so  particular  what  the  text-book  is,  provided  I  can  go  along  and 
do  a  little  supplemental  work. 

Mr.  Rockwood — It  would  not  be  like  the  text  of  some  sermons,  to  be 
departed  from  and  never  returned  to. 

Mr.  Jegi — We  have  not  yet  heard  from  the  critic  teachers. 

Mr.  McKenny — They  need  encouragement.  I  know  of  some  critic 
teachers  who  can  talk  straight  to  the  point. 

Mr.  Jegi — Call  out  some  of  them. 

Mr.  McKenny — I  would  like  to  hear  from  Miss  Doyle. 

Miss  Doyle — Everything  that  has  been  said  this  afternoon  is  good. 
I  am  still  thinking  of  what  Miss  Swart  read.  I  am  glad  she  gave  us 
what  she  did.  Going  back  to  that  question  of  spontaneity,  I  wish  that 
the  students  could  be  sent  to  the  practice  teaching  with  a  greater 
knowledge  of  the  subject  and  a  love  for  the  work  and  some  knowledge 
of  the  children  with  whom  they  are  to  deal,  and  I  believe  spontaneity 
would  come. 

Miss  Fox — We  do  some  work  in  our  school  which  has  been  beneficial 
to  the  practice  teacher  and  the  professional  teacher.  In  finishing  up 
a  subject  or  a  course  in  history,  for  instance,  Mrs.  Madden  has  taken 
her  students  into  the  model  departments  and  spent  a  week  in  obser- 
vation there.  Then  the  class  discussed  with  the  teachers  these  les- 
sons. The  same  thing  was  done  by  other  teachers, — with  our  library 
people,  and  I  think  anyone,  in  hearing  the  discussion  by  the  profes- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  337 

sional  teachers,  would  realize  how  much  in  sympathy  they  were  with 
the  model  school  work,  how  well  they  understood  the  work  ^here  and 
how  very  beneficial  that  observation  work  was  to  all  concerned. 

Mr.  McNeill — I  believe  that  the  meeting  this  afternoon  is  worth  all 
that  this  institute  has  cost  the  state  of  Wisconsin.  I  believe  that 
there  is  a  growing  together  that  will  manifest  itself  in  much  better 
and  more  sympathetic  work  in  all  the  schools. 

Mrs.  Bradford — A  suggestion  was  made  this  afternoon  that  it  might 
be  considered  a  duty  on  the  part  of  the  professional  teachers  to  help 
the  critic  teachers  to  outline  a  .course  of  study.  Our  teacher  in  his- 
tory interested  himself  to  such  a  degree  in  our  work  as  to  come  down 
and  assist  us  in  making  out  a  course  of  study  in  history  for  the  prac- 
tice school  extending  from  the  third  grade  to  the  ninth.  And  it  was 
said:  "Why  have  you  allowed  historjr  to  crowd  out  other  things?" — 
history  being  more  manifest  in  our  practice  work. 

Mr.  Emery — Did  this  professor  of  history  make  out  this  course  in 
his  room,  or  did  he  come  down  and  study  your  needs? 

Mrs.  Bradford — He  studied  the  method  that  was  being  proposed  by 
the  supervisor  of  practice. 

Mr.  Emery — He  challenged  it? 

Mrs.  Bradford — He  came  down  and  took  the  sixth  grade  and  found 
that  it  would  not  work.  Perhaps  that  was  the  beginning  of  his  in- 
terest. From  that  on  his  interest  grew.  He  visits  the  practice  teach- 
ers regularly.  I  am  always  sure  of  a  source  to  which  I  can  refer 
teachers  for  matter  in  instruction,  because  he  is  right  at  hand  with 
•whatever  they  need  in  that  line. 

Miss  Shultes — I  have  felt  the  need,  in  my  experience,  of  this  har- 
mony in  understanding  of  method  and  in  arranging  a  course  of  study 
and  believe  that  it  would  greatly  strengthen  both  departments  of  the 
schools  if  there  could  be  made  out  a  course  of  study  which  would  have 
the  approval  of  all  departments  of  the  school, -under  the  supervision  of 
the  academic  and  professional  departments,  and  if  also  there  could  be 
a  common  understanding  with  reference  to  the  method  of  instruction, 
especially  in  the  lower  grades.  I  find  that  practice  teachers  some- 
times anticipate  or  fear  discrepancies  because  of  something  perhaps 
2iot  previously  understood  and  they  appear  in  the  presence  of  model 
teachers  and  directors  of  practice  work  not  quite  familiar  with  the 
point  of  view  taken  by  us.  I  certainly  look  forward  to  the  time  when 
there  shall  be  in  all  Normal  schools  a  perfect  understanding  from  the 
kindergarten  up  to  the  highest  department  of  the  school  with  refer- 
ence to  the  course  of  study  and  with  reference  to  the  method  of  in- 
struction. 

Mr.  Jegt — You  have  a  course  of  study? 

Miss  Shultes — Yes.  . 

Mr.  Jegi — You  mean  a  more  detailed  course? 

Miss  Shultes — We  have  a  coure  of  study.  It  is  an  old  one  that  we 
have  been  using  for  some  time.  I  think  it  was  made  out  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  school  in  conjunction  with  the  critic  teachers  and  some 
suggestions  from  myself.  It  was  made  out  without  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  heads  of  departments.  I  think  we  would  have  been 
very  much  helped  on  our  side  of  the  question  if  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments had  been  consulted.  When  a  new  course  is  made  under  con- 

22 


338  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

sultation  of  the  whole  faculty,  it  will  harmonize  the  methods  of  in- 
struction. 

Miss  Rogers — The  last  remark  of  Miss  Shultes  brings  to  my  mind 
this:  I  wonder  how  many  Normal  schools  in  the  state  there  are 
where  the  teachers  of  professional  subjects  have  been  invited  to  take 
any  part  in  making  out  a  scheme  for  the  lower  grades.  I  wonder  how 
many  schools  there  are  that  have  done  this.  The  criticism  comes 
from  the  other  side  that  the  pupil  has  not  a  sufficient  amount  of 
knowledge  on  the  subject;  when  the  fact  is  that  the  pupil  may  be  a 
high  school  graduate  who  has  not  hand  any  training  in  the  Normal 
school  whatsoever.  There  is  another  thing.  The  Normal  school  pupil 
is  told  to  use  a  text-book,  we  will  say  '• —  — 's  Advance  Geography. 
That  teacher  goes  into  a  country  school  to  teach  and  is  obliged  to 

teach  's  Geography.  They  are  about  as  much  alike  as  oil  and 

water.  The  school  authorities  come  back  to  the  Normal  school  and 
say:  "We  don't  want  such  a  teacher  again.  We  don't  want  a  Nor- 
mal graduate  to  teach  in  our  school  again."  It  is  a  very  fine  thing  to 
know  how  to  use  a  text-book. 

Miss  Hendrickson — My  knowledge  of  Wisconsin  Normal  schools  ex- 
tends over  a  period  of  but  four  months.  You  must  pardon  me  if  I  ask 
some  questions.  I  do  not  know  whether  the  Normal  schools  in  Wis- 
consin exist  for  a  different  reason  from  that  in  other  states.  My  idea 
of  the  purposes  of  Normal  schools  has  been  that  they  exist  to  prepare 
teachers  for  schools  as  they  exist,  and  it  seems  to  me  also  their  pur- 
pose is  to  improve  those  schools.  How  is  this  to  come  unless  it  comes 
at  the  hands  of  people  who  have  charge  of  the  professional  subjects? 
If  teachers  of  professional  subjects  come  to  the  model  school  for 
methods  are  we  not  in  danger  of  going  on  and  on  in  the  same  old  way? 

Mr.  Jegi — Let  us  hear  of  the  work  which  has  been  done  by  the 
teachers  of  drawing  in  supervising  the  work  in  drawing. 

Miss In  the  first  place,  we  arrange  our  drawing  periods 

at  such  a  time,  that  it  leaves  us  free  to  visit  our  model  departments 
during  the  regular  recitation  with  the  children,  and  our  work  is  su- 
pervised downstairs.  The  practice  teacher  goes  to  the  supervisor  for 
her  plan  of  work.  She  submits  the  plan  to  the  drawing  teacher  and 
the  critic  teacher  afterwards.  The  work  is  especially  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  drawing  teacher. 

Mr.  McKenny — Who  passes  the  final  criticism? 

Miss 1  do  not  know  as  there  is  any  final  criticism.  We 

•work  together.  The  supervisor,  drawing,  and  critic  teachers  work  to- 
gether. I  do  not  know  of  an  instance  where  there  has  been  a  disagree- 
ment between  the  drawing  teacher  and  the  critic  teacher.  The  critic 
teacher  gives  more  criticism  along  the  line  of  class  management. 
The  drawing  teacher  is  more  interested  in  the  artistic  phase  of  the 
work. 

Miss  Strong — The  planning  and  the  management  of  the  work  in 
drawing  in  my  department  have  certainly  been  most  satisfactory.  The 
planning  is  done  by  the  teacher  of  drawing  in  the  Normal  school,  and 
she  has  not  only  done  the  planning  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  les- 
sons, but  she  has  interested  herself  to  come  down  into  the  depart- 
ment to  show  her  practice  teachers  whom  she  sends  there  how  to  carry 
on  the  work.  She  gives  her  criticism  to  the  drawing  teacher  and  I 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  339 

give  mine.  We  have  always  talked  over  the  work  freely  and  in  no 
case  has  there  been  a  disagreement. 

Miss  Swart — If  I  may  be  permitted  to  say  a  word,  I  think  Miss 
Rogers  has  an  excuse  for  saying  what  she  said.  In  the  words  of  Presi- 
dent Cleveland,  "It  is  a  condition  that  confronts  us."  And  the  condi- 
tion has  had  a  historic  reason  for  being.  It  exists,  not  on  acount  of 
any  tremendous  failure  on  the  part  of  the  professional  teachers  on  the 
upper  floors,  but  it  has  simply  come  about  just  as  other  things  do.  In 
the  beginning  the  Normal  schools  were  small,  and  the  president  knew 
all  about  everything  that  ought  to  be  done  in  them.  I  am  not  saying 
they  do  not  now.  But  the  schools  have  grown  to  such  proportions 
that  it  is  a  human  impossibility  for  any  one  man  to  manage  every  de- 
partment. And  this  same  condition  is  true  concerning  the  supervisors 
of  practice.  Time  was  when  they  were  expected  to  be  specialists  in 
all  directions.  Time  was  when  there  were  no  professional  reviews, 
and  then  we  came  to  a  time  when  we  did  have  some  professional  re- 
views. It  grew  out  of  the  theory  that  the  president  of  the  school 
could  manage  and  must  manage.  And  I  think  how  much  of  that  exists 
still.  I  oelieve  that  is  the  reason  why  this  condition  of  things  exists. 
We  all  know  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  up  with  one's  opportuni- 
ties. The  Normal  schools  are  making  a  tremendous  effort  to  grow 
and  to  keep  up  with  their  opportunities.  I  believe  Miss  Rogers  Is 
right.  I  think  it  is  not  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  Normal  schools  to  a 
sufficient  extent  that  the  teachers  of  professional  branches  breathe  it 
in.  In  my  connection  with  drawing,  music,  gymnastics,  etc.,  the  course 
of  study  has  been  laid  down  by  the  teachers  and  nobody  would  think 
of  interfering.  Two  or  three  things  have  made  it  difficult  for  the  pro- 
fessional teachers  and  the  supervisor  of  practice  and  the  critic  teacher 
to  get  together  on  some  points.  In  music  and  drawing  the  reason 
has  been  that  nobody  else  professes  to  know  anything  about  those 
branches?  A  certain  amount  of  modesty  is  required  in  the  critic 
teacher  and  in  the  supervisor  of  practice  in  respect  to  the  subject  mat- 
ter and  what  ought  to  be  done  with  it. 

I  think  that  the  administration  of  Normal  schools  in  this  state  has 
not  sufficiently  recognized  the  fact  that  the  professional  teachers  have 
a  right,  and  not  only  a  right  but  a  duty,  along  this  line,  and  I  do  not 
think  it  is  the  fault  of  the  professional  teachers  that  they  have  not 
recognized  their  duty  and  demanded  their  rights. 

Mr.  Brier  (In  response  to  request  of  Mr.  Jegi) — In  a  paper  which  I 
purpose  to  present  to  this  section  before  the  close  of  the  week,  I  have 
indicated  briefly  what  we  have  attempted  to  do  along  the  line  which 
Regent  Emery  has  referred  to,  so  I  think  it  would  be  better  not  to  fore- 
stall that  paper  and  steal  my  own  thunder. 

I  would  make  a  comment,  however,  on  the  matter  of  courses  of 
study — outlines  of  work  for  the  model  schools  as  being  a  growth  which 
should  come  from  the  model  school,  the  supervisor  of  practice,  the 
heads  of  departments  and  the  president  of  the  school  united, — and 
why  such  outline  has  not  been  made  and  worked  up  to  in  the  Normal 
schools  of  Wisconsin,  I  am  at  a  loss  to  know.  I  do  not  believe  there 
has  been  a  president  of  any  Normal  school  in  this  state  who  has  not 
realized  that  that  would  be  a  good  thing.  We  all  do  know  that  the 
courses  of  study,  so-called,  as  indicated  in  our  catalogs,  *  *  *  * 
simply  indicate  in  a  very  general  way  a  lot  of  things  that  are  to  be 


340  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

done,  and  cannot  be  helpful  either  to  the  model  teacher,  the  critic 
teacher,  the  head  of  a  department,  or  anybody  else.  I  have  had  it  in 
mind  ever  since  I  have  been  in  the  Normal  school  to  make  out  a  course 
and  a  syllabus  and  put  it  into  the  hands  of  practice  teachers.  But  I 
have  not  done  it.  Just  why  I  am  not  going  to  tell  you,  because  I  do 
not  know  myself.  There  has  been  no  rule  of  the  Board  in  my  way,  no 
unwillingness  to  assist  upon  the  part  of  the  faculty.  We  have  talked 
about  it,  but  we  have  not  done  it.  As  it  was  stated  a  little  while  ago, 
this  is  a  week  for  growth,  and  I  suspect  that  some  of  us  will  go  bacK 
.and  start  in  to  work  that  out. 

Miss  Shultes — So  far  as  drawing,  music,  and  gymnastics  is  con- 
cerned, our  work  has  been  carried  out  very  much  as  was  suggested  by 
the  lady  from  the  Milwaukee  Normal  school.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  drawing. 

Mr.  Pray — There  was  something  said  that  I  did  not  understand.  It 
•was  said  that  the  courses  of  study  printed  in  the  catalogs  are  of  very 
little  value  to  anybody. 

Mr.  Breir — For  the  model  school.  I  doubt  whether  many  of  the 
practice  teachers  or  model  school  teachers  refer  to  them  very  much. 

Mr.  Pray— I  doubt  if  that  statement  is  correct  with  regard  to  one 
school.  I  think  that  the  catalog  will  show  that  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  state  with  reasonable  clearness  the  topics  and  order  of  pre- 
sentation, and  while  it  is  not  as  definite  as  a  syllabus  would  be,  it 
certainly  gives  a  fair  degree  of  information  to  those  who  can  read 
between  the  lines.  > 

Mr.  McNeill — I  do  not  believe  the  teachers  of  professional  subjects 
are  by  any  means  the  whole  thing  in  the  Normal  school.  I  think  that 
very  often  a  teacher  of  German  or  any  other  subject  may  be  as  much 
an  inspiration  and  important  factor  in  the  Normal  school  as  any  other 
teacher.  The  important  factors  in  the  Normal  school  ar«,  first,  the 
model  teachers,  and,  second,  the  supervisor  of  practice. 


Leader,  J.  Q.  EMERY,  Albion 
(Second  Day.) 


TO  WHAT  EXTENT  SHOULD  THE  MODEL  SCHOOL  BE  THE 
CORRELATING  CENTER  OF  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

J.  C.  MCNEILL,  Superior. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  paper  I  have  incurred  indebtedness  to 
the  N.  E.  A.  committee  and  its  report  on  Normal  schools  presented 
to  the  National  Educational  Association  at  its  Los  Angeles  meeting, 
July,  1899.  I  am  also  under  obligations  to  other  great  students  of 
Normal  school  problems  whom  I  have  consulted  pn  matters  herein 
presented.  It  is  my  purpose  to  state  a  few  fundamental  facts  in  a 
terse  way,  with  a  firm  conviction  that  the  positions  taken  have  grown 
out  of  efforts  to  adapt  means  to  ends  in  considering  the  model  school 
or  training  department  as  the  correlating  center  of  Normal  school 
work. 


THE  MODEL  SCHOOL  AS  A  CORRELATING  CENTER. 

As  to  the  clientage  of  the  training  department  I  hold,  with  many 
others  who  have  expressed  themselves  on  this  point,  that  it  should 
always  include  three  classes  of  learners  who  under  our  state  laws  are 
entitled  to  attend  free  public  schools.  Wisconsin  makes  provision  for 
the  education  of  infants,  that  is  persons  from  four  to  six  or  seven 
years  of  age;  for  the  education  of  children,  that  is  persons  between  six 
or  seven  and  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age;  and  for  the  youth, 
those  little  over  thirteen  or  fourten  years  of  age. 

The  infant,  because  of  his  plasticity  and  lack  of  development,  needs, 
when  ne  first  enters  the  public  schools,  to  be  placed  in  the  kindergar- 
ten; the  child  is  entitled  to  the  treatment  he  receives  in  the  best  con- 
ducted graded  school;  and  the  adolescent  young  person  needs  that 
training  ana  direction  properly  suited  to  age  and  development  as 
carried  on  in  the  best  high  schools: 

A  training  department  which  does  not  provide  for  the  treatment 
of  the  infant,  the  child,  and  the  youth  is,  to  say  the  least,  not  properly 
organized.  No  student  should  be  graduated  from  any  full  regular 
course  until  his  observation  and  training  in  teaching  and  managing 
have  touched  the  three  great  epochs  in  early  education.  The  study 
of  psychology  after  the  development  plan  is  comparatively  barren  in 
its  results  unless  the  student  submits  its  teachings  to  the  real  con- 
crete problems  of  teaching  and  managing  in  each  of  the  early  epochs 
of  child  development.  Our  excellent  system  of  Normal  schools  needs 
some  attention  in  this  respect.  The  Board  of  Regents,  presidents  and 
faculties  should  feel  that  no  Normal  school  is  properly  equipped  until 
these  conditions  are  met. 

A  good  training  department  conducted  along  the  lines  to  be  dis- 
cussed later  in  this  paper,  with  a  modern  kindergarten,  with  some 
purposeful  work  in  manual  training,  and  with  opportunity  for  a  scien- 
tific study  of  the  problems  that  confront  the  teacher  of  beginning 
classes  in  high  schools,  will  help  to  place  or  keep  Normal  schools 
where  they,  by  the  logic  of  their  existence,  belong,  at  the  head  of 
public  educational  forces,  and  the  training  department  may  be  in  fact 
as  in  theory  a  veritable  pedagogical  laboratory,  a  true  center  of  correla- 
tion for  the  study  of  the  problems  of  elementary  education. 

Under  the  plan  of  organization  in  Wisconsin  the  president  of  a 
Normal  school  has  control  of  all  of  its  departments.  The  wide  interests 
and  the  involved  mechanism  of  the  institution  make  it  necessary  for 
him  to  delegate  authority  in  various  directions.  The  model  school 
or  training  department  is  placed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  su- 
pervisor of  practice  who  must  stand  directly  for  the  management, 
teaching  and  general  movements  of  the  model  school;  and  together 
with  critic  teachers  formulate  the  course  of  study  as  outlined  by 
teachers  in  academic  branches  and  submit  it  to  the  president  for 
approval  or  modification. 

Teachers  of  academic  branches  should  be  thoroughly  informed  on 
what  infants  under  six  or  seven,  children  under  thirteen  or  fourteen, 
and  adolescent  young  people  in  the  ninth  grade  can  and  ought  to  do 
in  their  respective  lines.  In  other  words,  each  teacher  of  a  branch 
in  a  Normal  school  ought  to  be  so  thoroughly  familiar  with  child 
psychology  and  with  children's  work  that  the  subject-matter  as  to  ex- 
tent and  content,  will  be  adapted  to  the  faculties,  capacities,  and 
powers  of  the  taught  in  all  grades.  They  should  propose  in  writing 


342  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

the  subject-matter  for  the  course  of  study  in  the  training  department, 
and  they  should  also  submit  in  writing  what  they  consider  the  leading 
points  in  the  method  of  presenting  the  subject-matter  of  their  various 
branches.  Because  of  the  liability  to  over-estimate  the  relative  worth 
of  subjects  by  specialists,  and  because  many  excellent  teachers  are 
partially  unacquainted  with  other  requirements  necessarily  made  upon 
the  infants,  children,  ana  youtn  in  the  training  department,  the  limi- 
tations set  forth  in  the  preceding  paragraph  as  to  the  final  word  on 
the  course  of  study  should  be  observed.  Here  unification  and  corre- 
lation begin  in  earnest. 

The  supervisor  of  practice  should  supervise  the  work  of  critic 
teachers  and  student  teachers  and  call  together  critic  teachers,  student 
teachers  or  Normal  teachers  for  consultation.  The  training  depart- 
ment involves  work  in  which  all  members  of  the  faculty  should  under- 
stand and  share;  yet,  to  secure  evenness  in  discipline  and  articula- 
tion in  study,  the  responsibility  for  administration  of  the  course,  for 
method  of  preparation  and  presentation,  and  for  general  management 
must  be  centered  in  one  person.  Academic  teachers  should  assist  the 
supervisor  of  practice  and  critic  teachers  by  exchanging  ideas  freely 
and  by  reporting  in  writing  to  the  supervisor  of  practice  criticisms, 
both  favorable  and  unfavorable,  upon  students  whom  they  have  seen 
at  work  in  their  respective  lines.  While  members  of  the  faculty  out- 
side the  training  department  nave  many  other  duties  to  perform,  this 
work  is  vital  in  unifying  the  work  of  a  Normal  school  and  may  be 
done  with  very  little  friction  if  students  are  always  referred  to  critic 
teachers  or  supervisor  of  practice  for  reports,  direction,  or  advice. 

Critic  teachers  should  teach  a  considerable  portion  of  the  time;  criti- 
cise, accept  and  reject  teaching  plans  presented  by  students;  take  the 
final  responsibility  for  plans  used;  and  do  the  major  portion  of  the 
criticism  of  students  working  in  the  grades,  always  basing  commenda- 
tion or  its  opposite  on  the  application  of  accepted  laws  of  teaching  and 
managing.  While  the  supervisor  of  practice  outlines  all  the  work  in  a 
large  way,  definite  responsibility  rests  upon  critic  teachers.  In  meet- 
ings with  student  teachers  critics  should  cause  them  to  know  and  feel 
that  class  management  and  government  as  well  as  the  "what"  of  subject- 
matter  and  the  "how"  of  presentation  rest 'upon  a  few  basic  principles. 
Students  should  take  part  in  discussions  and  point  out  themselves,  if 
possible,  the  pedagogy  of  the  situations.  Practice  teaching  ought 
not  to  be  limited  to  a  test  of  ability  to  teach  and  govern;  it  must 
take  the  student  with  all  his  awkwardness  and  wrong  notions  and 
cause  him  to  grow  in  a  sense  of  the  fitness  of  things  and  in  skill  in 
execution.  It  must  make  him  persistent  and  consistent  in  bringing 
together  subject-matter  and  right  philosophy  in  such  a  way  as  to 
enlist  a  hearty  co-operation  and  a  sturdy  attack  of  lessons  by  the 
children. 

Critic  teachers  should  be  in  frequent  consultation  with  teachers  of 
the  academic  branches  and  of  educational  science  so  that  their  positions 
shall  harmonize  in  subject-matter,  in  theory,  and  in  practice.  Critics 
should  be  persons  who  because  of  learning,  training,  experience,  and 
insight  can  command  high  salaries.  It  is  in  my  estimation  a  defect 
in  policy  and  wrong  in  practice  to  pay  the  lowest  salaries  in  the 
school  to  critic  teachers  who  must  adjust  themselves  to  all  phases  of 
Normal  school  work  and  who  must  carry  such  grave  responsibilities. 


THE  MODEL  SCHOOL  AS  A  CORRELATING  CENTER.   343 

A  fair  recognition  of  critics'  work  will  do  much  to  bring  together 
as  equals  all  officers  in  a  Normal  school.  Without  personal  bias,  with 
a  wholesome  personality,  basing  judgment  of  students'  and  pupils* 
work  upon  accepted  principles,  the  wortn  of  critic  teachers  cannot  be 
gauged  by  knowledge  or  skill  in  instruction,  but  rather  by  inspiration 
and  guidance  to  sensible  and  purposeful  educational  ends. 

The  training  department  is  within  certain  restrictions  a  proper 
place  to  test  new  educational  notions.  In  the  past  the  great  reforms 
in  matter  and  method  have  usually  started  in  vigorous  school  systems, 
where  under  the  guidance  of  a  superintendent,  a  principal,  or  a 
teacher  with  a  clever  insight  into  the  natures  and  thought  movements 
of  children  a  new  scheme  of  work  has  been  tested.  In  the  Normal 
school  there  should  be  a  chance  to  work  out  what  ought  to  be  as  well 
as  to  illustrate  what  is.  Members  of  the  faculty  who  think  beyond  their 
fellows  should  have  an  opportunity  first  to  set  out  the  nature  of  the 
new  idea  so  that  others  may  understand  its  aim,  to  have  the  matter 
discussed  as  an  educational  proposition,  and  to  take  charge  of  a  class 
in  the  training  department  where,  under  observation  and  criticism,  the 
worth  of  the  notion  and  the  method  of  its  presentation  may  be  fully 
tested.  Here  is  a  chance  for  genius,  teaching  power,  and  good  manag- 
ing to  make  the  Normal  school  a  real  leader  in,  scientific  pedagogic 
exploration.  If  a  member  of  the  faculty  will  in  the  way  just  in- 
dicated, step  forward,  put  himself  into  his  proposition,  and  stand  by 
it  until  its  positive  or  negative  values  are  established,  he  will  add  much 
to  his  worth  as  an  officer  of  the  state. 

The  training  department  properly  organized  is  the  correlating  center 
of  accepted  doctrine  and  practice.  Here  students  feel  the  urgent  need 
of  knowing  subject-matter,  what  the  general  purpose  of  the  subject  is, 
what  the  aim  of  each  lesson  should  be,  what  should  be  known  or  done 
to  accomplish  the  aim,  and  how  to  apply  with  certainty  and  skill  the 
method  of  the  lesson.  Here  come  problems  in  school  management. 
The  weakest  teachers  of  the  faculty,  following  tne  line  of  least  resist- 
ance, are  frequently  unconsciously  copied  by  student  teachers.  One 
of  the  most  serious  sources  of  failure  among  practice  teachers  is 
the  unconscious  imitation  of  academic  instructors  whose  ideals  are 
not  correct  and  whose  practices  do  not  accord  with  the  fundamental 
purposes  of  a  Normal  school.  The  trajning  department  teachers  have 
problems  enough  of  other  types  to  overcome.  The  way  each  faculty 
member  should  work  for  intending  teachers  is  to  give  them  clear 
notions  of  what  is  to  be  accomplished,  to  work  so  that  students  shall 
feel  that  Normal  schools  exist  for  the  establishment  of  a  correct  concep- 
tion of  matter,  method,  and  management,  and  by  daily  inspiration  of 
•example  confer  upon  them  a  disposition  and  resourcefulness  to  work 
out  their  conception  with  children. 

I  hold  with  Mr.  Hall,  and  partly  in  his  own  words,  that  a  training 
department  of  the  right  type  should  be  the  center  of  all  professional 
activity  for  students  and  faculty  members.  It  should  be  the  laboratory 
for  testing  what  should  be  taught  and  how  it  should  be  taught.  The 
professors  upon  invitation  and  as  volunteers  as  well  as  the  critic 
teachers  should  teach  in  it;  and  their  work  should  be  the  topic  for  dis- 
cussion in  observation  and  method  classes.  Thecrecitation  by  this 
means  would  be  an  object  of  the  closest  study.  Criticism  would  be 
"based  upon  principles  not  upon  hearsay.  Personal  opinion  and  per- 


344  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

sonal  prejudices  would  interfere  but  little  with  the  detailed  plans  of 
each  recitation.  We  should  find  that  academic  teachers  of  professional 
branches  as  well  as  the  supervisor  of  practice  and  critic  teachers- 
would  be  zealous  that  the  subject-matter  as  well  as  the  methods  should 
harmonize  with  the  work  of  academic  or  professional  classes  outside 
of  the  training  department  or  model  school. 

Tne  Normal  school  to  be  worthy  of  confidence  must  be  a  living  unit 
in  pedagogic  thinking.  The  principles  of  education  must  be  the  plat- 
form upon  which  all  connected  witn  the  furtherance  of  Normal  school 
interests  must  stand.  Fundamental  laws  agreed  upon  must  be  lived 
up  to  oy  the  entire  faculty.  There  ought  to  be  agreement  as  to  the 
content  and  extent  of  the  course  of  study,  and  its  aim  should  rest 
upon  the  acknowledged  laws  of  mind  and  body.  The  Normal  schools 
would  set  out  a  system  of  pedagogic  Knowledge  and  methods  and  not 
isolated  individual  creeds.  Each  member  of  the  faculty  should  have 
at  all  times  the  most  perfect  liberty  in  disapproving  the  notions  for 
which  the  faculty  stand;  for  it  is  only  by  criticism  properly  given  that 
breadtn  in  its  best  form  can  be  reached.  While  one  may  differ  from 
the  spirit  of  the  school  and  set  forth  that  difference  vigorously  in 
the  executive  discussions  of  committees  or  of  the  faculty,  yet  in  his 
work  with  individual,  students  or  with  classes  he  should  keep  himself 
in  strict  accord  with  the  dominating  spirit  of  the  institution,  and 
when  ne  cannot  do  so  he  should  resign. 

The  model  school  properly  correlated  with  all  other  departments 
should  put  each  student  in  possession  of  a  well  organized  body  of 
pedagogical  thought  which  will  react  upon  his  life  and  work.  The 
application  of  pedagogical  principles  must  first  be  conscious  and 
awkward;  but  as  the  matter  and  method  of  subjects  grow  upon  the 
student  he  will  less  consciously  put  into  operation  the  principles  upon 
which  good  school  work  is  founded.  The  training  department  should 
stand  as  the  place  for  quantitative  and  qualitative  analyses  for  thought 
work.  All  engaged  in  Normal  school  work  should  give  their  personal- 
ity and  their  philosophy  to  the  inner  life  of  the  school  so  that  the 
teaching  of  one  will  harmonize  with  the  teaching  of  all  otners,  and 
the  management  of  one  harmonize  with  the  management  of  all  others. 
This  must  not  come  from  rule,  but  rather  from  principles  which  must 
be  the  guiding  element  all  the  -way  along. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  McGregor — After  the  admirable  paper  that  has  been  read,  I  be- 
lieve there  is  very  little  that  I  can  say  to  add  any  light  to  the  sub- 
ject. The  model  schools  as  they  exist  in  our  Normal  school  system 
perform  a  two-fold  function,  and  I  shall  endeavor  to  speak  very  briefly 
of  each  of  these  functions  and  show  how  both  may  serve,  separately 
or  together  as  correlating  centers  looking  towards  best  results. 

The  model  school  is  a  school  of  exemplification  first  of  all.  It  is  also 
a  supplementary  school.  The  model  schpol,  inasmuch  as  it  is  supplied 
with  a  high  type  of  teaching  as  exemplified  in  that  school,  is  used  as  a 
school  of  oSservatio*n,  where  it  is  supposed  that  the  observer  will  fin<l 
only  those  things  that  are  to  be  copied  or  admired  I  imagine  that  the 
same  principle  exists  here  that  we  now  observe  in  connection  with  what 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  345 

is  called  false  syntax,  giving  words  that  are  misspelled.  I  do  not  think  I 
have  seen  any  recent  grammars  containing  illustrations  of  false  syntak. 
I  think  there  is  a  psychological  reason  for  the  abolition  of  everything 
of  that  sort.  We  have  enough  of  it  without  going  to  the  grammars.  I 
presume  that  the  intention  is  that  the  work  done  in  the  model  school 
shall  be  model  work,  the  highest  type  of  the  art  that  can  be  produced. 
It  is  to  the  Normal  school  what  the  clinic  is  to  the  medical  school. 
When  used  for  such  purpose,  it  seems  to  me  the  work  should  be  entirely 
within  the  hands  of  experts,  regular  teachers  of  the  highest  order. 
And  I  endorse  every  word  said  by  Pres.  McNeill  concerning  the  matter 
of  salary  for  those  who  work  in  the  model  school.  If  it  is  model  work, 
then  there  ought  to  be  a  model  salary  with  it. 

In  making  inquiries  as  to  what  brought  people  to  the  Normal 
school,  I  have  almost  invariably  got  this  answer:  "The  young  man 
or  the  young  woman  who  taught  in  our  district  school  is  the  person 
who  gave  the  inspiration  to  go  on  further."  The  strongest  teacher 
is  the  one  who  does  the  most  of  this  work. 

The  second  thing  is  to  see  good  teaching.  If  the  student  is  well 
taught  in  the  Normal  department,  it  will  help  to  make  him  a  good 
teacher  in  the  model  school. 

The  third  element  is  to  be  trained  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  teaching. 
Has  he  learned  in  his  professional  work  any  theory  in  psychology  by 
which  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  teaching?  If  so,  it  adds  another  item 
to  the  possibility,  not  to  say  probability,  of  his  making  a  good  teacher. 

The  next  step  is  to  do  good  teaching  under  judicious  instruction. 

In  these  four  senses  the  model  departments  of  our  Normal  schools 
are  correlating  centers.  First,  to  make  the  teaching  in  all  depart- 
ments of  the  best,  because  that  teaching  is  going  to  be  reflected  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  in  the  model  school.  Second,  to  enable  the  stu- 
dents to  observe  the  mghest  type  of  teaching,  because  much  of  what  they 
do  m  teaching  will  depend  upon  what  they  have  observed.  We  are  all 
imitators,  usually  to  a  great  degree.  It  is  so  with  young  people  es- 
pecially, and  they  will  imitate  many  things  that  ought  not  to  be 
imitated.  Third,  we  have  the  correlating  center  upon  which  judgment 
is  to  be  based  as  to  the  quality  of  work.  And  fourth  and  last,  we 
have  the  correlating  center  of  practice.  It  is  as  it  were  the  testing 
ground  for  the  practice  work  of  the  school  under  the  proper  direction. 

Mr.  Gary — I  have  no  objection  to  the  emphasis  which  is  placed  upon 
the  "reign  of  pedagogic  law."  I  believe  in  it.  But  I  do  object  to 
the  statement  that  there  is  no  place  for  personal  opinion. 

Mr.  McNeill — That  statement  was  not  made,  Mr.  Cary. 

Mr.  Cary — In  all  discussions  in  the  faculty  meetings,  and  in  dis- 
cussions one  with  another,  I  think  personal  opinion  should  carry 
weight.  I  thought  President  McNeill  thought  that  in  the  criticism 
of  practice  teachers  there  should  be  no  such  thing  as  personal  opinion. 

Mr.  McNeill — I  said  that  the  academic  teachers  should  leave  their 
criticism  witn  the  supervisor  of  practice  and  not  interfere  with  the 
students  themselves.  "Too  many  cooks  spoil  the  broth." 

Mr.  Cary — I  think  I  have  nothing  to  say. 

Mr.  McKenny — No  student  should  be  graduated  until  he  has  touched 
upon  all  grades  of  the  work. 


346  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

The  principal  would  have  to  run  the  whole  scale  from  the  kinder- 
ten  10  the  ninth  grade. 

Question — Do  you  expect  to  put  that  in  forty  weeks'  time? 

Mr.  McKenny — No,  sir,  the  kindergartner  should  touch  every  grade, 
but  not  so  vigorously  the  work  that  lies  beyond  her  sphere.  A  kinder- 
gartner without  that  view  has  such  a  narrow  scope  that  she  is  not 
a  good  kindergartner. 

That  depends  upon  the  individual. 

Mr.  McNeill — My  observation  does  not  grow  out  of  my  work  in 
the  Normal  school.  I  happened  to  be  the  supervisor  of  the  work  of 
five  hundred  teachers  for  a  numbr  of  years  and  I  observed  that  those 
doing  the  most  successful  work  had  touched  these  various  lines. 

Question — What  portion  of  the  time  should  critic  teachers  have 
charge  of  the  class? 

Mr.  McNeill — They  should  have  charge  of  a  room  or  a  class  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  time  each  day  to  make  that  school  a  model  school, 
a  better  school  than  is  found  in  the  city  schools,  and  long  enough  for 
the  purpose  of  the  model  school  work  to  be  illustrated. 

Question — Have  you  any  idea  of  the  time? 

Mr.  McNeill — That  depends  upon  the  pupil  and  the  teacher. 

Question — Half  the  time? 

Mr.  McNeill— No. 

Question — One  third? 

Mr.  McNeill — Possibly  that.  I  have  not  figured  out  the  matter  of 
time.  I  have  figured  out  rather  the  quality  of  the  individual  doing 
the  work. 

Question — I  am  taking  now  the  average  teacher.  The  question  is 
related  to  a  paper  which  is  to  be  presented  tomorrow.  The  question 
comes  up  in  that  paper:  "What  portion  of  the  time  ought  the  practice 
teacner  to  have  charge  of  the  room?" 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  am  emphatically  of  the  opinion  that  what  is 
called  tne  critic  teacher  in  the  model  school  should  teach  the  children 
one  naif  the  time.  I  cannot  quite  manage  thai,  in  our  model  school.  Ii 
my  teachers  do  not  teach  the  children  half  the  time  it  is  because  they 
do  not  reach  the  ideal.  I  think  they  ought  to.  I  think  that  one  third 
of  the  time  ought  to  be  .the  minimum.  The  central  thought  of  Mr. 
McNeill's  paper  is  bringing  the  teachers  of  the  Normal  school  de- 
partments upstairs  and  downstairs  into  closer  relation,  but  especially 
to  bring  the  upstairs  teachers  closer  to  the  work  in  the  model  school. 
There  are  a  number  of  difficulties  that  arise.  He  says  in  his  paper 
that  the  supervisor  should  have  the  power  or  right  to  call  together 
the  teachers  of  subjects  in  the  Normal  department  for  conference. 
I  do  not  believe  that  the  supervisor  should  have  any  such  jurisdiction. 
It  should  be  reached  through  the  general  faculty  meeting.  There 
would  be  a  benefit  derived  from  the  teacher  upstairs  going  downstairs 
and  teaching  the  children.  That  would  be  a  good  thing  for  the  Normal 
teacher.  There  is  no  question  about  that.  There  is  too  much  lack 
of  continuity.  The  students  are  passed  around  all  day  long  now 
from  one  teacher  to  another,  and  perhaps  to  the  critic  teacher  for  a 
little  medicine,  and  we  are  sacrificing  the  children  more  or  less  all  the 
time.  We  are  offering  up  those  children  to  some  extent  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Normal  department,  the  practice  teachers,  and  the  state  at  large. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  34.7 

Mr.  McNeill — I  am  very  sure  that  I  have  failed  to  convey  the  thought 
in  my  mind,  and  I  wish  not  to  be  misquoted  or  misunderstood.  Mr. 
Salisbury  did  not  notice  the  modifying  clause.  Members  of  the  faculty 
who  have  ideas  to  exploit,  should  first  present  them  to  the  faculty 
or  committees,  and  they  should  be  discussed  pro  and  con. 

(Quoting  from  paper.) 

Mr.  Pray — I  want  to  second  all  that  Mr.  Salisbury  has  said.  But 
I  do  not  believe  the -children  are  sacrificed  in  the  Normal  school.  I 
Imow  a  good  many  children  who  have  gone  through  the  model  school 
and  none  of  them  are  physical,  moral  or  mental  wrecks.  That  ought 
not  to  be  said  by  a  Normal  school  man  in  this  company.  It  is  said 
enough  by  other  people. 

Miss  Vandewalker — I  heartily  agree  with  Mr.  McKenny  that  a 
kindergartner  cannot  be  good  unless  she  knows  something  of  other 
school  work.  A  kindergartner  is  not  worth  much  if  she  does  not 
know  pedagogy  and  psychology  in  addition  to  her  knowledge  of  Froe- 
bel.  I  question  whether,  taking  the  attitude  of  President  McNeill,  it 
would  be  for  the  interest  of  the  child.  I  want  to  call  attention  to  the 
opposite  of  this.  If  the  kindergartner  needs  the  full  course  to  make 
her  a  good  kindergartner,  what  about  the  grade  teachers  knowing  some- 
thing about  the  kindergarten?  The  younger  the  child  the  greater 
amount  of  adaptation  or  pedagogy  the  teacher  needs.  In  the  expert 
kindergartners  one  must  find  power  of  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the 
little  children  they  have  under  them,  not  always  found  in  the  other 
grades. 

I  think,  however,  that  this  idea  may  be  carried  too  far.  Are  we 
not  running  too  far  in  the  direction  of  uniformity?  In  the  Milwau- 
kee school  we  have  a  kindergarten  course  which  is  differentiated  from 
the  other  courses.  We  have  an  intermediate  course  which  is  differ- 
entiated. I  think  we  should  have  a  special  grammar  grade  course. 
The  one  who  is  trying  to  do  everything  will  not  do  anything  well. 
My  experience  in  the  line  of  general  practice  has  led  me  to  believe 
that  we  need  more  specializing  than  we  have. 

Mr.  Emery — In  response  to  that  I  will  say  that  a  resolution  of  the 
Board  passed  two  years  ago  makes  special  provision  for  this  special 
training  of  grammar  school  teachers. 

Mr.  Brier — I  am  not  disposed  to  take  Mr.  Salisbury's  statement  with 
reference  to  the  horrible  consequences  of  the  heads  of  departments 
going  down  to  teach  in  the  model  schools.  I  do  not  believe  there  are 
many  heads  of  departments  who  could  not  do  that  work  very  well, 
and  I  do  believe  that  if  it  could  be  brought  about  it  would  be  an  ex- 
cellent thing  not  alone  for  the  heads  of  departments  but  for  the  chil- 
dren. Not  that  we  have  not  excellent  instruction  in  our  model  school, 
but  it  stands  to  reason  that  Mr.  Sims,  with  his  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy and  file  study  that  he  is  making  of  it  day  after  day,  should  know 
some  things  about  it  that  the  general  teacher  does  not  know,  and  I 
should  not  hesitate  at  all  to  have  Mr.  Sims  go  and  teach  in  our  model 
school.  We  must  make  our  model  schools  excellent  and  keep  them 
excellent.  We  are  in  competition  with  good  public  schools  where 
tuition  is  free. 

I  think  we  should  keep  in  mind  all  the  while  that  we  are  confronted 
"by  a  condition  and  that  condition  is  law.  Certain  things  have  to  be 


348  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

done  in  order  to  graduate  people  from  the  Normal  schools  of  Wiscon- 
sin. A  person  who  holds  an  elementary  certificate  in  Wisconsin  must 
have  passed  an  examination  in  certain  branches,  etc. 

We  might  be  able  to  change  the  law. 

We  never  can  teil  what  a  teacher  is  going  to  teach  no  matter  wh~t 
his  preference,  until  he  is  done  with  the  school  and  goes  out  to  teach. 

Mr.  McNeill — I  just  want  to  say  that  in  my  opinion  President  Brier 
has  uttered  a  great  truth.  One  who  .does  not  specialize  on  a  broad; 
course  is  a  poor  specialist. 


OBSERVATION. 

(a)  Purposes  of  the  Work  in  Observation.     (6)   Organization  of  the 
Work  to  Accomplish  These  Purposes,     (c)  Value  of  Observation 
After  Practice  Teaching. 

ALICE  H.  SHULTES,  River  Falls. 

Observing  some  children  recently  who  were  entertaining  themselves- 
with  the  performance  of  tricks  involving  a  mystery  known  only  to  the 
performer,  my  attention  was  attracted  to  the  youngest  of  the  group 
who  insisted  that  eacn  feat  of  jugglery  should  be  repeated  over  and 
over  again  while  he  gave  the  closest  attention  to  every  movement  of 
the  performer.  Finally  he  would  shout  in  triumph,  "All  right,  I've 
caught  on  to  it.  See  me  do  it! "and  almost  as  triumphantly  my  peda- 
gogic soul  exclaimed,  "Bravo,  my  boy!  you  have  'caught  on'  to  more 
than  you  know,  for  you  have  discovered  the  missing  half  of  the  much- 
condemned  Comenian  maxim  that  'We  learn  to  do  by  doing.'  " 

If  we  recall  our  experience  in  learning  to  do  things  we  shall  find 
that  we  usually  neea  to  be  shown  how  before  we  undertake  to  perform 
the  act  ourselves,  and  the  maxim  should  be, — We  learn  to  do  things  by 
first  seeing  others  do  them,  and  then  trying  to  do  them  ourselves.  Thu& 
completed  the  Comenian  doctrine  will  apply  to  the  learning  of  many 
simple  arts.  But  when  we  enter  upon  the  mastery  of  an  art  that  deals 
with  the  complex  affairs  of  life,  we  find  that  if  we  would  learn  to  man- 
age them  rightly  and  would  be  able  to  adapt  our  doing  to  a  variety  of 
conditions  and  circumstances  a  third  element  must  enter  into  our  work- 
ing formula  and  it  should  be, — We  learn  to  do  things  rightly  by  first 
seeing  someone  else  do  them,  and  th°n  making  repeated  efforts  our- 
selves under  the  guidance  of  right  principles  and  inspiring  ideals.  If 
the  good  old  Moravian  reformer  will  permit  such  a  modification  and 
completion  of  his  maxim  it  will  serve  for  the  first  of  a  series  of  propo- 
sitions upon  which  my  theories  of  observation  are  founded. 

The  teaching  art  is  so  vital  in  its  consequences,  so  far  reaching  in  its 
influences,  so  complex  in  its  execution,  so  variable  in  its  adaptation 
that  it  cannot  be  learned  by  merely  seeing  others  teach,  neither  can 
it  be  learned  by  teaching  alone,  neither  can  it  be  learned  by  studying 
abstract  tneories  and  principles  of  teaching.  A  combination  of  the 
three  seems  necessary  to  complete  the  circle  of  experience  that  results 
in  a  mastery  of  the  teaching  art,  and  it  is  a  belief  in  the  necessity  of 


PURPOSES,  METHOD,  AND  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION.     349 

this  trinity  of  means  that  has  led  not  only  to  the  establishment  of  Nor- 
mal schools,  but  also  to  the  division  of  the  professional  course  of  study 
into  observation,  theory,  and  practice. 

The  student  who  spent  so  many  days  in  observing  a  fish  in  the  labor- 
atory of  Louis  Agassiz  was  a  pioneer  in  a  method  of  study  that  at  pres- 
ent excites  no  comment  when  applied  to  any  branch  of  knowledge.  We 
commend  the  method  of  instruction  that  sends  the  student  to  the  use 
of  the  lever  to  discover  its  laws,  to  the  examination  of  the  blossom  to 
discover  its  structure,  and  we  contrive  apparatus  whereby  he  may  ex- 
periment with  light  and  air  and  water  in  order  to  discover  their  prop- 
erties, because  it  is  in  accordance  with  our  educational  philosophy. 
First,  That  the  elementary  ideas  in  any  branch  of  knowledge  should  be 
taught  objectively,  and  its  general  truths  reached  inductively.  Sec- 
ondly, That  ideas  gained  by  experience  afford  a  better  apperceiving 
basis  for  the  gaining  of  new  knowledge  than  do  ideas  gained  from  text- 
books. 

Believing  the  above  propositions  to  be  as  true  in  the  study  of  peda- 
gogy as  in  other  branches  I  appropriate  them  for  the  further  support 
of  my  theory  of  observation,  and  from  them  deduce  the  corollary,  that 
the  doctrines  of  pedagogy  should  be  applied  to  the  teaching  of  peda- 
gogy. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  Kheil  of  the  State  University  of  Minne- 
sota, a  summer  meeting  is  usually  held  at  Minneapolis  known  as  the 
Normal  School  Congress.     It  has  been  my  privilege  to  attend  some  of 
these  meetings,  and  on  one  occasion  I  listened  to  an  address  by  the  Su- 
pervisor of  Practice  in  the  Mankato  Normal  school  in  which  she  pre- 
sented some  of  the  difficulties  encountered  by  her  in  the  supervision  of 
practice  work.     She  claimed  that  the  students  come  to  the  work  of 
practice   without   a   working  knowledge   of   psychology   and   methods 
even  though  preparatory  work  had  been  done  in  both  subjects.     She 
said,  "It  is  my  belief  that  the  model  grades  should  be  utilized  for  pur- 
poses of  observation  as  well  as  for  a  school  of  practice.     The  state  em- 
ploys expert  teachers  in  these  departments,  the  frequent  and  system- 
atic observation  of  whose  work  would  be  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
students   in   their   preparation   for   teaching.     Why   might   not   these 
skilled  teachers,  by  conducting  class  exercises  with  their  pupils,  dem- 
onstrate the  methods  and  principles  of  teaching  that  are  now  pre- 
sented  from   text-books?     In   other   words,   why   may   not  the   model 
grades  be  used  as  a  pedagogical  laboratory  where  psychology,  methods, 
and  principles  of  teaching  may  be  studied  objectively?"     Much  discus- 
sion followed.     Many  doubts  were  expressed  regarding  the  possibility 
or  advisability  of  such  an  innovation.     I  listened  with  interest  to  the 
pros  and  cows  as  they  were  presented,  and  at  the  close  of  the  meeting 
found  the  lady  and  tried  to  encourage  her  by  telling  her  that  her  plan 
had  been  tested  for  many  years  in  the  River  Falls  Normal  school.  The 
lady  referred  to  was  a  teacher  of  wide  experience  and  an  educational 
leader  whose  opinion  is  worthy  of  attention.     I  make  use  of  it  here 
because  it  places  before  you  the  purposes  of  observation  from  a  source 
entirely  disinterested  so  far  as  any  desire  to  affect  this  audience  is 
concerned,  and  at  the  same  time  establishes  for  my  own  theory  a  back- 
ground of  support. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Normal  schools  submitted  at  the  Loa 


350  INSTITUTE   OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Angeles  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  suggests  pur- 
poses and  plans  of  observation  in  harmony  with  my  own  views  and  es- 
sentially in  accordance  with  my  own  experience  and  practice. 

Objections  are  sometimes  raised  against  the  concrete  method  of 
studying  pedagogy  and  the  observation  of  model  teaching  before  a  text- 
book study  of  the  subject,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  like  "pump- 
ing water  from  a  dry  well,"  but  experience  proves  that  most  of  the 
wells  are  by  no  means  dry.  The  principle  of  simplification  and  adapta- 
tion is  a  divining  rod  as  potent  for  the  teacher  in  guiding  him  to  tho 
sources  of  the  pupils'  knowledge  as  is  the  hazel  branch  in  guiding  man 
to  the  sources  of  water.  What  we  call  "dry  wells"  are  too  often  only 
closed  cabinets  which  we  are  too  bungling  to  unlock. 

Since  the  basis  of  our  educational  philosophy  is  psychology,  it  is  all 
important  that  students  should  be  prepared  for  the  work  of  observa- 
tion by  a  short  course  in  experimental  or  introspective  mind  study, — 
a  course  so  simple  that  I  prefer  to  call  it  a  study  in  mental  life.  Here, 
as  in  pedagogy,  the  book  should  be  omitted  because  far  better  results 
are  obtained  by  going  to  the  mind  itself  for  elementary  knowledge  of 
its  activities.  This  course  should  be  to  the  study  of  psychology  what 
the  study  of  home  geography  is  to  the  science  of  geography,  or  what 
the  study  of  number  is  to  the  study  of  arithmetic,  or  what  the  study 
of  the  human  body  is  to  the  study  of  physiology.  It  is  a  course  in 
which,  by  the  exercise  of  introspection,  the  learner  becomes  cognizant 
of  his  own  mental  states  under  conditions  created  for  that  purpose  by 
the  teacher  of  psychology.  In  fact,  it  is  an  application  of  the  labora- 
tory method  to  the  study  of  psychology  by  means  of  which  the  funda- 
mental facts  of  mental  life  are  experienced  and  recognized  as  realities 
no  less  tangible  than  the  realities  of  physical  life,  thus  affording  an 
apperceiving  basis  for  the  advanced  study  of  psychology  as  well  as  a 
working  basis  for  the  understanding  of  methods  exemplified  by  model 
teachers.  Experience  proves  that  pupils  thus  taught  are  able  to  recog- 
nize the  mental  activity  put  forth  by  the  children  in  the  lesson  under 
observation  and  to  see  the  relation  of  that  activity  to  the  mastery  of 
the  subject  matter,  and  also  to  determine  the  teaching  process  that 
will  secure  the  desired  mental  activity. 

Simplifying  and  recapitulating  the  previously  introduced  proposi- 
tions they  afford  the  logical  premises  from  which  may  be  deduced  the 
purposes  of  observation.  These  foundation  propositions  are — 

1.  To  be  shown -how  to  perform  an  action  is  more  effective  than  to 
be  told  how  to  do  it. 

2.  Repeated  acts  of  showing  disclose  method. 

3.  From  repeated  acts  of  showing  in  an  art  based  on  principles  the 
principles  may  be  deduced. 

4.  The  witnessing  of  skillful  operation  leads  to  the  forming  of  right 
ideals. 

5.  Guiding  principles  and  right  ideals  should  direct  and  inspire  all 
practice. 

6.  Ideas  gained  by  experience  afford  a  better  apperceiving  mass  for 
the  gaining  of  new  knowledge  than  do  ideas  gained  from  text-books. 

7.  The  doctrines  of  pedagogy  should  be  applied  in  the  teaching  of 
pedagogy. 

(a)  Regarding  observation,  therefore,  as  a  concrete  method  of  study- 


PURPOSES,  METHOD,  AND  VALUE  OF  OBSERVATION. 

ing  pedagogy  and  applying  the  foregoing  propositions  to  that  method 
of  study,  the  following  purposes  unfold: — 1.  Methods  of  teaching  spe- 
cial branches.  2.  The  making  out  of  lesson  plans.  3.  The  learning  of 
principles  of  teaching.  4.  The  establishing  of  teaching  ideals.  5.  The 
inculcating  of  a  teaching  spirit. 

That  there  should  be  more  of  showing  Normal  students  and  less  of 
telling  how,  is  a  conclusion  that  must  have  come  to  every  supervisor 
of  practice  who  has  grown  soul-sick  over  the  blundering  efforts  of  in- 
apt practice  teachers.  And  the  desire  sometimes  to  take  the  practice 
class  and  then  and  there  show  the  inexperienced  learner  how  to  do  it, 
is  a  forcible  argument  for  the  natural  way  of  teaching  people  how  to 
do  things. 

But  "prevention  is  better  than  cure"  in  practice  teaching  as  well  as 
in  other  things,  and  the  time  to  have*been  shown  was  before  the  blun- 
der was  made. 

It  is  argued  that  if  the  learner  sees  too  frequently  he  will  become  an 
imitator;  but  I  have  not  found  it  so.  If  the  practice  teacher  is  pos- 
sessed of  originality  and  native  teaching  power,  these  qualities  are 
bound  to  assert  themselves.  If  he  is  without  these  requisites,  he  is 
bound  to  become  a  blunderer  or  an  imitator,  and  he  would  far  better 
imitate  good  teaching  than  to  build  up  a  faulty  teaching  habit  of  his 
own.  We  do  not  fear  to  set  before  the  students  of  art  models  of  the 
masters  lest  they  become  imitators,  indeed,  we  encourage  them  to  sat- 
urate themselves  with  the  style  of  the  masters  that  the  development 
of  their  own  style  may  be  improved.  There  come  to  us  so  many  mis- 
taken aspirants  for  pedagogical  honors,  so  many  whose  natural  apti- 
tudes adapt  them  to  a  sphere  of  life  sundered  far  from  the  school- 
room, that  to  transform  them  into  teachers  is  scarcely  less  difficult  than 
to  change  the  leopard's  spots. 

The  imitative  faculty  of  human  nature  is  a  noble  one  and  when  ex- 
ercised under  the  influence  and  control  of  guiding  principles  is  a  vital 
and  trustworthy  factor  in  growth  and  improvement.  But  any  study  of 
the  art  of  teaching  that  leaves  out  of  the  pupil's  preparation  the  es- 
tablishment in  his  convictions  of  the  underlying  principles  of  teaching, 
leaves  him  to  grow  into  a  blind  plodder  or  an  easy  prey  to  every  fad 
that  the  ingenuity  of  the  pedagog  can  devise.  But  with  ideals  for  his 
sails  and  principles  for  his  rudder  he  may  be  set  afloat  on  the  sea  of 
practice  with  reasonable  assurance  of  success,  and  when  the  ballast  of 
experience  is  added  to  his  craft  he  may  venture  alone  on  the  wider  sea 
of  actual  teaching. 

(b)  Organization.  The  organization  that  renders  the  above  pur- 
poses realizable  consists  of  a  class  of  first  year  students  who,  after  a 
course  of  experimental  psychology,  pursue  the  work  of  observation 
with  the  same  regularity  and  definiteness  that  they  pursue  any  other 
branch  of  study.  This  class  should  witness  the  teaching  of  lessons 
by  the  model  teachers  to  the  pupils  of  their  own  grades.  The  observa- 
tion of  each  lesson  should  be  followed  by  an  oral  discussion  of  the  les- 
son under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  of  observation  who,  by  ques- 
tions, directs  the  thought  of  the  class  to  such  features  of  the  lesson  as 
will  lead  to  profitable  conclusions. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  work  pupils  should  be  required  to  state  what 


352  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

was  done  by  the  teacher  and  class.  Soon  the  observers  should  be  re- 
quired to  consider  why  the  various  steps  of  the  lesson  were  taken.  The 
repeated  consideration  of  what  the  teacher  did  leads  to  a  discovery  of 
method  and  to  a  discrimination  between  method  and  device.  The  re- 
peated consideration  under  many  illustrations  of  why  the  steps  were 
taken,  leads  to  a  discovery  of  principles  of  teaching  and  to  a  discrim- 
ination between  method  and  principle. 

The  repeated  discovery  that  certain  steps  of  the  lesson  were  for  the 
bringing  up  of  old  knowledge  which  enabled  the  learner  to  grasp  the 
new,  and  that  at  other  steps  of  the  lesson  new  knowledge  was  pre- 
sented, and  that  other  steps  of  the  lesson  were  for  purposes  of  drill, 
leads  to  a  generalization  in  regard  to  the  three  essential  steps  in  any 
teaching  exercise,  viz.:  Preparation,  Presentation,  Drill,  and  subse- 
quently to  the  importance  of  Aim,  and  of  determining  what  must  be 
known,  what  is  known  and  what  remains  to  be  taught  in  preparing  a 
lesson  plan. 

After  a  proper  observation  of  the  work  of  different  teachers  in  dif- 
ferent grades,  in  which  these  separate  points  are  brought  out,  pupils 
are  prepared  to  give  complete  analyses  of  lessons,  stating  aim,  steps, 
reasons  for  the  steps,  and  the  mental  activity  of  the  child  called  forth 
by  the  method  of  the  lesson. 

Later  they  are  prepared  to  generalize  in  regard  to  methods  of  teach- 
ing a  subject,  methods  of  controlling  a  class,  methods  of  creating  in- 
terest and  holding  attention.  If  their  generalizations  are  correct  they 
are  confirmed,  or  if  wrong,  are  corrected  by  the  teacher  of  observation. 
Finally,  and  by  no  means  of  less  importance,  are  the  ideals  that  are  cre- 
ated and  the  teaching  spirit  that  is  engendered  by  the  continued  ob- 
servation of  good  teaching,  the  analysis  of  which  leads  to  an  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  skill  and  an  ambition  to  reach  a  similar 
degree  of  excellence  in  teaching. 

The  student  who  does  not  respond  to  the  influence  of  a  live  teacher 
and  live  children  engaged  in  a  spirited  and  skillful  teaching  exercise, 
would  not  be  easily  stirred  by  the  consideration  of  abstract  pedagogical 
questions.  Such  an  experience  is  frequently  so  vitalizing  that  enthu- 
siastic observation  pupils  exclaim,  "I  wish  I  could  begin  practice.  I 
want  to  see  if  I  can  do  it,  too." 

To  teach  pedagogy  between  the  walls  of  a  recitation  room  by  the 
use  of  a  text-book  alone  while  the  work  of  teaching  is  in  full  tide  in 
the  model  grades,  is  like  going  through  the  Yellowstone  Park  or  up  the 
Rhine  River  absorbed  in  the  study  of  a  guide-book. 

(c)  A  period  of  supplementary  observation  after  practice  work 
would  doubtless  be  very  profitable  to  students.  The  effort  to  teach  usu- 
ally creates  in  practice  teachers  a  desire  to  know  more  definitely  how 
to  proceed,  and  I  find  them  embracing  every  opportunity  for  observing 
the  work  of  the  model  teachers.  To  determine  the  comparative  value 
of  the  "before"  and  "after,"  is  a  difficult  thing  to  do. 

All  the  benefits  of  observation  before  practice  would  be  continued 

and  strengthened  with  the  increased  advantage  that  experience  gives 

in  understanding  and  appreciating  conditions  and  methods  of  handling 

them. 

The  study  of  educational  values,  general  method,  school  organization 


DISCUSSION. 


353 


and  paidology  might  be  profitably  pursued  thus  objectively.  I  should 
not  approve,  however,  of  shortening  the  initial  work  for  this  purpose. 

Experience  is  the  soul's  contact  with  actual  conditions  either  as  con- 
troller, participator,  or  spectator,  and  it  is  experience  that  teaches  the 
real  lessons  of  teaching  as  well  as  of  life,  and  the  more  the  Normal 
school  can  do  to  bring  its  students  into  actual  teaching  conditions 
either  as  spectator,  participator,  or  controller,  the  more  effective  is 
its  work  of  preparation  for  teaching. 

A  physician  of  my  acquaintance  has  recently  returned  from  Germany 
where  he  has  been  continuing  his  medical  studies.  He  says  that  it  was 
many  months  before  he  was  permitted  to  perform  a  surgical  operation, 
his  masters  deeming  it  privilege  and  profit  enough  for  him  to  spend 
his  time  in  observing  how  it  should  be  done.  Not  until  his  mind  was 
saturated  with  ideas  gained  from  observing  others,  could  it  be  trusted 
to  direct  his  hand  in  the  performing  of  an  operation  himself.  If  the 
dangers  of  malpractice  upon  the  body  are  to  be  so  strenuously  guarded 
against,  what  shall  be  done  to  prevent  the  more  serious  evil  of  mal- 
practice upon  the  mind,  the  effects  of  which  may  not  be  so  immediately 
apparent  but  are  none  the  less  serious. 

The  misunderstood  child,  the  incorrigible  child,  and  the  discouraged 
child  are  the  sacrifices  we  offer  to  the  Moloch  of  unfitness  in  teaching. 
And  I  believe  that  we  can  do  more  than  we  are  doing  to  prevent  the 
mental,  moral,  and  sometimes  physical  deformity  produced  by  mal- 
practice in  teaching  by  keeping  before  the  students  in  training  such 
inspiring  models  of  good  teaching  that  under  the  stimulus  of  ambition 
and  ideals,  they  are  constrained  to  grow  into  the  likeness  thereof. 


DISCUSSION. 
A.  J.  HUTTON,  Whitewater. 

OBSERVATION. 

a.  What  are  the  purposes  of  work  in  observation? 

1.  To  give  students  insight  into  educational  theory,  as,  for  example, 
in  observing  illustrative  recitations  conducted  by  the  teacher  of  meth- 
ods, or  by  any  Normal  school  teacher  who  may  choose  to  enforce  his 
educational  doctrines  in  that  way. 

2.  To  give  students  insight  into  educational  theory  exhibiting  itself 
in  practice,  as  in  observing  the  actual  daily  work  of  teachers  of  the 
training  school. 

3.  To  place  the  student  in  the  professional  attitude,  so  that,  even 
in  his  pursuit  of  academic  knowledge,  he  shall  learn  to  reflect  upon 
the  teaching,  training,  and  testing  power  of  the  teacher  to  whom  he 
recites, — to  learn  the  secret  of  the  teacher  who  has  power  over  him, 
and  to  discover  the  sources  of  weakness  in  the  teacher  who  fails  to 
influence  him  strongly. 

Of  these  three  forms  of  observation,  the  second  is  the  one  that 
should  be  organized  into  a  formal  course,  and,  consequently,  it  is  the 
one  that  comes  specially  into  the  field  of  the  present  inquiry.  It 
should  come  before  practice.  It  would  be  very  desirable,  too,  if  it 
could  come  for  a  shorter  term  after  practice. 

23 


354  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

b.  How  should  the  work  be  organized  to  accomplish  these  purposes? 
As  a  rule,  the  more  simple  the  organization  the  more  efficient  it  is. 

PREPARATION  OF  OBSERVERS. 

It  is  obviously  preposterous  to  set  students  to  the  task  of  observ- 
ing without  giving  them  very  definite  and  specific  directions  as  to 
what  they  are  to  observe.  There  should  be  preparation  for  observa- 
tion. In  our  schools  that  preparation  should  be  made  upon  the  basis 
of  the  "Manual." 

1.  The  student  should  be  made  familiar  with  the  organization  of 
a  typical  Wisconsin  country  school  into  its  three  grades  or  forms. 

2.  In  the  four  fundamental  branches,  at  least, — reading,  language, 
arithmetic,  and  geography, — they  should  learn  pretty  thoroughly  the. 
purpose  of  the  work,  the  course  of  study,  and  the  tests  for  promo- 
tion in  each  form. 

3.  They  snould  read  over  with  the  director  of  observation  the  sug- 
gestions to  teachers  in  each  form. 

4.  They  should  be  required  to  study  what  the  "Manual"  says  about 
study  and  recitation  programs,  the  keeping  of  records,  and  the  classi- 
fication of  pupils  under  the  course  of  study — in  short,  the  fundamentals 
of  school  teaching. 

DIRECTIONS  TO  OBSERVERS. 

With  these  doctrines  of  the  "Manual"  in  mind,  as  a  standard  of 
criticism,  they  should  be  directed  to  discover  by  observation  of  the 
recitation: 

1.  The  teacher's  purpose. 

2.  The  steps  taken  by  the  teacher  to  attain  that  purpose. 

3.  What  principles  and  devices  were  used. 

4.  What  measure  of  success  was  attained. 

5.  How   the   teacher   secured   interest   and   attention,    or   why   she 
failed  to  do  so. 

6.  How,  and  to  what  extent,  the  teacher  in  each  recitation  utilized 
the  knowledge  and  power  secured  in  previous  recitations. 

7.  What  instruction  the  teacher  gave  beyond  the  range  of  the  mat- 
ter of  the  text-book. 

8.  If  the  teacher  was  careful   and   definite   in  assigning  the  next 
lesson. 

9.  What  testing  and   drilling  exercises  the  teacher  had  and  with, 
what  success. 

10.  If  the  pupils  were  orderly  in  their  movements. 

11.  If  they  stood  firmly  on  both  feet  while  reciting. 

12.  If  they   recited   well, — that   is,   with   fullness   and   certainty  of 
knowledge,  in  full  sentences,  in  pleasant  tones  of  voice  and  with  evi- 
dent pleasure  in  the  performance. 

13.  If  they  asked  sensible  questions. 

14.  If  they  seemed  natural,  interested,  and  happy. 

15.  How  all  the  good  results  observed  were  secured,  and  the  pr'oba- 
ble  sources  of  failure  if  they  were  not  secured. 

DESIRABLE  CONDITIONS. 

1.  The  class  of  observers  should  not  be  too  large, — a  class  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  is  about  the  right  size. 

2.  They  should  observe  together,  at  first  successive  recitations  of 
the  same  class  for  a  series  of  days, — from  three  to  five. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  355 

3.  The  director  of  observation  should  observe  with  them. 

4.  They  should  take  accurate  notes  of  all  they  observe. 

5.  Under  charge  of  the  director  there  should  be  conferences  and 
full  comparison  of  notes. 

6.  The  teachers  conducting  the  recitations  should  attend  the  con- 
ferences whenever  practicable. 

7.  The  notes  should  then  be  written  up  in  the  form  of  full  reports 
to  be  read  and  marked  by  the  director. 

8.  The  recitations  observed  should  be  in  charge  of  expert  teach- 
ers. 

c.  Value  of  observation  after  a  period  of  practical  teaching  com- 
pared with  its  value  before  any  experience  in  teaching. 

Observation  after  practice  and  formal  instruction  in  psychology, 
theory  and  methods,  is  much  more  *f ruitf ul  in  results.  With  fuller 
knowledge  of  principles  and  a  better  appreciation  of  the  purposes 
of  education,  the  students  are  able  to  get  more  out  of  observation, 
as  out  of  everything  else.  Time,  however,  is  limited.  Then,  other 
teachers  besides  the  director  of  observation  are  making  demands  upon 
their  time  and  attention.  There  is  no  great  gain  in  robbing  Peter 
to  pay  Paul.  Besides,  by  this  time,  the  students  should  have  formed 
the  professonal  habit.  They  should  have  larger  power  of  self-direc- 
tion and  less  need  for  guidance. 

With  certain  classes  of  students, — those  for  example  showing 
greater  teaching  than  managing  power, — five  weeks — not  more — of 
observation  might  be  substituted  for  five  weeks  of  practice. 
.  This  observation  work  would  have  to  be  organized  on  a  different 
plan.  The  student  observing  should  spend  as  much  time  as  practi- 
cable in  some  well-managed  department,  in  order  to  observe  in  de- 
tail the  teacher's  organization  and  management  of  her  school;  the 
nature  of  the  motives  by  which  she  secures  study  and  good  order; 
the  point  at  which  she  comes  into  personal  contact  with  the  pupils, 
individually,  so  as  to  affect  them  beneficially;  how  she  manages  the 
seating,  the  movements,  the  recitation  hours,  the  social  hours,  and 
in  short  the  whole  life  of  the  school,  so  as  to  make  them  all  contrib- 
ute to  the  formation  of  those  good  habits  which  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  good  character. 

The  first  course  of  observation  should  concern  itself  with  the  reci- 
tation principally;  the  second  course, — if  room  is  found  for  it  without 
curtailing  the  first  course, — should  concern  itself  with  these  other 
matters  principally. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  McKenny — I  will  ask  Mr.  Hutton  how  many  weeks  of  observa- 
tion he  thinks  necessary.  I  think  I  caught  the  number  as  five. 

Mr.  Hutton — I  said  that  five  weeks  was  the  number  that  might  be 
spared  if  we  had  observation  for  practice.  I  would  like  to  have  ten 
including  time  for  preparation.  I  would  like  to  have  more. 

Mr.  McKenny — You  would  advise  more  than  ten  weeks? 

Mr.  Hutton — Including  time  spent  in  preparation  for  the  observa- 
tion. 

Mr.  McKenny — How  much  would  that  take? 


356  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Hutton — That  would  have  to  be  modified  of  course  by  the 
amount  of  work  in  observation.  I  think  we  can  do  in  four  weeks 
what  I  have  indicated  along  that  line  so  that  the  student  would  have 
a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  purposes  of  the  work. 

Miss  Shultes — We  have  a  period  of  twenty  weeks  for  observation. 
About  five  are  ocupied  in  the  teaching  of  psychology,  leaving  fifteen 
weeks  for  the  real  work  of  observation. 

Mr.  McKenny — How  large  are  the  observation  classes? 

Miss  Shultes — The  present  observation  class  numbers  76. 

Mr.  McKenny — How  large  are  the  groups? 

Miss  Shultes — Seventy-six.  We  go  into  the  room  and  sit  or  stand 
while  the  teacher  of  the  grade  goes  on  with  the  regular  lesson, — 
not  ji  show  lesson.  Then  we  retire  to  my  room,  which  is  half  as 
large  as  this,  and  there  the  lesson  is  discussed.  The  next  day,  if  we 
have  not  completed  it,  we  continue  the  discussion  of  the  lesson. 

Question.  What  particular  branches  do  you  observe?  Do  you  con- 
fine yourselves  to  the  four? 

Miss  Shultes — Yes.  In  the  course  of  reading  we  try  to  get  some- 
thing of  spelling.  We  take  up  the  subject  of  numbers,  and  if  we 
have  time  we  observe  geography  and  language  and  try  to  spend  a 
little  time  in  the  kindergarten. 

Question.    Will  high  school  graduates  go  through  this  same  course? 

Miss  Shultes — Yes. 

Mr.  Hutton — We  have  a  class  every  quarter.  The  classes  are 
smaller. 


TO  WHAT  EXTENT  SHALL  NORMAL  STUDENTS  TEACH  IN 
THEIR  OWN   CLASSES? 

J.  W.  LIVINGSTON,  Stevens  Point. 

Through  the  medium  of  Wilhelm  Meister  Goethe  declares:  "There 
is  nothing  more  frightful  than  a  teacher  who  knows  only  what  his 
pupils  are  intended  to  know.  He  who  means  to  teach  others  may 
indeed  suppress  the  best  of  what  he  knows,  but  he  himself  must  not 
be  half  instructed." 

Mastery  of  subject-matter  must  precede  the  power  of  presentation 
to  others.  Back  of  all  method — whether  of  the  "what"  or  the  ''how" — 
must  lie  a  full  comprehension  of  the  things  to  be  taught.  It  is  futile 
to  graft  even  the  finest  sci'on  of  pedagogics  unless  the  stock  whereon  we 
graft  be  sturdy  and  firmly  rooted  in  life-giving  knowledge.  The  prod- 
ucts of  the  Normal  schools  must  resemble  worthless  apple-trees 
whose  scanty  blossoms  fade  without  fruitage  if  we,  like  apple-tree 
peddlers,  graft  our  scions  upon  weak  and  poorly  rooted  stock.  Nor- 
mal teachers  cannot  too  often  reiterate  the  thought  that  sound  schol- 
arship must  always  be  the  basis  of  strong  pedagogy.  It  is  not 
enough  for  our  students  to  conquer  the  different  divisions  of  a  sub- 
ject. They  must  regard  these  divisions  in  their  logical  relations  in 
Order  to  contemplate  them  later  in  their  psychological  aspects.  A 
natural  corollary  of  this  claim  demands  in  the  Normal  classroom 
not  tyros  but  master  teachers.  The  fact  that  there  is  so  short  a 
time  allotted  to  each  subject  in  our  curriculum  makes  it  all  the  moris 
necessary  to  do  strong  teaching  in  the  Normal  classroom. 


NORMAL  STUDENTS  TEACHING  THEIR  OWN  CLASSES.     357 

The  moral  world  has  long  recognized  that  example  is  more  potent 
than  precept, — that  the  influence  of  a  noble  life  transcends  that  of 
dogma  or  creed.  In  like  manner  from  the  imitative  tendency  of 
students,  the  methods  carried  on  in  the  classroom  wield  a  far  more 
powerful  influence  than  do  the  doctrines  of  teaching  there  promul- 
gated. Since  man  is  essentially  an  imitative  animal,  the  very  best 
teaching  should  be  the  rule  in  the  Normal  classrooms.  Unless  the 
teacher  is  better  able  to  instruct  than  is  any  member  of  the  class, 
positions  should  be  reversed  and  the  salary  go  to  the  one  most  capa- 
ble of  earning  it. 

A  class  left  wholly  or  even  largely  to  do  its  own  planning  and  pro- 
vide its  own  teaching  must  of  necessity  suffer  much  waste  of  time 
and  effort.  A  ship  without  mate  or  captain  is  sure  to  drift  from  the 
course  of  navigation  and  eventually  be  driven  into  danger  and  dis- 
aster. The  teacher  who  abdicates  his  position  in  favor  of  the  student 
body  robs  the  class  of  the  talent,  experience,  and  wisdom  for  which 
his  salary  is  paid.  To  call  upon  pupils  to  perform  what  is  rightfully 
the  teacher's  function  deserves  the  name  of  shirking.  He  may  urge 
that  his  students  are  learning  from  the  best  teacher  in  the  world — • 
experience.  He  may  urge  very  eloquently  that  these  young  people 
are  following  in  the  footsteps  of  humanity  and  learning  at  first  hand 
the  lessons  learned  by  the  race  through  the  experience  of  successive 
generations.  Were  we  still  in  the  days  of  Methuselah  there  would 
then  be  present  one  element  essential  to  the  success  of  this  slow 
method.  Prom  the  centuries  there  has  been  evolved  in  every  line 
of  effort  some  crystallized  common  sense  that  renders  possible  further 
progress. 

To  place  tyros  in  the  kitchen  with  the  expectation  of  evolving  pure- 
ly by  experiment  a  class  of  skillful  cooks  would  involve  waste  of 
costly  material,  wicked  waste  of  time  and  effort,  and  a  vicious  repudia- 
tion of  our  birthright,  the  privilege  of  applying  the  wealth  of  wisdom 
gathered  by  our  ancestors  at  so  large  cost  and  handed  down  with 
so  great  care.  Even  more  absurd  would  be  the  attempt  to  develop 
from  the  novice  by  a  like  process  the  skilled  physician  and  expert 
surgeon.  There  is  high  honor  in  the  title,  teacher  of  teachers.  We 
who  proudly  bear  this  title  hold  it  as  duty  and  privilege  to  bring 
to  our  laboratory  the  best  products  df  experience,  the  most  trust- 
worthy knowledge,  the  truest  principles  of  action,  the  most  apt  pre- 
sentation of  subject,  and  the  most  dextrous  and  delicate  handling  of 
the  instruments  that  probe  not  the  body  but  the  soul. 

Exercises  in  the  Normal  classroom  should  be  regarded  as  a  sort 
of  clinic.  Attention  must  be  constantly  turned  to  the  teaching 
process,  and  there  should  be  the  fullest  and  frankest  questioning  as 
to  what  is  the  teacher's  aim  in  the  recitation  and  why  he  takes  each 
step  in  the  process  of  attaining  his  purpose.  Is  there  a  better  way 
to  attain  this  specific  end?  should  be  the  watchword  of  both  student 
and  teacher. 

Neither  must  we  forget  the  trite  maxim,  "We  learn  to  do  by  doing.'* 
The  wise  surgeon  training  a  son  to  become  his  co-worker  and  suc- 
cessor, first  carefully  teaches  by  description,  diagram,  and  illustrations 
how  a  given  operation  is  performed.  Later  the  prospective  surgeon 
assists  in  the  minor  details  of  that  operation,  administering  the  an- 
aesthetics or  stitching  up  the  wound.  When  convinced  that  it  may  be 


358  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

done  with  reasonable  safety  to  the  patient  and  without  too  great 
shock  to  either  operator  or  onlookers,  the  expert  allows  the  prospect- 
ive surgeon  to  wield  the  instruments  that  mean  either  life  or  death. 

Frequently  when  a  Normal  student  fails  to  perform  his  work  in  the 
recitation,  volunteers  may  be  called  for  to  diagnose  the  case  and 
then  prescribe  and  apply  a  suitable  remedy.  Many  a  valuable  peda- 
gogic lesson  is  thus  taught  in  an  objective  way,  frequently  by  con- 
trasting the  false  diagnosis  with  the  true,  and  the  tactful,  skillful 
treatment  with  the  other  kind.  Naturally  enough  it  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  take  precautions  against  that  deadly  microbe,  the  bacillus 
of  destructive  criticism.  In  modern  pedagogy  as  in  modern  surgery, 
the  deepest  probing  is  rendered  comparatively  painless  and  dangerous 
after  effects  are  entirely  obviated  by  removing  their  primal  cause. 

Recently  in  a  professional  review  reading  class  a  student's  attempts 
to  read  Hamlet's  soliloquy  showed  that  mastery  of  the  thought  was 
not  to  be  secured  that  day  without  help.  A  volunteer  came  forward 
to  relieve  the  difficulty  only  to  reveal  his  own  ignorance  and  conse- 
quent inability  to  help.  Another  volunteer  wasted  his  ammunition 
by  not  knowing  whereat  to  aim.  Then  came  a  quiet,  self-possessed 
young  woman,  whose  single  question,  like  a  well-sent  rifle  ball,  struck 
the  stragetic  point  of  attack.  "What  is  the  subject,  and  what  the 
object  of  takes?"  This  skillful  bit  of  teaching  with  its  background 
of  failure  proved  a  far  more  effective  object  lesson  than  any  the 
teacher  of  teachers  could  manufacture  for  the  occasion. 

The  power  to  question  with  judgment  and  skill  may  be  cultivated 
"by  appointing  pupils  to  conduct  a  five-minute  quiz  on  what  has  been 
covered  in  previous  recitations.  In  school  management  we  devote 
the  first  two  weeks  of  the  quarter  to  important  points  in  school  law. 
For  several  weeks  thereafter  each  day  a  student  conducts  a  quiz  on 
some  given  sections  of  school  law.  Helpful  criticisms  are  then  called 
lor  on  the  preparation,  the  nature  of  the  questions,  the  manner,  voice 
and  bearing  of  the  student  teacher. 

The  professional  reviews  are  probably  the  classes  in  which  teaching 
by  students  may  be  most  profitably  done.  These  classes  are  neces- 
sarily uneven,  and  so  are  sure  to  include  students  in  need  of  defi- 
nite instruction  which  other  members  of  the  class  are  fully  compe- 
tent to  give.  Certain  pupils  are  assigned  to  prepare  definite  lesson 
plans  and  carry  them  out  before  the  class. 

To  illustrate:  Four  students  in  the  review  reading  class  were  re- 
cently assigned  work  of  this  kind.  The  matter  selected  was  the  last 
two  stanzas  of  Longfellow's  Launching  of  the  Ship,  the  peroration 
in  Wendell  Phillip's  speech  at  the  grave  of  John  Brown,  the  para- 
graphs in  Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Oration  that  refer  especially  to  the 
veterans,  and  Hamlet's  address  to  the  players.  A  time  limit  of  twenty 
minutes  was  set  for  each  teacher  and  the  class  held  responsible  for 
preparation  of  the  lesson  definitely  assigned.  The  results  were  close 
preparation  by  the  practice  teacher,  wise  use  of  pictures  and  other 
means  of  increasing  the  interest,  courteous  and  earnest  response  on 
the  part  of  the  class,  full  and  free  criticism  of  the  good  points  of  the 
presentation  and  suggestions  for  improvement.  The  most  pleasing 
point  was  the  insistence  with  which  students  demanded  that  criticisms 
should  be  specific  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  help  the  reader  to  cure 
the  defects  pointed  out.  The  various  criticisms  of  the  teaching  done 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  3*59 

brought  out  many  helpful  hints  for  improvement  and  some  of  them 
-were  suggestive  to  the  regular  teacher  of  the  class.  Naturally  it  is 
necessary  to  limit  these  exercises  to  those  whose  knowledge,  maturi- 
ty, and  skill  best  fit  them  to  prove  helpful  to  the  other  members  of 
-the  class. 

RECAPITULATION. 

First — The  regular  teacher's  broader  knowledge  and  stronger  grasp 
of  subject  best  fit  him  to  be  instructor  of  the  class. 

Second — The  experienced  teacher  can  best  present  teaching  exer- 
cises calculated  to  create  right  ideals  in  the  minds  of  the  prospective 
teachers. 

Third — The  teacher  who  largely  turns  over  this  work  to  the  stu- 
dent body  is  robbing  the  class  of  4he  power  and  wisdom  supposed 
to  be  paid  for  and  is  likely  to  produce  in  his  classes  a  waste  of  time 
and  effort  unwarranted  by  results  and  productive  of  chaotic  condi- 
tions. 

Fourth — The  Normal  classes  should  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  clinic 
to  create  ideals  and  prepare  for  successful  practice. 

Fifth — Frequent  opportunities  arise  in  the  regular  class  work  that 
allow  profitable  observation  lessons  on  the  part  of  the  class  upon  a 
teacher  from  their  own  number. 

Sixth — It  is  wise  to  provide  for  more  formal  practice  work  by  stu- 
dents in  the  class,  when  it  is  properly  limited  in  time  and  is  restricted 
to  those  students  whose  work  does  not  mean  large  waste  of  time  for 
the  other  students. 

Seventh — The  nature  of  the  professional  review  work,  the  condi- 
tions found  in  these  classes,  and  the  maturity  and  experience  of  some 
students  taking  this  work  especially  fit  these  classes  for  such  practice 
teaching. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Emery — Discussion  may  follow  either  upon  this  or  the  preceding 
paper. 

Mr.  Brier — I  was  glad  to  hear  Mr.  Hutton  emphasize  the  importance 
of  having  observation  of  actual  classes.  I  do  not  know  that  anything 
more  needs  to  be  said  upon  that.  There  is  an  impression  abroad  that 
show  classes  are  gotten  up  in  some  of  the  Normal  schools  for  the  pur- 
pose of  having  them  observed.  I  like  the  idea  very  much  of  taking 
the  regular  class  work  as  it  comes  and  present  that  to  the  observation 
class  and  let  them  see  the  actual  work  of  the  teacher  day  by  day.  The 
pupils  themselves  who  are  under  observation  seem  to  be  wholly  uncon- 
scious of  the  presence  of  a  large  class  observing  the  work.  There  is 
no  effort  made  in  our  school  to  make  an  exhibition  of  it,  except  that 
it  is  a  feature  to  be  observed. 

Mr.  Jegi — In  connection  with  observation,  I  think  in  the  main  we 
may  agree  somewhat.  But  I  believe  in  fixing  things  up  for  observa- 
tion. I  certainly  believe  also  in  the  everyday  class  work.  Suppose 
you  have  four  days  of  observation  in  the  fourth  grade  for  a  given  sub- 


360  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ject.  Is  it  likely  that  during  those  four  days  the  teacher  will  use  in 
these  exercises  her  different  methods  of  teaching  reading,  for  instance? 
Is  she  going  to  get  at  the  various  means  that  she  employs?  If  it  so 
happens  that  her  work  cannot  be  planned  to  show  what  stands  for  her 
method  of  teaching,  I  want  her  to  fix  up  something  that  will  stand  for 
it.  If  the  teacher  has  some  skillful  method  of  review  work  which  we 
could  not  see  during  the  four  days,  I  would  like  to  have  her  give  that 
for  the  benefit  of  the  class.  I  do  not  believe  we  are  sacrificing  the 
child.  I  think  we  are  certainly  helping  the  students  when  we  give 
them  an  opportunity  of  observing  the  whole  round  of  the  teacher's 
work  in  that  subject.  I  would  emphasize  very  much  more,  it  seems  to 
me,  the  later  work  in  observation.  Our  school  is  organized  somewhat 
differently.  But  it  is  my  conviction,  based  upon  contact  with  hundreds 
of  students  in  the  past  years,  that  their  observation  in  the  senior  year 
in  connection  with  their  practice,  is  more  valuable  in  their  teaching 
than  the  so-called  observations. 

Mr.  Hutton — How  many  weeks? 

Mr.  Jegi — Ten  weeks — chiefly  for  the  reason  that  in  the  senior  year 
when  they  have  begun  to  work,  they  know  what  they  are  observing 
more  clearly. 

Mr.  Hutton — I  would  like  to  have  you  tell  us  about  the  scope  of  your 
work.  What  other  things  beside  the  recitation  are  observed? 

Mr.  Jegi — We  observe  about  everything  that  you  have  enumerated  in 
your  paper.  You  put  in  some  things  we  do  not  observe.  We  do  not 
observe  whether  the  students  stand  on  both  heels  or  not. 

Mr.  Salisbury — In  any  class  for  oral  instruction  in  the  branches  we 
should  consider  seventy-six  an  unreasonable  number.  We  would  say 
that  no  teacher  could  well  instruct  such  a  class.  I  wonder  if  the  same 
thing  does  not  hold  with  observation.  Is  it  not  unreasonable  to  pre- 
cipitate a  multitude  of  seventy-six  adults  in  upon  a  class  of  children? 
Is  it  a  feasible  thing?  Why  not  section  that  class? 

Mr.  Emery — If  the  results  that  have  been  named  in  the  paper  were 
secured,  then  you  would  not  condemn  it. 

Mr.  Salisbury — I  would  if  better  results  could  be  secured  by  a  better 
plan.  It  is  a  relative  matter  and  nobody  can  say  that  the  results  have 
actually  been  secured. 

Mr.  Livingston — In  regard  to  fixing  up  the  exercise,  I  would  much 
prefer  that  the  teacher  would  not  say  anything  to  the  class  at  all  of 
our  coming  down.  I  notice  that  when  that  is  not  done  the  pupils  are 
more  natural.  Whenever  a  teacher  does  prepare  her  class  for  a  show 
exercise  it  is  a  failure. 

Miss  Shultes — In  reference  to  the  matter  of  sectioning  a  class:  It 
becomes  a  very  great  burden  to  my  teachers  and  it  takes  my  time.  Our 
teaching  force  is  not  large  enough,  and  in  order  to  supervise  all  the 
practice  that  is  going  on,  I  cannot  give  more  than  an  hour  a  day.  We 
did  try  dividing  the  class  for  a  while,  but  taking  all  things  into  con- 
sideration, it  seemed  best  to  arrange  for  the  greatest  number.  I  agree 
thoroughly  that  seventy  cannot  be  handled  as  well  and  as  successfully 
as  thirty.  But  with  a  limited  teaching  force  that  is  very  difficult  to 
arrange. 


UNITY  OF  IDEALS  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TEACHING. 


HOW  TO  SECURE  UNITY  OF  IDEALS  AND  PURPOSES  IN  PROFES- 
SIONAL TEACHING  AND  TRAINING:  (A)  IN  ANY  ONE  NOR- 
MAL SCHOOL.  (B)  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

ALBERT  SALISBURY,  Whitewater. 

1.  The  first  essential  towards  unity  in  the  professional  work  of  a 
Normal  school  is  that  the  executive  head  of  the  school  shall  have  some 
well-defined  professional  ideals  and  purposes.     He  must  be  the  profes- 
sional head  of  the  school,  also,  and  must  not  be  capable  of  contentment 
in  the  midst  of  an  unco-ordinated  melange  of  professional  aims  and 
no-aims,  of  new-born  fancies  and  ancient  traditions,  on  the  part  of  his 
associate  workers.     Let  us  assume,  then,  that  the  head  of  the  school 
has  the  capacity  and  equipment  for  professional  leadership. 

2.  His  first  effort  toward  unity  in  the  work  of  his  school  will  be  ex- 
erted in  the  direction  of  a  careful  selection  of  teachers,  seeking  those 
who  are  from  the  start,  by  previous  training  and  experience,  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  Normal  school  aims  and  ideals.     This  work  of  selection 
is  as  important  as  it  is  difficult.     It  is  indispensable  to  the  full  success 
of  any  Normal  school  that  all  the  members  of  its  corps  of  instruction 
shall  be  professionally  intelligent,  professionally  enthusiastic,  and  pro- 
fessionally judicious  and  conscientious.     High  culture  is  of  great  con- 
sequence, but  it  cannot  be  allowed  to  displace  pedagogical  intelligence 
and  purpose.     On  the  other  hand,  the  pedagogical  "crank"  and  one-idea 
man  must  also  be  sedulously  excluded. 

The  strong  modern  movement  towards  specialization  has  added  to 
the  dicffiulties  of  the  Normal  school  administrator  in  the  organization 
of  faculties.  Our  demand  for  specialists  in  scholastic  lines  has  got  us 
into  more  or  less  trouble.  The  pure-bred  university  man  is  a  danger 
to  the  professional  work  of  the  Normal  school  at  the  outset.  It  takes 
him  too  long,  in  most  cases,  to  get  the  professional  standpoint  and  real- 
ize that  anything  but  erudition  has  value.  Moreover,  he  lacks  the 
sense  of  proportion,  magnifies  his  specialty  unduly,  and  is  apt  to  take 
on  the  tone  of  infallibility  in  his  estimate  of  the  subjects  he  knows 
least  about.  But  even  the  scientific  specialist  is  less  dangerous  than 
some  shallow  would-be  specialists  in  pedagogy  who  infest  the  labor 
market,  burdened  with  a  greater  freight  of  "philosophy"  than  of  ex- 
perience and  common  sense. 

To  steer  successfully  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis  in  the  selection 
of  teachers  for  a  Normal  school  taxes  most  severely  the  skill  and  judg- 
ment of  the  one  on  whom  this  responsibility  rests.  And  because  of  the 
great  liability  to  mistake,  even  with  the  utmost  caution,  there  is  need, 
also,  of  courage  for  the  sifting  out,  after  they  have  been  tested,  of 
those  teachers  who  do  not  "fit  in,"  who  lack  true  professional  stand- 
ards, or  who  conduce  to  incongruity  and  disorganization  rather  than 
unity  in  the  work  of  the  school.  The  easy  amiability  which  tolerates 
such  inaptness  after  it  has  been  revealed  is  no  less  than  a  sin  against 
the  school  and  its  constituency.  Perhaps,  however,  the  greatest  embar- 
rassment results  in  the  case  of  teachers  who  range  themselves  on  the 
border  line,  who  are  not  clear  failures  professionally,  who  have  some 


362  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

good  points  as  instructors,  but  who  do  nothing  for  the  professional 
tone  and  power  of  the  school. 

3.  After  a  judicious  selection  of  teachers,  the  next  step  towards  unity 
in  the  professional  work  will  be  found  in  the  proper  organization  and 
articulation  of  the  work  in  the  course  of  study.     In  our  Wisconsin  Nor- 
mal schools,  the  course  of  study,  as  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Regents, 
prescribes  only  minima  and  maxima  as  to  amount.     It  says  nothing  as 
to  the  order  of  subjects,  an  important  consideration,  or  their  distribu- 
tion to  teachers.     It  does  not  say  whether  psychology,  for  instance, 
shall  be  taught  by  a  man  or  woman,  by  the  President  or  by  a  young 
professor  fresh  from  the  artificial  atmosphere  of  a  university.    All  is 
left  to  the  executive  of  the  school;  and  much  depends  upon  his  compre- 
hension of  the  problem  and  his  wisdom  in  solving  it. 

A  proper,'  that  is,  a  logical  co-ordination  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
professional  course  including  the  natural  sequence  of  topics,  is  a  prime 
condition  both  of  unity  in  the  work  and  of  fruitfulness  in  its  results. 
And  scarcely  less  important  is  the  assignment  of  the  several  parts  of 
Ihe  professional  course  to  teachers  of  experience  and  weight  who  will 
make  this  work  solid,  critical,  and,  at  the  same  time,  attractive;  but 
the  possibility  of  this  depends  on  that  wise  original  selection  of 
teachers  which  has  already  been  touched  upon. 

4.  We  now  come  to  the  common  details  of  administration.     And  here 
the  first  agency  which  promises  useful  results  is  the  faculty  meeting. 
Let  me  premise  at  the  outset,  that  this  is  a  regular  stated  meeting  of 
the  whole  corps  of  instruction  at  frequent  intervals,  preferably  once 
each  week.     If  faculty  meetings  are  sporadic  in  recurrence  and  de- 
voted chiefly  to  matters  of  discipline  or  the  business  of  administration, 
they  may  still  serve  a  very  useful  purpose;  but  they  will  accomplish 
nothing,  of  course,  for  the  professional  unities  of  the  schools.    And 
that  is  a  loss  which  cannot  well  be  afforded. 

The  stated  faculty  meeting  wisely  conducted, — and  I  sorrowfully 
concede  that  there  is  wide  room  for  unwisdom  here, — affords  an  op- 
portunity for  interchange  of  ideas,  an  occasion,  for  the  head  of  the 
school  to  set  forth  his  aims  and  unfold  his  policy,  a  means  for  him  to 
both  teach  and  learn,  which  is  simply  invaluable.  I  do  not  forget  the 
dangers  here.  Members  of  a  faculty,  and  all  the  more  so  if  successful 
and  experienced  teachers,  come  together  somewhat  "set"  in  their  own 
ways  and  confident  of  the  validity  of  their  own  notions  and  practices; 
and  there  is  the  liability  of  their  going  out  as  they  came  in.  The  work 
of  the  faculty  meeting  cannot  safely  be  controversial  to  any  great  ex- 
tent; yet,  it  is  also  true  that  an  honestly  expressed  conflict  of  opinion 
seldom  leaves  either  party  to  the  debate  just  where  he  began.  Each 
will,  almost  inevitably,  think  over  afterwards  the  positions  and  argu- 
ments of  his  adversary,  will  find  some  unwelcome  force  in  them,  and 
will  quietly,  even  unconsciously,  shift  his  own  ground  and  modify  his 
beliefs. 

Sometimes  the  faculty  meeting  will  find  greatest  profit  in  the  joint 
study  of  some  book  or  review  article,  like  Tompkin's  "Philosophy  of 
Teaching,"  or  Dr.  Harris's  article  on  "The  Future  of  the  Normal 
Schools ; "  but  the  best  results  will  not  be  secured  by  the  study  of  works 
in  general  philosophy  or  literature.  Such  study  belongs  to  the  club 


UNITY  OF  IDEALS  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TEACHING.         3(53 

or  reading  circle  and  not  to  the  faculty  meeting,  which  should  never 
get  too  far  away  from  its  own  immediate  problems. 

It  is  important  that  the  faculty  meeting  should  be  a  well-disciplined 
body — self-disciplined.  It  must  not  be  tumultuous  and  desultory  in  its 
procedure.  At  the  same  time  there  should  be  the  utmost  frankness  of 
expression.  Members  of  the  body  must  not  be  thin-skinned.  But  there 
must  also  be  the  spirit  of  toleration  and  of  co-operation.  In  looking 
up  a  new  teacher,  one  of  the  first  questions  I  ask  is,  "Has  he,  or  she, 
the  co-operative  spirit?" 

5.  It  is  doubtless  a  common  belief  that  the  great  instrument  of  uni- 
fication in  work  is  direct  supervision,  personal  visiting  and  inspection 
of  work  by  the  executive  head.  It  will  doubtless  be  thought  strange  if 
I  confess  here  to  a  certain  degree  of  skepticism  as  to  the  supreme  value 
of  class  visitation  in  a  Normal  school.  As  I  have  already  discussed 
this  subject  at  greater  length  in  another  section  of  this  institute,  I  will 
not  enter  deeply  upon  it  here. 

Aside  from  the  limitations  of  the  time  and  strength  of  the  executive, 
with  the  multitude  01  important  duties  which  he  cannot  delegate  to 
others,  there  are  also  the  limitations  of  the  situation.  Even  Normal 
school  teachers  are  liable  to  oe  easily  disconcerted,  and  their  pupils  are 
still  more  so.  The  head  of  the  school  fs  held  in  so  much  awe,  for  want 
of  a  better  term,  under  these  particular  circumstances,  that  he  seldom, 
sees  a  fair  sample  of  the  work.  And,  even  at  the  best,  he  gets  little 
idea  from  visitation  of  classes  of  the  sequence,  continuity,  and  articula- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  teacher. 

Again,  the  question  of  what  to  do  with  what  he  does  see  is  always  a 
difficult  one.  There  is  a  sacred  tradition  that  he  must  not  criticise  or 
interfere  with  work  on  the  spot;  while  criticism  in  cold  blood,  after- 
wards, seems  often  too  serious  and  formidable.  If  the  supervising 
head  keeps  silence,  that  is  likely  to  be  construed  as  a  sullen  disap- 
proval; he  is  expected  rather  to  praise  than  to  criticise.  But  the  giv- 
ing of  "taffy"  seems  to  him,  usually,  as  "stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable." 

On  the  other  hand,  supervision  is,  after  all,  needful  in  order  to  ade- 
quately know  what  teachers  are  teaching,  what  heresies,  misconcep- 
tions, or  shallow  conceptions  are  being  promulgated.  It  must,  at  least, 
supplement  all  the  other  avenues  of  knowledge  open  to  the  chief  on 
these  points.  And  it  often,  very  often,  gives  clues  to  discoveries  which 
are  completed  by  other  means.  The  presiding  officer  must  school  him- 
self to  discharge  this  duty  as  faithfully  and  as  graciously  as  possible; 
and  teachers  and  pupils  must  learn  to  cake  his  visits  as  part  of  the 
business  and  not  flinch  from  the  useful  ordeal,  welcoming  every  sug- 
gestion as  a  means  to  greater  unity  and  so  to  greater  efficiency  in  the 
common  work. 

It  would  doubtless  be  possible  to  do  something  towards  unification  of 
work  by  written  methods,  that  is  by  requiring  members  of  the  faculty 
to  hand  in  written  outlines  of  their  work,  lesson  plans  even,  these  out- 
lines to  be  read  and,  if  need  be,  criticised  by  the  president.  This  pro- 
cedure, however,  would  be  rather  a  delicate  matter,  as  it  would  almost 
seem  to  place  the  teacher  on  the  plane  of  the  practice  teacher.  More- 
over, it  would  involve  a  good  deal  of  what  approaches  drudgery,  when 
added  to  the  regular  work,  both  to  the  members  of  the  faculty  and  to 
the  president. 


364  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

6.  Assuming  now  what  is  almost  always  true,  that  all  the  members 
of  the  instructional  force  are  honestly  desirous  of  doing  the  best  thing 
for  the  common  interest,  I  make  bold  to  magnify  as  a  means  of  the 
highest  value  towards  unification  of  the  work  the  visiting  by  teachers 
of  each  other's  classes.  Too  often  they  are  to  be  found  working  away, 
each  in  his  own  cell,  wholly  unaware  of  what  anybody  else  is  doing  or 
of  what  inconsistency  or  inharmony  there  may  be  between  their  aims 
and  practices  and  those  of  their  colleagues. 

And  here,  again,  appear  the  dangers  of  too  much  specialization.  If 
teachers  are  not  narrow  specialists  to  begin  with,  they  strongly  tend 
to  become  such.  They  "rust  down"  in  their  own  classrooms,  not  to 
say  "chairs,"  and  concern  themselves  exclusively  with  the  segment  of 
human  knowledge  to  which  they  are  devoted.  In  vain  the  teachers  of 
different  subjects  appeal  to  each  other  to  "correlate."  What  each 
really  wishes  is  to  subordinate  the  other.  In  vain  the  teacher  of  Eng- 
lish appeals  to  the  rest  of  the  staff  to  re-inforce  his  work,  and  "teach 
English  in  every  recitation."  They  are  each  and  all  too  eager  to  push, 
their  own  specialties  to  the  limit.  They  "haven't  any  time  to  teach 
English."  They  have  learned  more  and  more  about  their  several  sub- 
jects with  each  passing  year;  and  they  are  uneasy  at  not  being  able  to 
teach  everything  they  now  know.  I  have  sometimes  declared,  though 
of  course  in  a  qualified  sense,  that  I  would  like  to  change  all  the 
teachers  in  a  faculty  about  every  four  or  five  years  and  make  them 
swap  specialties  so  that  they  could  be  kept  freshly  in  mind  of  the 
rights  and  claims  of  all  the  branches  in  the  course.  But  I  suppose  this 
would  be  fighting  against  the  law  of  gravitation. 

Probably  the  same  end  could  be  accomplished  to  a  sufficient  degree 
by  requiring  that  every  teacher  should  spend  a  portion  of  his  or  her 
time,  say  forty  minutes  each  school  day,  in  visiting  the  work  of  other 
teachers  under  the  advice  of  the  head  of  the  school.  I  believe  that 
such  a  requirement,  and  it  would  have  to  be  a  requirement,  would  be 
productive  of  great  good  in  all  our  Normal  schools.  Of  course  this 
visiting  would  need  to  be  directed  and  systematized  to  some  degree, 
lest  it  should  become  aimless  and  desultory. 

But  the  great  difficulty  or  obstacle  is  found  in  the  fact  that  our 
teachers  are  already  loaded  to  the  water's  edge  with  duties.  Their 
desks  are  usually  full  of  work  waiting  to  be  done;  and  when  a  spare 
hour  offers,  if  ever,  the  temptation  is  too  great  to  attack  that  waiting 
task.  To  provide  time  in  which  this  visitation-work  could  justly  be 
required  would  involve  an  increased  teaching  force  to  relieve  the  pres- 
ent strain  on  teachers ;  .and  that  would  mean,  of  course,  an  increased 
outlay.  But  I  believe  that  such  an  outlay,  if  the  money  could  be  found, 
would  be  amply  justified  by  the  results.  I  believe  that  such  relief  of 
our  teachers,  for  such  a  purpose,  is  more  important  to  our  Normal 
school  work  today  than  the  construction  of  new  buildings  or  the  pro- 
vision of  new  apparatus. 

7.  Seventhly,  the  teachers  of  the  Normal  school  should,  by  some 
means,  be  enabled  and  then  required  to  make  frequent  visits  of  obser- 
vation to  the  model  school,  both  to  the  classes  taught  by  the  depart- 
ment teachers  and  to  the  practice  classes.  This  would  naturally  in- 
clude frequent  conference  with  the  supervisor  of  practice  teaching,  to 

the  end  of  understanding  her  aims  and  plans.     The  teacher  of  arith- 


UNITY  OF  IDEALS  IN  PROFESSIONAL  TEACHING.    •    3(55 

metic  or  geography  should  know  what  the  supervisor  is  teaching;  and 
the  supervisor  should  know  what  the  rest  of  the  faculty  are  teaching 
in  the  subjects  which  enter  into  the  course  of  the  model  school.  The 
results  of  this  observation  of  the  work  in  the  model  school  should  be 
brought  into  the  weekly  faculty  meeting,  after  conference  with  the 
president  of  the  school,  and  should  there  be  frankly  and  considerately 
discussed  for  purposes  of  mutual  information  and  suggestion.  But 
this  topic  or  the  model  school  as  a  co-ordinating  center  of  the  Normal 
school  has  already  been  discussed  in  this  section. 

To  summarize,  briefly,  these  are  the  important  conditions  and  means 
for  the  unification  of  ideals  and  purposes  in  professional  teaching  and 
training,  viz.: — Well-defined  ideals  and  aims  on  the  part  of  the  execu- 
tive head,  a  careful  selection  and  sifting  of  associate  teachers  to  the 
end  of  homogeneous  activity,  the  proper  organization  and  articulation 
of  the  work  through  the  course  of  study,  a  constant  use  of  the  faculty 
meeting  as  a  professional  clearing-house,  direct  supervision  of  class- 
teaching  by  the  executive  head,  the  systematic  visiting  by  teachers  of 
each  other's  classes,  and  of  the  work  throughout  the  model  school,  for 
which  purpose  time  should  be  allowed  in  the  teacher's  daily  program. 

If  I  were  to  add  anything  to  this  list,  it  would  be  the  morning  exer- 
cises of  the  school.  It  is  largely  in  the  morning  exercises  that  the 
school  as  a  whole  is  knit  together  and  its  spirit  formed.  There  the 
ideals  of  character  and  of  life  which  permeate  the  administration  of 
the  school  are  most  effectively  unfolded;  and  it  is  at  least  possible 
to  set  forth  there  those  aims  and  ideals  which  we  wish  our  pupils  to 
imbibe  as  the  vital  spirit  and  purpose  of  all  education.  In  short, 
the  professional  conception  of  teaching  as  a  mission  may  there  be  more 
or  less  infused  into  the  student  body  and  teaching  body  alike.  The  desk 
at  morning  exercises,  if  rightly  filled,  is  an  educational  pulpit;  and  no 
preacher  in  the  land  has  such  an  audience.  But  its  effect  in  the 
direction  of  unifying  the  professional  work  of  the  school  is,  doubtless, 
only  supplementary  to  that  of  the  other  instrumentalities  already 
discussed. 

8.  I  have  little  time  left  for  the  consideration  of  the  second  branch 
of  my  subject, — The  unification  of  aims  in  the  Normal  school  system 
of  the  state.  There  would  certainly  seem  to  be  need  of  such  unifi- 
cation. The  outside  observer  of  present  conditions  in  our  organiza- 
tion of  professional  work  might  well  be  reminded  of  Pope's  famous 
couplet, 

"  'Tis  with  our  judgments  as  with  our  watches;  none 
Go  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own." 

It  is  doubtless  the  perception  of  this  by  those  who  have  us  in  charge 
that  has  occasioned  this  gathering  of  the  Normal  school  forces. 

The  most  efficient  means  for  securing  a  better  and  more  uniform 
organization  and  administration,  better  first,  else  there  would  be  no 
gain  in  uniformity,  would  seem  to  consist  in  closer  and  more  critical 
supervision  of  the  schools  by  the  Board  of  Regents.  But  it  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  hurried  lawyers  and  business  men  should  be  able 
to  give  this  expert  professional  supervision.  The  solution  of  the  dif- 
ficulty would  seem,  then,  to  lie  in  placing  on  the  Board  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  educators,  men  of  professional  experience  and  training. 


366  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Already  we  are  reaping  the  advantage  of  having  two  ex-presidents  of 
Normal  schools  on  the  Board. 

The  experiment  in  which  we  are  this  week  engaged  gives  promise 
of  good  results,  but  how  good  the  future  alone  can  determine.  If  we  all 
go  home  to  nourish  the  ideas  and  suggestions  received  here  and  to 
utilize  the  stimulus  afforded  by  our  present  contact,  much  will  be 
accomplished  in  the  desired  direction.  We  shall  unify.  But  if  we 
largely  go  back  to  our  places  confirmed  in  all  our  former  notions 
and  ways,  our  last  condition  may  be  worse  than  the  first.  From  such. 
a  waste  of  opportunity  may  the  good  Lord  deliver  us. 


DISCUSSION. 

W.  J.  BRIER,  River  Falls. 

All  teaching  and  training  in  a  Normal  school  is,  or  should  be,  pro- 
fessional. This  is  axiomatic  and  intrinsic.  It  is  the  very  nature  of 
a  Normal  school.  Therefore,  to  secure  unity  of  ideals  and  purposes 
in  professional  teaching  and  training  we  must  secure  unity  of  ideals 
and  purposes  in  all  Normal  school  work.  How  can  we  do  this? 

Theoretically,  it  does  not  seem  very  difficult.  Practically,  it  is  all 
but  impossible,  though  we  may  approach  nearer  than  we  now  are  to 
a  perfect  unity. 

But  why  have  we  not  a  complete  unity  of  ideals  and  purposes?  The 
primary  answer  lies  in  the  nature  of  mind.  Minds,  like  bodies,  re- 
semble one  another  only  in  general  characteristics.  Each  mind  is  the 
resultant  of  millions  of  forces  and  influences  which  have  acted  upon 
it  to  make  it  what  it  is.  Among  the  eight  score  of  teachers  in  our 
Normals  no  two  minds  have  the  same  percepts,  the  same  concepts, 
the  same  memory,  imagination  or  reason.  They  do  not  have  the 
same  degree  of  understanding  when  the  simplest  things  are  men- 
tioned, as  mountain,  cathedral,  London,  Black  Forest.  They  do  not 
view  from  the  same  point  the  teaching  of  the  common  branches, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  nor  do  they  harmonize  well  as  to 
the  best  way  or  the  time  required  to  teach  the  simplest  topics,  as, 
writing  decimals,  analysis  of  simple  sentences,  or  county  geography. 
The  reason  for  this  disagreement  is  not  hard  to  find.  It  is  the  re- 
sult of  both  inborn  and  acquired  differences.  We  are  all  born  differ- 
ent and  we  all  have  additional  differences  thrust  upon  us.  Two  teach- 
ers may  have  sat  in  the  same  classes  through  the  model  grades,  the 
Normal  grades  and  the  university,  yet  they  have  been  differently 
taught.  One  chance  sentence  may  have  kindled  an  unquenchable 
flame  of  ambition  in  the  one  and  been  unheard  or  unheeded  by  the 
other.  But  the  teachers  in  the  Wisconsin  Normal  schools  represent 
all  forms  and  phases  of  instruction.  Some  have  passed  through  city 
grades  and  high  schools  to  and  through  the  university.  Others  have 
passed  through  the  same  secondary  schools  to  denominational  colleges 
or  Normals.  Others  have  been  through  the  model  schools  before 
entering  the  Normal,  while  still  others  have  attended  only  rural 
schools  before  entering  the  Normal.  Some  have  supplemented 
courses  at  Harvard  or  Cornell  or  Wisconsin  University  by  attendance 
at  Leipsic  or  Heidelberg.  Some  have  had  almost  no  chance  to  se- 


DISCUSSION. 

cure  an  education  except  by  home  study.  Some  teachers  in  our  Nor- 
mals have  scarcely  been  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  state,  while 
others  have  mental  pictures  of  all  the  most  interesting  scenes  in 
America  and  Europe.  How  can  there  be  perfect  unity  of  ideals  grow- 
ing out  of  this  diversity  of  reals?  It  is  impossible.  No  two  of  these 
teachers,  teaching  spontaneously,  could  teach  in  the  same  manner 
the  history  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  They  would  not  have  even 
the  same  notion  as  to  what  to  teach  in  the  perfect  lesson  on  that 
topic,  omitting  no  essential  and  inserting  no  trifle. 

We  are  forced  to  the  painful  conclusion  that  the  Board  of  Regents 
might  get  a  better  unity  of  ideals,  though  not  a  perfect  one,  by  dis- 
missing all  the  members  of  all  the  faculties  and  employing  persons 
who  have  at  least  had  the  same  school  privileges,  in  the  same  cities. 
We  hope,  however,  they  "will  rather  bear  those  ills  they  have  than 
fly  to  others  that  they  know  not  of." 

But  in  spite  of  these  wide  differences  in  the  teaching  force,  there 
may  be  conditions  under  which  a  reasonable  degree  of  unity  may 
be  found.  In  the  settlement  of  all  school  questions,  much  depends 
upon  the  spirit  of  the  teachers.  If  that  is  right,  if  they  are  believers 
in  the  things  our  Normal  schools  stand  for,  if  they  are  enthusiastic, 
anxious  to  get  more  light,  determined  to  do  the  best  the  circumstances 
permit,  reforms  are  not  only  possible  but  relatively  easy.  But,  if  a 
teacher  is  not  in  sympathy  with  Normal  school  ideas;  if  he  is  special- 
izing beyond  the  needs  of  preparation  for  work  in  the  common  schools; 
if  he  is  oblivious  to  the  thread  of  teaching  for  the  teacher  that  runs 
through  all  our  Normal  work;  if  he  ridicules  the  observation,  or  prac- 
tice, or  school  management,  or  any  other  of  the  accepted  helps  to 
a  right  interpretation  of  the  principles  of  theory  and  ajt,  he  should 
be  quietly  relegated  to  some  other  field  of  usefulness. 

When  all  teachers  in  Normal  schools  have  a  firm  belief  in  Normal 
schools  and  can  agree  even  upon  the  most  general  agencies  to  ac- 
complish the  purposes  for  which  the  schools  are  established,  we  shall 
be  in  a  fair  way  to  make  some  progress  toward  unity  of  ideals. 

Specifically,  however,  the  lever  of  authority  is  necessary  to  lift 
a  school  up  very  near  to  a  unity  of  purpose.  No  matter  what  may 
be  the  belief  of  the  teachers,  some  authority  will  be  found  necessary 
to  keep  the  work  well  up  to  the  vantage  ground  of  unification. 

Every  school  should  have  an  amplified  syllabus  of  work  from  the 
primary  through  the  Normal  grades.  This  syllabus  should  indicate 
briefly  not  only  what  should  be  done,  but,  to  the  extent  of  a  general 
method,  how  it  should  be  done.  It  should  enable  the  practice  teacher 
who  has  a  geography  class  in  the  sixth  grade  to  teach  that  class  so 
there  shall  be  no  glaring  discrepancy  between  her  work  and  that 
suggested  in  the  professional  review  class  when  sixth  grade  teach- 
ing of  geography  is  under  discussion. 

This  means  that  there  should  be  at  least  an  approach  to  harmony 
of  ideals  among  heads  of  departments,  supervisors  of  practice,  and 
directors  of  model  grades.  If  they  do  not  harmonize,  the  head  of  the 
school  must  be  the  great  harmonizing  agency  and  harbor  the  dove 
of  peace  even  at  the  cost  of  war. 

Another  condition  which  makes  a  syllabus  necessary  is  the  fre- 
quent changes  in  the  teaching  force.  No  matter  how  good  an  under- 
standing there  may  be  between  the  heads  of  departments  and  the 


368  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

model  teachers  this  year,  a  shift  of  the  work  or  the  resignation  of 
a  teacher  or  two  will  disorganize  the  whole  matter  and  produce  chaos 
next  year. 

Another  influence  in  the  direction  of  unity  of  purpose  is  a  sys- 
tematic consultation  between  members  of  the  teaching  force  in  Nor- 
mal grades  and  those  in  the  model  grades  concerning  the  practice 
work.  This  of  course  can  be  done  only  after  all  have  inspected  the 
work  of  the  practice  teachers.  To  bring  about  this  co-operation  in  the 
River  Falls  school,  the  heads  of  departments  have  been  urged  to 
visit,  as  frequently  as  possible,  the  student  teachers  in  their  practice 
classes.  To  make  this  visitation  as  definite  and  tangible  as  possible, 
blanks  have  been  prepared  upon  which  the  visitor  makes  a  report 
along  certain  lines  of  inspection.  These  involve  the  preparation  of 
the  teacher,  control  of  the  class,  nature  of  the  questioning,  and  va- 
rious other  matters  considered  essential. 

The  theory  concerning  this  inspection  of  practice  work  is  that  the 
Normal  grade  teachers  will  take  a  deeper  interest  in  the  practice  work, 
realize  more  fully  where  lie  the  dangers  to  the  pupils  in  their  own 
classes,  strengthen  the  judgment  of  the  supervisor  and  the  president 
when  fitness' for  graduation  is  to  be  determined,  and,  in  general,  bring 
about  the  sympathetic  understanding  of  one  another's  difficulties  which 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  best  co-operation. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  plan  has  not  met  with  the  highest 
success,  though  much  good  has  grown  out  of  it.  The  chief  difficulty 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  heads  of  departments  who  are  teaching  five 
.or  six  classes  a  day  cannot  find  time  for  the  inspection.  But,  though 
this  visitation  is  not  so  frequent  as  is  desirable,  I  have  found  the 
reports  of  the  teachers  a  great  advantage  to  myself  as  supplementing 
my  own  opinions  made  after  my  own  inspection  of  practice/  work 
which  is  frequent  and  persistent. 

To  summarize  this  division  of  the  topic,  "Unity  in  any  one  Normal 
school,"  it  may  be  said: 

1.  All  Normal  teachers  must  be  in  sympathetic  relations  with  Nor- 
mal school  ideas. 

2.  All  teachers  must  meet  upon  a  common  ground  of  general  method 
even  if  many  concessions  are  to  be  made. 

3.  There  must  be  a  printed  syllabus  in  such  detail  that  there  shall 
be  no  grave  contradictions  anywhere  in  the  school. 

4.  The  president  of  the  faculty  must  be  the  final  arbiter  as  to  mat- 
ter and  method,  acting  always  within  the  limits  of  studies  prescribed 
by  the  Board  of  Regents. 

5.  To  exercise  this  last  named  function  intelligently,  the  president 
must  know  familiarly  the  trend  of  all  the  instruction  in  his  school, 
and  constantly  use  his  influence  toward  -harmony  of  ideals  and  pur- 
poses. 

The  second  division  of  the  subject,  "Unity  of  the  system  of  Normal 
schools,"  shall  be  treated  briefly. 

Three  years  ago  I  read  a  paper  before  the  Wisconsin  Teachers'  As- 
sociation on  the  subject,  "Need  of  greater  uniformity  in  Normal 
courses,"  but  it  was  not  listened  to  by  many  Normal  teachers  as  it 
was  presented  before  the  Normal  section. 

Although  that  was  previous  to  my  administration  of  Normal  work 
I  have  not  since  changed  my  mind  concerning  the  doctrine  therein 


DISCUSSION. 


369 


.advanced,  and  while  I  do  not  for  a  moment  think  the  paper  in  ques- 
tion had  the  least  influence  upon  the  Board,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that  at  present  there  is  much  greater  unity  in  the  Normal  school  work 
than  there  was  at  that  time.  No  such  diversity  of  subjects  and  al- 
lotments of  time  to  the  same  subject  exist.  The  Board  has  made  the 
field  much  more  definite  and  has  established  the  courses  of  study 
within  much  narrower  limits  than  they  then  had. 

Individual  preferences  of  the  several  presidents  aside, — and  it  isn't 
to  be  expected  that  they  will  ever  be  unified  except  upon  the  broad- 
est grounds, — the  whole  question  is  one  of  authority  and  must  rest 
with  the  Board  of  Regents.  They  need  to  go  no  further  than  to  pre- 
pare courses  of  study  which  shall  not  contain  one  elective  or  optional 
subject.  If  trigonometry  is  an  essential  for  the  preparation  of  a 
teacher  for  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin,  it  is  as  much  so  in  River 
Falls  as  in  Oshkosh. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  statutes  or  in  reason  which  demands  that 
we  hue  to  any  other  line  than  the  one  line  of  fitting  teachers  for  the 
public  schools. 

It  would  greatly  assist  the  unification  of  purposes,  whether  it  would 
.have  any  influence  upon  ideals  or  not,  were  the  Board  to  lay  out  a 
course,  or  the  necessary  .series  of  courses,  for  one  school,  and  re- 
quire all  the  schools  to  follow  it.  It  should  show  what  subjects  are 
to  be  taught,  just  when  they  are  to  be  taught  and  how  long  they  are 
to  be  taught.  In  connection  with  these  courses  interpretation  of  the 
meaning  of  certain  subjects  should  be  made.  No  two  schools  seem 
to  have  the  same  understanding  of  what  is  the  nature  and  scope  of 
Observation,  or  Elementary  Psychology,  or  the  significance  of  the  term 
Methods. 

When  made,  these  courses  should  be  administered  by  the  presidents 
with  as  faithful  adherence  to  specifications  as  builders  in  wood  and 
stone. 

Our  Normal  courses  all  look  toward  the  same  legal  reward.  Why 
not  make  the  requirements  as  near  alike  in  all  the  schools  as  the 
individual  differences  in  the  actual  instruction  will  permit. 

If  the  president  is  not  sufficiently  exacting  in  his  administration 
of  definite,  unequivocal  courses  in  which  credits  and  conditions  of  all 
classes  of  students  are  outlined  in  unmistakable  terms,  the  Commit- 
tee on  Graduating  Classes,  if  constituted  as  it  has  been  lately,  can- 
easily  detect  the  vdiscrepancy  and  the  Board  can  quietly  relegate  the 
offender  to  some  other  field  of  usefulness. 

Finally,  let  me  suggest  that  there  is  no  one  feasible,  available  agen- 
cy for  the  accomplishment  of  a  unity  of  ideals  in  the  system  of  Nor- 
mal schools  that  can  compare  with  such  a  convention  as  we  are  hold- 
ing on  this  occasion.  Though  we  may  seem  here  to  have  opinions 
diametrically  opposite,  no  one  can  go  back  to  his  work  without  some 
definite  modification  of  his  ideas  and  ideals,  and  the  wide  and  more 
shallow  stream  of  Normal  school  doctrines  will  be  forced  into  a  deeper 
swifter  and  more  powerful  current. 

24 


370  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


PROFESSIONAL  REVIEWS. 

THERON  B.  PRAY,  Stevens  Point. 

Of  those  who  offer  themselves  to  the  state  Normal  schools  as  in- 
tending to  prepare  for  teaching,  many  are  lacking  in  the  essential 
elements  of  a  good  education.  They  may  have  made  a  fair  degree 
of  progress  in  the  common  branches,  and  may  rank  as  the  better 
pupils  of  the  district  schools  from  which  they  come,  or  they  may 
be  the  more  ambitious  or  needy  members  of  the  graded  schools  who 
cannot  afford  the  expense  of  time  or  money  to  follow  a  full  high  school 
course  but  must  help  themselves  to  an  education.  If  these  enter  the 
Normal  schools  they  are  given  under  good  teachers  a  two-years  course 
embracing  the  subjects  they  must  teach,  in  which  the  state  wisely 
prescribes  an  examination  to  determine  the  proficiency  of  those  seek- 
ing employment  in  the  public  schools.  In  our  elementary  course  as- 
at  present  established,  there  is  given  to  each  of  the  following  branches, 
geography,  grammar,  physical  geography,  history,  arithmetic,  physiol- 
ogy, a  period  of  ten  weeks;  to  reading  and  to  civil  government  two 
such  periods.  Students  enter  this  course  either  upon  second  grade 
or  third  grade  certificates,  or  by  examination.  Many  also  enter  hav- 
ing first  grade  certificates  and  receiving  some  credit  on  the  common 
branches  in  which  they  are  most  proficient.  Those  who  have  not 
taught  have  been  examined  upon  the  elements  of  the  common 
branches.  They  are  given  a  fairly  thorough  course,  such  as  the  lim- 
ited time  permits,  in  the  common  branches  as  well  as  in  theory  anct 
art.  Hence  in  the  discussion  of  methods  and  in  practice  teaching, 
their  knowledge  of  subject-matter  is  reasonably  fresh. 

The  graduates  of  high  schools  entering  our  Junior  class,  are  for 
the  most  part  younger  than  their  classmates  who  are  not  high  school 
graduates.  They  have  less  maturity  and  knowledge  of  the  world. 
They  have  been  more  fortunately  situated  and  have  been  kept  in. 
school.  A  very  large  proportion  "finished"  (i.  e.,  stopped  studying) 
the  fundamental  common  branches  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade,  or 
at  best  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school.  It  is  no  reflection  on 
the  high  schools  from  which  they  come  to  say  that  young  people 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  are  not  likely  to  finish,  with 
adequate  comprehension  of  most  important  facts  and  principles  and 
applications,  such  subjects  as  grammar,  history,  and  geography,  even 
though  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic  are  mastered.  Moreover,  not 
all  high  school  pupils  will  teach,  and  it  is  unnecessary  and  unreason- 
able to  ask  all  pupils,  irrespective  of  their  prospects  and  purposes, 
to  reach  the  same  degree  of  mastery  of  all  branches  required  of 
teachers  of  those  branches.  To  consider  profitably  the  theory  or 
method  of  teaching  any  branch,  the  subject  matter  must  be  known. 
It  is  upon  this  ground,  chiefly,  that  the  Normal  schools  find  justifica- 
tion for  any  academic  instruction.  Moreover,  it  is  accepted  pedagogical 
doctrine  fhat  the  teacher  must  know  more  than  he  wishes  to  teach, 
and  this  almost  inevitably  leads  to  a  later,  more  effective  and  mas- 
terful study  than  is  possible  for  the  pupil  of  immature  years. 

My  view  of  the  necessity  of  reviews  for  students  entering  advanced 
courses,  especially  from  high  school  classes,  is  based  upon  experience 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE. 

and  confirmed  by  repeatedly  expressed  judgments  of  Normal  depart- 
ment teachers,  supervisors,  and  critics.  High  school  principals  not 
infrequently  urge,  and  graduates  of  some  experience  in  teaching  often 
ask  for,  a  more  thorough  course  in  the  common  branches  than  such 
pupils  are  required  to  take.  It  has  happened  that  high  school  grad- 
uates have  failed  in  practice  teaching  because  so  poorly  taught  that 
they  drd  not  know  the  subject,  and  did  not  know  that  they  did  not 
know  it,  until  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  organizing  and  pre- 
senting their  knowledge  through  a  lesson  plan  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  class. 

Having  thus  emphasized  "review"  of  the  matter,  I  would  use 
"professional"  to  designate  the  attitude  of  teacher  and  taught,  the 
point  of  view  rather  than  any  body  of  instruction.  The  future  class 
to  be  taught  should  be  vividly  present  to  the  mind  of  the  student 
and  his  own  mental  state  and  process  used  to  throw  light  on  the 
problem  of  teaching.  This  seems  to  me  the  natural  or  "normal"  state 
of  mind  in  all  Normal  classes,  but  more  so  in  these  fundamental 
branches  thus  reviewed  than  can  possibly  be  true  in  new  subjects, 
like  physics  or  chemistry.  The  professional  element  should  appear 
in  the  "normal"  state  of  mind  intensified,  the  perception  of  method 
quickened  and  enlightened  by  the  instructor  in  response  to  frequent 
question. 

In  conclusion:  The  scope  of  the  "Professional  Reviews"  should 
include  the  five  most  necessary  branches  for  all  teachers;  should  aim 
at  mastery  of  essentials,  and  such  knowledge  of  methods  and  means 
as  will  lead  to  broader,  surer  scholarship;  should  reveal  through  per- 
sonal experience  the  psychological  processes  and  possibly  best  meth- 
ods of  presentation  in  accordance  therewith;  should  freshen  the  stu- 
dent's knowledge  and  thereby  give  increased  readiness  and  aptness 
to  receive  and  profit  by  instruction  in  methods  and  practice;  should 
give  students  new  ideals  of  what  constitutes  excellence  in  attainment 
and  clearness  of  expression.  So  far  as  it  becomes  necessary  to  choose 
between  matter  and  method,  my  observation  and  reflection  compel 
the  preference  for  a  review,  leaving  the  questions  of  method  to  be 
dealt  with  more  thoroughly  in  other  classes  under  that  name,  hav- 
ing in  the  professional  review  prepared  the  way  and  revealed  the 
nature  of  the  problem  to  be  solved. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE. 

The  Committee  appointed  to  report  upon  the  work  done  in  the 
section  of  Teachers  of  Professional  Subjects  beg  leave  to  submit  the 
following: 

While  the  papers  and  discussions  in  the  section  have  dealt  with 
a  variety  of  subjects  they  have  focused  upon  two:  1.  The  efficiency 
of  the  model  school  and  its  correlation  with  the  Normal  department. 
2.  The  scope  and  character  of  the  so-called  professional  reviews. 
Concerning  the  latter  subject,  papers  and  discussions  in  the  section 
and  the  discussion  in  the  committee  revealed  such  wide  differences 
of  opinions  that  the  committee  was  unable  in  the  short  time  at  its 
disposal  to  come  to  'any  conclusion  which  seemed  fundamental.  It 


372  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

deeply  regrets  this  as  the  subject  is  of  such  large  importance  because 
of  the  relation  which  the  professional  reviews  bear  to  the  work  of 
the  Normal  schools  and  because  of  apparent  differences  between  the 
schools  of  the  system  in  the  conception  of  the  scope  and  character 
of  work  to  be  done. 

The  papers  and  discussions  bearing  upon  the  model  school  and  its 
relation  to  the  Normal  department  were  well  considered  and  sug- 
gestive. Collectively  they  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  model 
school  and  the  necessity  of  its  intimate  correlation  with  the  Normal 
department. 

Of  the  several  methods  of  bringing  about  this  correlation  which 
have  been  presented,  your  committee  has  selected  the  following  five, 
which  seem  to  them  to  promise  most  and  which  are  immediately 
workable.  The  committee  submits  them  without  discussion  as  they 
are  fully  discussed  in  the  papers  in  which  they  were  presented,  and 
these  papers,  we  understand,  are  to  be  printed  for  distribution  among 
the  Normal  schools. 

1.  Teachers  in  the  Normal  department  should  visit  one  another's 
classes  to  observe  methods  of  teaching;   they  should  also  systemat- 
ically visit  the  model  school  for  these  purposes,  to  wit: 

(a)  To  keep  in  touch  with  the  child-life  of  the  school; 

(b)  To  observe  methods  of  instruction. 

All  criticism  on  methods  of  instruction  on  the  part  of  critic  teach- 
ers or  practice  teachers  should  be  made  in  writing  to  the  supervisor 
of  practice  or  to  the  president. 

2.  The  critic  teacher  should  have  opportunity  and  should  be  ex- 
pected to  visit  classes  in  the  Normal  department,  especially  classes 
in  psychology,  methods,  and  in  the  subjects  taught  in  their  respective 
rooms. 

3.  The  course  of  study  for  the  model  school  should  be  made  out 
by  the  co-operation  of  the  teachers  in  the  Normal  departments,  the 
critic  teachers,  the  supervisor  of  practice,  and  the  president. 

4.  For  the  purpose  of  keeping  in  closer  touch  with  the  model  school 
or  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  method,  the  teachers  in  the  Normal 
department  may  occasionally  take  classes  in  the  model  school  for  a 
series  of  weeks. 

5.  That  the  model  school  may  be  what  its  name  implies  and  be  a 
suitable  place  for  observation  as  well  as  practice,  the  critic  teachers 
should  teach  at  least  one  third  of  the  time. 

J.  Q.  EMERY, 
R.  H.  HALSEY, 
CHARLES  McKENNY, 
T.  B.  PRAY, 
ALBERT  SALISBURY, 

Committee. 


SPECIAL  REPORT  FROM  SUPERVISORS  OF  PRACTICE. 

Presented  by  ROSE  C.  SWART. 

The  supervisors  of  practice,  though  not  organized  as  a  separate 
section  of  this  institute,  have  held  three  meetings,  and  realizing  that 
it  is  much  more  important  and  helpful  to  be  constructive  than  critical. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  PHYSICS.     373 

have  decided  to  formulate  certain  essentials,  which  from  their  point 
of  view  are  necessary  to  the  success  of  the  practice  teacher  from  the 
beginning  and  which  he  should  therefore  be  in  possession  of  before 
applying  for  practice. 

We  are  not  prepared  to  do  this  now,  except  in  the  most  general  way, 
and  this  report  is  merely  a  tentative  statement,  which  we  should  like 
to  follow  later  with  one  more  detailed. 

We  wish  now  to  emphasize  a  few  suggestions  which  have  been  re- 
peatedly presented  on  this  floor  this  week,  and  which  the  supervisors 
of  practice  feel  can  be  and  shound  be  immediately  acted  upon. 

1.  Adequate  scholarship  in  the  branch,  and  in  addition  to  that,  a 
knowledge  of  the  peculiar  nature  and  values  of  the  branch,  in  all  of 
which  knowledge,  practice  teachers  are  now  found  to  be  deficient. 

2.  A  working  bibliography  of  the  branch  both  academic  and  profes- 
sional. 

3.  An  authoritative  statement  of  the  accepted  terminology  of  the 
branch,  especially  in  the  case  of  English  grammar. 

4.  An  authoritative  statement  of  the  meaning  of  terms  in  psychology 
and  pedagogy;  for  instance,  such  terms  as  principle,  law,  method,  reci- 
tation, image,  individual  notion,  general  notion,  and  the  like, 

5.  A  record  of  the  student's  promise  of  teaching  power  in  addition 
to  rank  in  scholastic  attainment,  and  investigation  of  a  student's  fit- 
ness for  continuance  of  his  professional  course,  when  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  statements  recording  small  promise  on  his  part  have  been  re- 
ported. 

6.  A  course  of  study  in  the  different  branches  taught  in  the  model 
school,  submitted  by  the  department  heads  teaching  those  subjects  in 
the  Normal  proper  for  discussion  and  adoption,  to  the  faculty,  or  to  a 
committee  designated  by  the  presidents  of  the  different  schools. 


SCIENCE  SECTION. 
Leader,  A.  A.  UPHA:M,  Whitewater. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  PHYSICS  FOR  THE 
NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

A.  H.  SAGE,  Oshkosh. 

In  the  following  general  outline  of  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan 
of  work  in  physics  for  the  Normal  school,  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  enter  with  fullness  into  details  nor  to  discuss  those  peculiarities 
which  must  result  from  the  necessary  differences  pertaining  to  the 
different  Normals.  But  the  broad,  salient  features  of  the  three  points 
under  consideration  are  here  presented  according  to  the  view  of  the 
writer. 

Purpose:  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  aims  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  physics  in  a  Normal  school  should  not  be  essentially  differ- 
ent from  those  in  any  other  good  school,  except  that  the  pedagogy 
of  the  subject  should  receive  proper  attention  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  student  as  a  prospective  teacher.  The  chief  aims  may,  there- 
fore, be  stated  as  follows. 


374:  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

1.  The   chief  aim   in  an   elementary  course   in   physics   should  be 
to  secure  to  the  student  the  best  possible  discipline.     But  when  it 
comes   to  more   advanced   work,   other   aims   than   discipline   should 
take  chief  place. 

2.  A  second  aim  is  found  in  the  value  of  the  subject  to  the  stu- 
dent, and  that  from  two  points  of  view, — first,  the  point  of  view  of 
an  interest  in  nature  itself,  and  second,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
systematic  character  of  the  subject  viewed  as  a  science. 

3.  A  third  aim  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  student  is  preparing 
for  the  work  of  teaching  and,  therefore,  is  entitled  to  all  that  the 
combined  forces   of  the   school  can  contribute  to  his  attainment  in 
that  line.     In  this  connection  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  large 
part  of  our  students  will  never  teach  physics  as  a  science,  that  a 
few  will  teach  the  subject  without  further  preparation,  and  that  a 
small,  but  constantly  increasing  number  will  go  on  to  other  schools 
for  further  preparation.     Neither  of  these  three  classes  is  so  small 
that  it  may  be  justly  ignored.     The  Normal  schools  of  this  state  are 
striving  to  give  due  attention  to  all  three,  and  this  is,  I  believe,  as 
it  should  be.     Teaching  is   an  art,  not  a  profession,  and  should  be 
taught  by  example,  by  practice  in  real  not  artificial  teaching,  and 
by  discussions  and  criticisms  based  on  real  experiences  of  the  indi- 
vidual who  is  to  be  benefited  by  the  criticism.     To  this  end  the  work 
in  both  class  and  laboratory  should  exhibit — 

1.  Expert  teaching  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

2.  Appropriate  and  oftentimes  express  emphasis  upon  fundamental 
pedagogical  principles  as  exhibited  in  the  actual  work  of  the  class. 

3.  Special  and  frequent  exercise   in  the   presentation  of  work  for 
the  real  instruction  of  the  class  by  the  student. 

4.  Constant   correlation   with   other   branches   and   especially   with 
those  of  the  usual  school  curriculum. 

The  significance  and  application  of  these  four  statements  will  ap- 
pear more  fully  in  connection  with  the  plan  of  work  as  set  forth  be- 
low. I  wish  to  state,  however,  that  I  do  not  approve  of  turning  a 
physics  class  into  a  professional  training  class,  or  of  making  phys- 
ics, as  it  seems  to  be  so  absurdly  named,  a  professional  subject.  The 
philosophy  of  teaching  and  the  art,  too,  so  far  as  it  is  exhibited  in 
the  class-work,  must  be  strictly  incidental  and  subordinate  to  the 
other  purposes  of  the  work  or  both  will  lose  their  chief  interest  and 
value  to  the  student. 

Scope:  Under  existing  conditions,  this  seems  one  of  the  most  per- 
plexing phases  of  the  subject.  This  perplexity  grows  largely  out  of 
the  following  facts:  Most  of  our  students  will  not  teach  physics, 
some  will  teach  it,  and  some  will  continue  their  studies  elsewhere. 
Also  the  recent  accession  of  large  numbers  of  high  school  graduates 
greatly  complicates  the  problem.  These,  owing  to  immaturity  and 
inexperience  and  long  continued  training  in  empirical  knowledge,  show 
a  remarkable  aptitude  for  mere  lesson  getting  and  feeble  and  some- 
times even  dulled  capacity  for  logical  thinking.  They  are  in  direct 
contrast  with  the  country  boys  and  girls  whose  close  contact  with 
real  things  and  conditions  has  made  them  good  thinkers  and  poor 
at  lesson  getting.  Again  it  is  pre-eminently  true  that  the  equipment 
most  radically  and  fundamentally  affects  the  character  and  scope  of 
the  work.  None  of  the  Normals  is  equipped  as  it  should  be  either 
as  regards  selection  or  adaptation.  The  work  which  should  be  done 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  PHYSICS.     375 

is  greatly  modified  and  curtailed  by  lack  of  suitable  facilities.  These 
unfortunate  conditions  might  be  much  improved,  not  so  much  by 
larger  expenditures  of  money  as  by  more  judicious  management. 
Money  once  appropriated  to  the  needs  of  science  in  a  given  school 
should  not  be  recalled  because  the  teacher  has  not  made  haste  to 
spend  it  within  the  limits  of  the  specified  time.  Equipments  for 
science  work  are  not  to  be  purchased  as  men  buy  dry  goods.  Hav- 
ing purchased  in  haste,  however,  because  it  must  be  that  way  or  not 
at  all,  the  scope  of  the  work  is  thereby  affected  and  often  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  all  concerned.  The  time  element,  however,  largely  de- 
termines the  scope  of  the  required  work  in  physics,  at  the  present 
time.  High  school  graduates  are  required  to  take  only  ten  weeks 
and  no  student  is  required  to  take  more  than  twenty.  Scope  is  not 
so  much  the  question  under  such  circumstances,  but  rather:  Can 
anything  be  done  with  sufficient  continuity  and  emphasis  to  give  it 
permanent  value?  Forty  weeks  of  science,  however,  are  required  In 
some  courses  and  so  additional  work  has  been  furnished  to  meet  this 
demand  from  which  the  student  is  permitted  to  elect.  Thus  the  stu- 
dent who  has  the  required  twenty  weeks  and  elects  twenty  more  In 
the  same  line  finds  it  possible  to  secure  a  fair  knowledge  of  the 
field  of  physics  as  usually  covered  in  an  elementary  course.  For  these 
various  reasons  it  is  not  surprising  that  great  differences  exist  in  the 
different  Normals,  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  how  uniformity  can  be  at- 
tained even  if  it  were  desirable.  Uniformity,  however,  should  not  be 
a  guiding  principle  in  such  cases.  No  hard  and  fast  limits  should  be 
set  to  the  scope  or  to  the  character  of  the  work  done  in  physics  fn 
the  different  Normals.  This  does  not  mean  that  there  are  no  com- 
mon elements  which  are  fundamental  and  essential.  Certainly 
enough  actual  academic  work  should  be  required  of  the  student  to 
give  him  such  a  knowledge  of  physical  laws  and  principles  as  to  place 
him  in  touch  and  harmony  with  and  in  appreciation  of  those  tremen- 
dous commercial,  economic  and  scientific  forces  which  constitute  the 
substantial  basis  of  modern  civilization.  This  cannot  be  done  in 
twenty  weeks.  Anyone  who  expects  to  make  any  intelligent  use  of 
such  knowledge,  or  to  lead  others  to  do  so,  must  have  better  train- 
Ing. 

One  year  of  thorough  class-work  accompanied  by  a  suitable  parallel 
course  in  the  laboratory  may  fit  the  student  to  fulfill  intelligently 
the  double  function  of  teacher  and  citizen  as  regards  his  relation 
to  the  physical  world;  but  even  this  cannot  fit  him  to  be  a  satisfactory 
teacher  of  the  subject  as  a  science,  unless,  perchance,  it  may  act 
as  a  guide  to  him  in  that  further  acquisition  of  such  knowledge  and 
discipline  as  will  fit  him  for  the  work.  Therefore,  I  am  inclined  to 
approve  the  limited  required  course  of  twenty  weeks  with  opportu- 
nities for  elective  continuation  of  the  subject  for  those  who  have 
the  inclination  and  capacity  substantially  as  now  provided  by  the 
Board,  excepting  that  I  would  recommend  that  provision  be  made 
for  a  possible  continuous  study  of  the  subject  for  forty  weeks  as  an 
elective  in  addition  to  the  required  twenty  weeks.  This  sixty  weeks, 
of  work  will  afford  forty  weeks  for  the  elementary  study  of  the  whole 
field  of  physics  and  twenty  weeks  of  such  intensive  work  along  im- 
portant lines  as  will  give  the  student  the  stamp  of  quality  as  well  as 
quantity. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  minimum  requirement  of  twenty  weeks  af- 


376  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

fords  a  little  culture  and  a  mutually  satisfactory  relief  for  all  con- 
cerned to  that  large  percentage  of  plodding  aspirants  to  whom  teach- 
ing can  never  mean  anything  more  than  faithful  service  along  well 
established  lines  of  very  elementary  instruction  and  drill. 

Plan:  The  plan  outlined  is  not  assumed  to  be  the  best  plan  that 
could  be  devised.  It  is  a  practical  plan,  one  in  actual  use,  and  may 
serve  as  a  basis  for  discussion  looking  toward  something  better.  The 
outline  is  for  a  year's  work. 

The  work  is  divided  into  First,  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Quarters 
in  conformity  with  the  Normal  school  calendar,  and  may  be  divided 
as  follows: 

First  Quarter. — Constitution  of  Matter,  Force,  Motion,  Energy, 
Mechanics  of  Solids. 

Second  Quarter — Mechanics  of  Fluids,  Sonorous  Energy — Sound. 

Third  Quarter — Molecular  Energy — Heat,  Radiant  Energy — Light. 

Fourth  Quarter — Magnetism,  Electricity. 

The  work  on  the  science  of  Matter,  Force,  Motion,  and  Energy  must 
of  necessity  be  somewhat  inconcrete  and  should  therefore  come  later 
in  the  course,  but  since  these  fundamental  notions  underlie  all  suc- 
cessful work  in  physics,  the  student  must  be  given  the  essential  ele- 
ments in  the  science  of  these  topics.  Sound  is  first  considered  after 
Mechanics  because  the  only  new  principle  involved,  aside  from  those 
seen  in  Mechanics,  is  that  of  wave  motion.  Heat  and  Light  are  from 
their  very  natures  intimately  connected,  and  one  leads  naturally  to 
the  .other.  Electricity  and  Magnetism  may  be  placed  earlier  in  the 
course  provided  it  is  intended  to  confine  the  work  to  the  study  of 
the  phenomena  and  effects  concerned,  but  if  any  fundamental  notions 
of  the  tneory  and  underlying  principles  are  to  be  given,  they  should 
come  later  in  the  course. 

Two  simultaneous  courses  should  be  given,  one  in  the  classroom 
on  the  general  theory,  and  one  in  the  laboratory'  for  practice  and  the 
application  of  the  principles  studied. 

The  class-work  should  be  conducted  on  the  combination  recitation 
and  lecture  plan  with  careful  guarding  that  the  latter  is  confined  to 
its  proper  place.  The  recitation  method  should  hold  chief  place,  not 
only  because  it  gives  the  best  discipline  and  secures  the  most  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  facts,  but  because  it  best  illustrates  the  kind  of 
teaching  which  the  student  must  do  in  the  future,  and  thereby  be- 
comes a  model  in  the  art  of  teaching.  But  when  the  student  has 
made  such  a  discussion  of  the  topic  as  he  can,  it  often  happens  that 
the  teacher  finds  further  instruction  and  elucidation  desirable.  This 
is  the  place  for  the  lecture  method.  Let  the  instruction  be  given 
in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  an  example  of  the  clearest  and  most  forci- 
ble teaching.  At  other  times  the  lecture  should  precede  the  class 
discussion  in  order  to  pave  the  way  for  the  proper  understanding 
of  the  subject,  as  in  the  case  of  sound  waves.  No  student  of  ele- 
mentary physics  can  be  expected  to  understand  the  structure  and 
action  of  a  sound  wave  from  information  given  in  books;  hence,  as 
such  waves  are  not  ordinarily  observable  phenomena,  the  teacher's 
discussion  of  the  subject  will  precede  the  student's  work. 

There  is  one  phase  of  the  class-work  which  should  not  be  over- 
looked in  any  Normal  school  course.  The  student  should  be  called 
on  frequently  to  come  before  the  class  in  the  complete  presentation 
of  some  theme  as  a  whole.  This  should  be  done  often  without  pre- 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  PHYSICS.     377 

vious  warning  and  less  often  by  special  arrangement.  The  class  may 
be  allowed  to  question  the  speaker  and  to  make  known  to  him  that 
he  has  or  has  not  succeeded  in  making  the  subject  clear  to  them. 
It  is  often  highly  advantageous  to  invite  the  closest  professional  criti- 
cism of  work  thus  presented. 

The  topical  plan  of  preparation  and  recitation  is  recommended. 
This  affords  clearness  and  unity  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  and 
in  the  subsequent  discussion.  Both  the  laboratory  work  and  the  text- 
books should  contribute  to  the  preparation  of  the  topics.  To  this  end 
some  well  planned  system  of  outlining  the  lessons  should  be  em- 
ployed. In  my  own  work  I  have  found  a  syllabus  in  which  the  topics 
for  discussion  are  arranged  and  subordinated  in  such  a  way  as  to 
aid  in  grasping  the  essentials  of  the  science  to  be  most  helpful.  Ap- 
pended to  the  various  topics  in  the  syllabus  are  such  references  as  are 
needed  to  guide  to  a  proper  study  of  the  subject.  The  best  modern 
text-books  should  be  kept  before  the  class  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
ready  reference  not  only  because  this  gives  the  broadest  opportunity 
for  reference,  but  particularly  because  the  student  thereby  becomes 
familiar  with  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  various  texts.  These  are 
frequently  discussed  in  class.  It  is  a  great  educational  force  to  give 
frequent  written  lessons  or  recitations  instead  of  oral  ones,  after 
which  the  written  papers  are  distributed  to  the  class  for  them  to 
mark.  They  are  then  taken  up  and  reviewed  and  each  student  is 
given  two  credits  on  the  lesson,  one  on  the  merits  of  the  paper  he 
wrote  and  one  on  the  excellence  of  the  ability  shown  in  marking  his 
fellow  student's  paper.  Generally  the  marking  of  the  paper  is  better 
training  than  the  writing  of  it.  Within  reasonable  limits  do  not  dis- 
turb the  mark  given  by  the  student,  but  when  a  change  seems  needed, 
the  student  who  marked  the  paper  should  be  consulted  and  made  to 
feel  a  due  responsibility  for  the  ultimate  credit  given. 

So  far  as  the  subject  itself  is  concerned,  the  laboratory  work  is 
the  better  half  of  the  course.  The  most  essential  features  are  out- 
lined in  the  following  propositions: 

1.  The  laboratory  course  should  accompany  and  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble run  parallel  with  the  class-room  course. 

2.  The  experimental  work  should  be  individual,  that  is.  not  done 
in  mass  or  "class  groups  simultaneously. 

3.  Careful,  purposeful  direction  should  be  given  as  a  preliminary  to 
each  experiment  with  special  view  to  securing  best  possible  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  student  without  needless  consumption  of  time  and 
energy. 

4.  The  best  results  are  generally  secured  from  quantitative  experi- 
ments;  hence,  this  class  of  work  should  constitute  the  backbone  of 
the  course. 

5.  The  experiments  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to  giving  the 
student  the  best  possible  types  of  experience. 

6.  The  student  should  be  required  to  make  such  a  report  of  his 
work  as  will  show — 

1.  The  method  of  manipulation  employed. 

2.  Capacity  to  describe  apparatus  and  to  make  proper  use  of  the 
necessary  technical  terms  employed. 

3.  Increasing  skill  in  observing  and  recording  data. 

4.  Growing  intelligence  in  the  application  of  his  theoretical  knowl- 
edge and  in  making  deductions. 


378  INSTITUTE   OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

5.  Expertness  in  the  presentation  of  scientific  knowledge. 

Concerning  the  first  and  third  of  these  propositions  there  will  hardly 
be  a  difference  of  opinion;  but,  as  regards  the  second,  difference  in 
practice  certainly  exists  For  each  individual  to  perform  his  own  ex- 
periment independently  cultivates  his  individuality,  strengthens  self- 
reliance,  cultivates  resourcefulness  and  ingenuity,  leads  to  more  in- 
dependent and  thoughtful  observation,  cultivates  a  more  philosoph- 
ical attitude,  and  gives  a  greater  elasticity  in  time  limits  for  sober, 
thoughtful  consideration  of  the  significance  of  the  prenomena  ob- 
served than  does  the  mthod  or  plan  of  massing  students  in  groups 
and  working  them  together  along  the  same  line  at  the  same  time. 
The  individual  plan  permits  of  the  presentation  of  work  on  its  own 
merits,  work  with  greater  scope  and  significance  and  requiring  more 
skill  in  manipulation  and  more  thought  in  interpretation  than  does 
the  massing  plan.  Since  it  requires  less  duplication  of  apparatus,  it 
is  less  expensive  for  the  same  grade  of  work. 

The  value  of  note-book  work  and  reports  depends  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  teacher  follows  up  the  effort  of  the  student.  It  is  folly 
to  suppose  the  student  can  write  a  suitable  report  on  his  experiment 
while  he  is  performing  it.  He  should  not  be  required  to  do  more  than 
record  data  at  that  time,  and  he  most  emphatically  should  be  required 
to  make  a  fuller  report  thereafter.  Not  that  this  should  be  done  on 
all  experiments,  but  enough  should  be  required  to  secure  a  command 
of  the  language  of  the  science,  a  good  habit  of  expression,  and  such 
knowledge  of  the  form  and  method  of  presentation  of  scientific 
thought  as  will  give  him  the  best  command  of  that  which  he  has  ac- 
quired. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Chairman  Upham — It  is  the  desire  of  Supt.  Harvey  that  we  shall 
come  to  some  decision  on  some  of  these  things,  and  if  it  is  neces- 
sary, I  think  I  shall  venture  to  take  a  vote  on  certain  things  and  get 
a  majority  report  on  them.  Then,  if  there  is  a  desire  to  have  a  minor- 
ity report,  we  can  have  that,  too;  but  I  would  like  to  take  up  some 
of  these  things. 

The  first  thing  that  comes  up  here  is  the  general  purpose  of  the 
work  in  physics.  "In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  aims  and  plan 
in  physics  in  the  Normal  school  should  not  be  essentially  different 
from  those  in  any  good  school,  excepting  the  pedagogy  of  the  subject 
should  receive  attention  from  the  standpoint  of  the  student  as  a 
prospective  teacher. 

"The  chief  end  in  an  elementary  course  in  physics  should  be  to 
secure  to  the  student  the  best  possible  discipline.  But  when  it  comes 
to  more  advanced  work,  other  aims  than  discipline  should  take  chief 
place." 

That  is  'the  question  before  the  house.  In  a  course  in  elementary 
physics,  should  the  chief  aim  be  the  greatest  possible  discipline,  and 
should  discipline  take  secondary  place  in  the  more  advanced  course? 

Mr.  Ewing — It  seems  to  me  that  the  Normal  schools  have  nothing 
directly  to  do  with  discipline.  That  the  aim  shall  be  to  prepare  peo- 
ple for  teaching,  and  although  I  presume  that  is  implied  by  the  later 
statement  in  there,  which  you  have  not  read,  there  seems  to  be  an 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  o-j-g 

exclusion  of  it  here.  I  do  not  mean,  however,  to  assume  that  that 
is  the  idea  of  the  paper;  but  if  I  were  going  to  make  a  brief  amend- 
ment to  that,  I  should  include  the  whole  of  this  aim  as  leading  toward 
teaching.  That  is  to  say,  where  is  there  any  warrant  for  the  state 
to  select  out  a  certain  number  of  its  young  people  and  discipline 
them?  Discipline  should  be  incidental.  Just  as  in  a  medical  school, 
or  any  professional  school,  the  chief  aim  must  be,  if  a  medical  school, 
preparation  for  the  profession  of  medicine;  if  a  law  school,  preparation 
for  the  practice  of  law.  Discipline  is  subordinate. 

Mr.  Upham — Now  we  have  an  issue  squarely  at  hand.  Is  it  the  func- 
tion of  the  Normal  school  in  connection  with  physics  to  give  discipline 
to  the  students,  or  is  the  chief  function  of  these  schools  to  get  folks 
ready  to  teach  physics  in  lower  grade  schools? 

Mr.  Ewing — I  did  not  mean  that.  Very  few  of  the  pupils  will  teach 
physics;  but  to  reinforce  teaching  all  along  the  line. 

Mr.  Culver — It  seems  it  is  the  function  of  the  Normal  school.  The 
comparison  of  the  medical  school  is  hardly  fair.  The  medical  student 
ought  to  have  had,  and  it  is  coming  to  be  demanded  that  he  shall  have 
Tiis  college  course  previous  to  taking  the  medical  course.  Not  so  in 
the  Normal  school.  If  we  had  college  graduates  in  the  Normal 
schools,  then  work  should  be  strictly  along  certain  lines,  but  we  have 
to  teach  not  only  physics  but  how  to  teach  physics.  We  have  to  do 
disciplinary  work.  The  prime  object,  not  secondary,  must  go  first 
until  discipline  has  been  obtained  for  the  students,  and  later  exact  at- 
tention must  be  given  to  the  proper  manner  of  presenting  the  sub- 
ject. I  should  agree  that  discipline  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered 
in  the  elementary  course. 

Mr.  Perisho — It  seems  to  me  that  the  principle  is  not  wrong.  May  it 
not  be  true  that  this  discipline  spoken  of  will  be  one  of  the  necessary 
things  that  the  teacher  must  have  before  he  can  teach?  I  dare  say- 
that  may  be  the  fdea,  that  this  will  lead  up  to  the  possibility  of  mak- 
ing a  better  teacher  because  of  the  discipline  he  has  received  in  the 
subject  under  consideration. 

Mr.  Upham— I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  is  applicable 
to  everything  else  during  the  week. 

Mr.  Merrill — Is  it  not  true  that  the  teaching  of  a  subject  correctly  is 
in  itself  the  best  possible  discipline?  It  would  not  mean  to  us,  perhaps, 
that  we  would  be  willing -to  say  that  we  should  teach  the  subject  of 
physics  in  any  other  way  except  the  best  way  in  order  to  get  discipline. 
But  since  the  best  teaching  of  physics  not  only  gives  the  best  dis- 
cipline, but  prepares  the  teacher  best  for  teaching  it,  therefore  dis- 
cipline is  the  principal  thing,  and  it  is  also  a  preparatory  thing  to  the 
teaching  of  physics.  Therefore  I  should  say  with  the  author  of  the 
paper  that  "the  chief  aim  is  to  give  the  best  possible  discipline.  That 
of  itself  gives  the  best  possible  power  to  teach. 

Mr.  Upfiam — That  is  one  of  the  questions  I  have  been  trying  to  set- 
tle for  twenty  years,  whether  it  is  true  or  not  that  the  best  way  is  to 
teach  the  subject  in  the  best  possible  way,  and  the  discipline  will  take 
«are  of  itself ;.  that  is,  if  we  teach  the  subject  in  the  proper  manner 
the  one  who  takes  it  will  be  able  to  teach  the  subject  himself. 

Mr.  Young— I  agree  with  Mr.  Culver  that  if  we  were  dealing  with 
college  graduates  in  this  matter  of  preparing  for  the  profession  of 
teaching,  as  a  great  many  of  the  medical  schools  are,  then  we  could 
make  the  direct  aim  an  end  in  itself,  to  enable  the  teacher  the  better 


350  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

to  present  the  subject  to  students  throughout  the  country,  or  to  rein- 
force other  work,  whatever  it  may  be;  but  at  the  same  time  a  medical 
school  does  not  confine  itself  entirely  to  teaching  how  to  do  certain 
definite  things.  There  is  some  discipline  included.  I  would  like  to 
ask  Prof.  Sage  to  state,  in  a  few  words,  what  he  means  by  securing  to 
the  student  the  best  possible  discipline. 

Mr.  Sage — I  mean  about  what  has  been  brought  out  by  the  discus- 
sion; and  that  thought  would  harmonize  with  the  statement  that  was 
made,  that  the  first  function  in  one  sense,  in  a  Normal  school,  is  the 
function  of  preparing  people  to  teach;  but  I  do  not  believe  that  you 
can  possibly  superimpose  ability  to  teach  upon  ignorance.  The  stu- 
dent must  have  such  a  knowledge  of  physics  as  will  give  him  power 
of  mind,  and  be  so  trained  that  he  can  apply  his  power  of  mind  to 
other  things  and  apply  his  pedagogy  to  the  work  he  may  have  in  hand 
when  he  goes  out  to  teach.  Of  course  it  should  tend  all  the  better  to 
make  him  conscious  of  his  ability  as  a  professional, — as  a  person  who 
understands  his  business  as  a  teacher. 

Mr.  Upham — (Reading  from  Sage's  paper.)  2.  "A  second  aim  is 
found  in  the  value  of  the  subject  to  the  student,  and  that  from  two 
points  of  view, — first,  the  point  of  view  of  an  interest  in  nature  itself 
and,  second,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  systematic  character  of  the 
subject  viewed  as  a  science. 

"3.  A  third  aim  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  student  is  preparing  for 
the  work  of  teaching,  and,  therefore,  is  entitled  to  all  that  the  com- 
bined forces  of  the  school  can  contribute  to  his  attainment  in  that  line. 
In  this  connection  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  large  part  of  our 
students  will  never  teach  physics  as  a  science,  that  a  few  will  teach 
the  subject  without  further  preparation,  and  that  a  small,  but  con- 
stantly increasing  number  will  go  on  to  other  schools  for  further 
preparation.  Neither  of  these  three  classes  is  so  small  that  it  may 
be  justly  ignored.  The  Normal  schools  of  this  state  are  striving  to 
give  due  attention  to  all  three,  and  this  is,  I  believe,  as  it  should  be. 
Teaching  is  an  art,  not  a  profession,  and  should  be  taught  by  example, 
by  practice  in  real,  not  artificial  teaching,  and  by  discussions  and 
criticisms  based  on  real  experience  of  the  individual  who  is  to  be  bene- 
fited by  the  criticism." 

This  is  a  question  that  comes  up,  Shall  I,  in  my  work  in  physics, 
with  my  elementary  class,  consider  and  keep  in  mind  that  two  thirds 
of  them  never  will  teach  physics,  and  direct  my  work  to  them  par- 
ticularly; or  shall  I  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  a  few  are  boys  and  will 
go  on  and  teach,  physics,  and  I  must  do  the  work  just  as  though  the 
others  of  the  class  were  not  there?  That  is  the  great  question  that 
confronts  us  who  are  teaching  elementary  physics, — how  to  arrange 
for  these  two  classes, — for  the  girls  who  will  never  teach  physics 
and  will  not  get  much  out  of  it  anyway,  and  for  the  boys  who  will 
teach  physics. 

Mr.  Dudley — It  seems  to  me  that  that  question  has  been  answered  in 
the  previous  one.  If  the  aim  of  the  course  is  to  give  discipline,  then  It 
should  be  shaped  with  that  aim  in  view,  of  course.  And  what  will  be 
accomplished  for  one,  even  if  it  is  true  of  those  boys  who  are  going  to- 
teach  physics,  it  may  be  in  the  way  of  training,  in  the  way  of  disci- 
pline, will  be  accomplished  for  all  the  rest, — those  who  are  never  go- 
ing to  teach  physics.  If  it  is  the  fundamental  aim  of  the  course  to 
give  discipline,  that  settles  it. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Merrill — It  is  true,  it  is  not?  that  while  a  number  of  those  who 
teach  will  not  teach  physics  as  a  science,  yet  they  will  use  experiments 
in  physics  in  all  grades  of  the  public  schools,  and  therefore  that  should 
be  one  aim  in  teaching  the  subject;  and  it  has  been  set  forth  here  in 
the  first  sentence,  perhaps,  by  the  author,  when  he  says  that  one  aim 
is  to  prepare  them  for  the  work  of  teaching.  And  no  small  amount  of 
value  can  be  attached  to  the  experiments  in  physics  that  teachers  even 
in  the  first  grade  may  give,  and  should  give. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  have  nothing  to  say  except  this:  If  the  course  in 
elementary  physics  be  properly  given,  will  it  not  prepare  the  student 
for  teaching  physics,  so  far  as  it  goes?  Will  it  not  do  the  most  good 
for  the  student  if  he  does  not  teach  physics,  and  will  it  not  be  what 
he  wants  if  he  goes  on  and  studies  more  physics? 

Question — What  is  the  "properly?"  How  shall  I  do  it  in  order  to 
reach  both  these  clesses? 

Mr.  Perisho — If  physics  is  taught  as  it  should  be  taught,  will  not  all 
these  classes  come  under  the  same  head?  Must  we  teach  physics  dif- 
ferently if  we  know  a  student  is  going  on  to  the  university,  than  if 
he  is  never  going  to  teach  the  subject  of  physics  at  all? 

Mr.  Upham — There  are  many  folks  who  believe  it  should  be  taught 
differently. 

Mr.  Case — I  am  one  of  the  persons  who  do  not  believe  in  differen- 
tiation of  elementary  from  the  so-called  advanced  course  in  our 
schools.  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  any  are  fit  to  teach  in  a  high 
school  wh'en  they  leave,  and  the  best  I  can  do  is  to  teach  them  first 
to  be  accurate,  and  second,  to  have  ability  to  operate  apparatus.  The 
proposition  with  me  is  simply  this:  a  girl  cares  nothing  about  it,  and 
many  of  fhe  men,  and  they  come  in  to  me  and  get  under  my  tuition 
simply  what  Mr.  Sage  has  given  as  discipline,  accuracy  in  figures,  and 
some  real  ability  to  handle  apparatus.  Then  they  can  perform  ex- 
periments in  the  grades.  It  makes  very  little  difference  whether  you 
give  people  ability  to  operate  on  one  or  the  other  end  of  physics.  The 
course  mignt  run  through  the  year,  and  then  approximate  Mr.  Pe- 
risho's course.  The  girl  may  take  ten,  twenty,  or  forty  weeks,  and 
then  have  had  training  in  only  a  portion  of  physics.  It  is  true  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  fit  students  to  be  able  to  make  experiments  on 
electricity, — they  can  follow  directions.  Education  is  ability  to  follow 
directions,  look  up  references,  and  use  them.  That  I  call  discipline. 
If  others  have  courses  to  run  forty  weeks,  I  should  put  the  course  so 
that  the  people  can  step  in  or  step  out  in  any  ten  weeks,  making  as 
nearly  a  separate  unit  as  possible  of  any  ten  weeks,  and  then  I  should 
attempt  to  give  them  only  drill  in  manipulation  of  apparatus,  and  drill 
in  figures,  and  I  do  not  care  if  they  do  not  remember  laws.  If  they 
learn  to  follow  directions,  and  to  be  accurate,  that  is  all  I  expect  the 
average  person  to  remember. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  want  to  ask  Dr.  Case  if  we  understand  that  he  is 
going  to  teach  physics  differently  if  he  knows  that  the  student  under 
his  instruction'  is  not  going  to  pursue  the  subject  longer  than  ten  or 
fifteen  or  twenty  weeks.  Does  he  differentiate  in  the  beginning  of  his 
course? 

Mr.  Case — My  idea  is  not  to  differentiate,  to  make  each  ten  weeks  of 
equal  disciplinary  value.  The  subject-matter  will  be  the  same  as  what 
they  wouTd  get  later  on. 

Mr.  Dudley— There  is  one  thing  Mr.  Case  has  just  said  that  ought  to 


382  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

have  a  little  attention,  i.  e.,  that  the  ability  to  manipulate  apparatus 
and  to  follow  directions  is  not  the  only  thing  that  should  be  brought 
before  the  student's  mind.  That  can  be  done  with  anything  else  than 
physics,  any  science  which  involves  the  exercise  of  the  mind.  A  girl 
can  be  taught  to  do  house-work,  or  a  boy  can  be  taught  manual  train- 
ing, and  those  two  things  are  just  as  fully  accomplished  with  those 
two  lines  of  work  as  by  the  study  of  physics.  Even  though  the  stu- 
dent is  going  to  accomplish  nothing  more  at  the  end  than  to  follow 
directions  implicitly,  and  to  manipulate  apparatus  accurately,  unless 
he  has  some  motive  back  of  what  he  is  doing  to  act  as  an  incentive 
for  all  of  his  actions,  for  what  he  does  do  to  insure  this  to  him,  to 
think  carefully,  work  accurately,  and  draw  his  conclusions,  the  work 
has  no  value  as  discipline. 

Is  not  the  motive  presupposed?  If  the  student  is  studying  physics 
he  is  getting  the  discipline.  I  admit  that  manual  training  would  do 
just  as  much  good,  if  it  were  accurately  handled,  as  physics  would. 
But  this  person  is  taking  physics  to  introduce  him  to  a  different  line 
of  thought.  The  motive  comes  in  as  a  necessity  of  the  experiment. 

This  is  not  included  in  your  statement.  Every  student  must  have 
at  the  outset  some  kind  of  a  problem  which  he  is  to  solve  by  his  .work 
individually,  and  by  his  own  method. 

Mr.  Upham — Now  we  have  four  statements  as  to  what  teaching 
should  consist  of;  there  is  no  question  about  that. 

1.  Expert  teaching  on  the  part  of  the  teacher; 

2.  Appropriate  and  often  times  express  emphasis  upon  fundamental 
pedagogical  principles  as  exhibited  in  the  actual  work  of  the  class ; 

3.  Special  and  frequent  exercise  in  the  presentation  of  work  for  the 
real  instruction  of  the  class  by  the  student; 

4.  Constant   correlation   with   other   branches   and    especially   with 
those  of  the  usual  school  curriculum. 

Those  apply  just  as  well  to  one  subject  as  to  another,  to  biology,  or 
to  chemistry.  We  have  finished  up  a  little  discussion  of  the  purpose 
here.  I  would  like  to  take  a  vote  of  this  section.  How  many  agree 
that  the  purpose  of  physics  in  the  Normal  school  is  approximately  as 
laid  down  here?  *  *  *  Is  it  for  discipline?  Is  that  the  chief  end 
of  an  elementary  course?  or  is  it, — Shall  we  give  the  same  physics 
for  folks  going  to  the  university  as  for  folks  who  are  not,  and  what 
will  they  get  out  of  it? 

Mr.  Dudley — Will  that  same  vote  apply  to  all  the  other  sciences?  Is 
it  discipline? 

Mr.  Upham — I  won't  make  you  vote  on  the  other  subjects  until  we 
have  discussed  them.  Is  it  your  opinion  that  this  paper  has  sub- 
stantially stated  the  purpose  of  physics  in  the  Normal  school?  11  in 
favor;  1  against. 

Mr.  Upham — We  will  now  take  up  the  scope,  which  is  a  very  im- 
portant thing.  (Reads  from  Prof.  Sage's  paper.) 

"Under  existing  conditions,  this  seems  one  of  the  most  perplexing 
phases  of  the  subject.  This  perplexity  grows  largely  out  of  the  fol- 
lowing facts:  Most  of  our  students  will  not  teach  physics,  some  will 
teach  it,  and  some  will  continue  their  studies  elsewhere.  Also  the 
recent  accession  of  large  numbers  of  high  school  graduates  greatly 
complicates  the  problem.  These,  owing  to  immaturity  and  inexperi- 
ence and  long  continued  training  in  empirical  knowledge,  show  a  re- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  383 

markable  aptitude  for  mere  lesson  getting  and  feeble  and  sometimes 
even  dulled  capacity  for  logical  thinking.     They  are  in  direct  contrast 
with  the  country  boys  and  girls  whose  close  contact  with  real  things 
and  conditions  has  made  them  good  thinkers  and  poor  at  lesson  get- 
ting.    Again  it  is  pre-eminently  true  that  the  equipment  most  radi- 
cally and  fundamentally  affects  the  character  and  scope  of  the  work. 
None  of  the  Normals  is  equipped  as  it  should  be  either  as  regards  se- 
lection  or   adaptation.     The   work   which   should   be   done   is   greatly 
modified  and  curtailed  by  lack  of  suitable  facilities.     These  unfortu- 
nate conditions  might  be  much  improved,  not  so  much  by  larger  ex- 
penditures of  money  as  by  more  judicious  management.     Money  once 
appropriated  to  the  needs  of  science  in  a  given  school  should  not  be 
recalled  because  the  teacher  has  not  made  haste  to  spend  it  within  the 
limits  of  tSe  specified  time.     Equipments  for  science  work  are  not  to 
be  purchased  as  men  buy  dry-goods.     Having  purchased  in  haste,  how- 
ever, because  it  must  be  that  way  or  not  at  all,  the  scope  of  the  work 
is  thereby  affected,  and  often  to  the  disadvantage  of  all  concerned. 
The  time  element,  however,  largely  determines  the  scope  of  the  re- 
quired work  in  physics  at  the  present  time.     High  school  graduates 
are  required  to  take  only  ten  weeks  and  no  student  is  required  to  take 
more  than  twenty.     Scope  is  not  so  much  the  question  under  such  cir- 
cumstances' but  rather, — Can  anything  be  done  with  sufficient  contin- 
uity and  emphasis  to  give  it  permanent  value?     Forty  weeks  of  science, 
however,  are  required  in  some  courses  and  so  additional  work  has  been 
furnished  to  meet  this  demand  from  which  the  student  is  permitted 
to  elect.     Thus  the  student  who  has  the  required  twenty  weeks  and 
elects  twenty  more  in  the  same  line  finds  it  possible  to  secure  a  fair 
knowledge  of  the  field  of  physics  as  usually  covered  in  an  elementary 
course.     For  these  various  reasons  it  is  not  surprising  that  great  dif- 
ferences exist  in  the  different  Normals,  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  how  uni- 
formity can  be  attained  even  if  it  were  desirable.     Uniformity,  however, 
should  not  be  a  guiding  principle  in  such  cases.     No  hard  and  fast 
limits  should  be  set  to  the  scope  or  to  the  character  of  the  work  done 
in  physics  in  the  different  Normals.     This  does  not  mean  that  there 
are  no  common  elements  which  are  fundamental  and  essential.     Cer- 
tainly enough  actual  academic  work  should  be  required  of  the  student 
to  give  him  such  a  knowledge  of  physical  laws  and  principles  as  to 
place  him  in  touch  and  harmony  with  and  in  appreciation  of  those 
tremendous  commercial,  economic  and  scientific  forces  which  constitute 
the  substantial  basis  of  modern  civilization.     This  cannot  be  done  in 
twenty  weeks.    Anyone  who  expects  to  make  any  intelligent  use  of  such 
knowledge  or  to  lead  others  to  do  so  must  have  better  training." 

Mr.  Upham — How  much  physics  shall  we  take? 

Mr.  Culver — In  this  connection  I  should  like  to  get  from  each  of  the 
teacners  present  a  statement  of  what  he  does.  How  long  are  your  ele- 
mentary courses  in  physics? 

Mr.  Ewing — Twenty  weeks,  covering  the  five  subjects, — general  con- 
ception, heat,  light,  sound,  and  electricity. 

Mr.  Culver — What  of  these  five  do  you  do  in  your  twenty  weeks? 

Mr.  Ewing — I  deal  with  what  you  call  general  concepts,  and  heat. 

Mr.  Case — I  have  practically  thirty  weeks,  and  I  deal  with  all  except 
electricity,  and  I  have  an  optional  ten  weeks  in  which  I  try  to  cover  the 
subject  of  electricity. 


384:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Culver — What  you  call  the  general  subjects  are  heat,  mechanics 
of  solids,  fluids,  and  light? 

Mr.  Perisho — The  same  thing,  with  a  few  introductory  lessons  in  elec- 
tricity. 

Mr.  Merrill — About  the  same  that  has  been  given,  except  some  few 
experiments  on  light  and  some  few  on  electricity. 

Mr.  Upham — Now  I  am  in  a  hopeless  minority. 

Mr.  Sage — Same. 

Mr.  Upham — I  go  over  the  whole  five  subjects  in  the  twenty  weeks. 
I  do  the  work  that  way  because  the  majority  of  my  pupils  never  will 
have  any  more  physics.  I  never  have  been  able  to  bring  myself  to  let 
those  folks  go  out  and  not  know  anything  at  all  about  electricity,  what 
makes  the  electric  light  glow,  the  telephone  work,  or  street  cars  run. 
They  must  take^  a  very  superficial  course,  but  they  get  some  little  ink- 
ling of  it,  and  up  to  this  time  I  have  gone  over  the  whole  subject,  but 
am  weakening  in  it. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  have  tried,  but  have  failed,  and  have  got  back  to  the 
other  plan. 

Mr.  Upham — Well,  the  pendulum  swings  back;  but  what  are  we  going 
to  do?  If  you  take  twenty  weeks  for  general  concepts  of  physics  and 
heat,  they  don't  know  a  thing  about  sound,  and  things  come  up  in  the 
general  work  in  the  grades  which  they  can't  explain  to  the  children 
and  don't  know  a  thing  about. 

Mr.  Ewing — And  yet  they  are  right  in  line  to  get  a  state  certificate 
for  life  without  an  examination. 

Mr.  Case — Do  you  attempt  to  show  them  how  they  could  find  these 
things?  to  show  in  our  general  course  the  use  of  references  and 
looking  up  so  the  will  not  be  entirely  helpless?  In  my  work  I  do  not 
have  electricity,  but  the  pupil  is  entirely  capable  of  looking  it  up  for 
himself. 

Mr.  Upham — Do  you  think  he  will  ever  do  anything  with  it  unless  he 
has  to? 

Mr.  Case — He  will  do  a  great  deal  if  he  has  to. 

Mr.  Perisho — It  seems  to  me  we  are  going  back  over  the  old  subject 
again.  We  decided  that  at  the  beginning  of  this  discussion;  that  what 
we  do,  we  should  do  well  irrespective  of  what  will  be  the  result,  or  how 
much  longer  students  will  have  the  subject.  It  is  impossible  to  teach 
with  the  accuracy  necessary  and  cover  the  whole  field.  One  other  thing: 
The  whole  phenomena  of  electricity,  not  as  we  have  it  in  our  physics 
books,  but  as  given  in  the  phenomena  of  life,  comes  up  in  physical  geog- 
raphy. I  always  show  the  electrical  machine  to  my  physical  geography 
class,  artificially  made  electricity,  and  so  on.  I  try  to  show  students 
how  the  subject  goes  right  on,  and  try  to  prepare  them  so  that  they  can 
go  on  and  get  something  of  that  sort  for  themselves.  What  we  ought 
to  do  is  to  do  well  what  we  do.  Cultivate  accuracy  and  secure  ability 
on  the  part  of  the  student. 

Mr.  Upham — Can't  a  student  make  use  of  a  galvanic  battery  and  learn 
about  electro  magnets?  Just  those  two  things?  Spend  two  or  three 
weeks,  and  do  that  well,  even  though  no  long  course  in  electricity  be 
taken?  Have,  say,  a  week's  work  and  get  a  start  for  it? 

Mr.  Perisho — When  you  have  taught  your  students  thoroughly,  or  as 
nearly  so  as  possible,  say,  heat,  if  they  are  able  to  go  into  the  laboratory 
and  find  the  specific  heat  of  a  substance,  or  do  any  other  thing,  are  they 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


385 


not  able  to  go  into  the  laboratory  and  work  out  some  other  things  for 
themselves? 

Mr.  Upham — If  a  student  has  done  a  little  in  heat  and  done  it  well, 
he  is  able  to  do  something  in  heat.  But  he  has  done  nothing  in  elec- 
tricity,— that  is  an  entirely  new  field  to  him. 

Mr.  Ewing — He  is  just  as  able,  but  won't  know  it,  and  won't  be 
adapted  to  it. 

Mr.  Upham — I  am  willing  to  be  convinced,  but  have  never  seen  any 
one  yet  who  could  convince  me.  I  never  have  been  able  to  see  that  my 
position  is  wrong.  I  do  ten  weeks  of  work  in  general  physics,  then 
take  up  a  couple  of  weeks  in  sound,  and  we  do  certain  things  thor- 
oughly. The  experiments  take  up  a  couple  of  weeks  in  light  or  in  heat; 
we  just  touch  a  little  on  light, — not  much, —  and  then  have  five  weeks 
in  electricity.  You  can't  do  much  in  five  weeks,  but  you  can  get  stu- 
dents to  have  what  you  might  call  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  these 
things. 

Mr. Do  these  students  know  anything  about  the  subject 

of  physics  at  all  when  they  come  to  your  class? 

Mr.  Upham — No.     They  don't  know  a  wheel-barrow  from  a  hand-saw. 

Mr.  Ewing — This  is  strictly  the  elementary  course.  How  much  does 
it  help  them  when  they  get  to  the  second  course  and  go  over  the  whole 
thing  again? 

Mr.  Upham — It  heips  them  a  good  deal. 

Mr.  Ewing — When  you  come  to  your  advanced  course,  do  you  go  back 
over  this  same  field  with  your  advanced  students? 

Mr.  Upham — We  do  the  spiral  thing.  Go  round  in  a  circle  here,  and 
then  on  a  circle  a  little  higher  up.  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  to  some 
extent  the  subject  is  a  "sucked  orange."  The  elementary  course  has 
led  them  to  think  they  have  got  all  there  is  in  it.  The  high  school 
graduate  thinks  there  is  nothing  he  can  learn  in  physics. 

Mr.  Ewing — Do  you  deal  with  such  subjects  as  specific  heat  in  your 
elementary  course? 

Mr.  Upham — Yes,  specific  heat  and  co-efficient  of  expansion. 

Mr.  Ewing — Do  they  do  anything  with  latent  heat? 

Mr.  Upham — Not  a  thing. 

Mr.  Ewing — Just  for  their  practical  purposes,  would  it  not  be  better 
to  do  something  with  those  things,  as  they  have  some  bearing  in  the 
matter  of  geography? 

Mr.  Upham — I  think  we  did  do  an  experiment  in  latent  heat  In 
the  last  course,  but  it  was  not  very  accurate.  Latent  heat  is  more  dif- 
ficult than  the  other. 

Mr.  Ewing — If  I  could  do  what  I  do,  and  then  have  four  weeks  left 
to  skim  over  that,  it  would  suit  me  better  than  to  skim  all  along. 

Mr.  Upham — How  many  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  better  in  an  ele- 
mentary course  of  physics  of  twenty  weeks,  to  do  as  thoroughly  as  we 
may  two  of  the  subjects,  rather  than  five?  You  all  understand  what  we 
mean  by  the  five  subjects.  All  in  favor  signify  by  putting  up  hand. 
Ten  for,  one  against. 

Mr.  Ewing — There  is  one  other  topic  I  should  like  to  speak  of.  What 
shall  be  this  one, — we  have  said  heat.  Mr.  Sage  says  sound.  He  gives 
his  reason  for  putting  sound  in  and  it  is  just  the  reason  it  should 
"be  left  out  and  heat  put  in,  that  is,  that  it  is  nearer  like  the  work  that 

25 


INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

they  have  had.  I  want  heat  in  because  it  is  different  from  the  work 
they  have  had,  and  because  it  is  more  practical  along  the  line  of  their 
general  teaching. 

Mr.  Sage — I  didn't  state  fully  my  reasons.  There  is  another  reason 
perhaps  more  prominent  with  me  than  the  one  here  in  the  paper.  The 
one  given  in  the  paper  is  that  the  principles  involved  in  the  study  of 
sound  are  largely  uie  same  as  in  the  study  of  mechanics  with  this  one 
exception,  that  you  introduce  the  subject  of  vibratory  motion.  Those 
who  have  studied  physics  go  into  it  to  get  something  out  of  it,  to  make 
it  a  supplementary  subject  in  spite  of  the  last  vote.  Another  reason 
why  I  take  up  sound  is  this:  As  already  stated  it  is  a  difficult  thing  to 
interest  girls  in  the  work  early  in  the  course  in  physics.  There  is  no 
subject  in  physics  in  which  they  are  so  interested  as  in  sound.  They 
are  interested  in  the  subject  from  start  to  finish.  I  would  put  this 
same  thing,  work  in  sound,  in  the  high  school  course.  It  has  no  particu- 
lar association,  but  does  interest  them,  and  through  the  interest  they 
come  to  have  some  appreciation  and  admiration  for  the  principles  of 
physics  as  they  see  them  illustrated  in  that  subject.  I  cannot  interest 
girls  at  the  beginning  of  their  work  in  heat,  nor  light,  nor  even  elec- 
tricity, as  I  can  in  sound.  That  is  my  reason  for  putting  it  there. 
Mr.  Ewing — I  think  that  is  a  better  reason  than  the  other  one. 
Mr.  — I  would  like  to  ask  one  question.  How  many  of  those  who 
teach  physics  are  able  to  get  periods  assigned  for  laboratory  work  so 
that  you  can  have  any  degree  of  comfort  in  supervising  the  laboratory 
work? 

Mr.  Ewing — I  am  getting  on  very  well,  much  better  than  I  used  to. 
I  think  this  present  term  all  the  students  are  enabled  to  come  at  periods 
when  I  can  attend  to  them. 

Mr.  Case — I  have  two  consecutive  hours  and  am  there  all  the  time. 
The  classes  are  limited  to  24  and  they  are  all  there. 

Mr.  Culver — I  am  unable  to  get  them  all  together.  I  generally  have 
two  sections,  and  it  has  been  sought  to  arrange  the  two  periods  so  that 
I  could  supervise.  The  arrangement  is  better  now.  I  am  adopting  the 
plan  of  using  some  of  the  better  students,  some  who  have  had  forty  or 
perhaps  sixty  weeks  of  physics  with  me,  to  supervise  some  of  these 
laboratory  sections  under  my  general  direction.  That  plan  is  in  use  at 
the  present  time  with  me  and  relieves  the  pressure  somewhat,  and  1 
believe  it  is  better  than  anything  I  have  been  able  to  do  before. 

Mr.  Perisho — As  Mr.  Culver  on  that  point.  I  have  three  sections  and 
I  am  unable  to  be  there.  Sometimes  a  section  will  be  very  small,  and 
always  has  as  a  supervisor  some  student  who  has  been  over  the  work 
before.  The  students  in  the  three  sections  are  doing  the  same  thing  at 
the  same  time. 

Mr.  Merrill — I  have  two  consecutive  periods  in  which  the  students 
are  required  to  be  present  and  work. 

Mr.  Sage — You  understand  that  the  conditions  are  a  little  different 
here  than  in  the  other  Normals.  Miss  Carter  is  my  co-worker  in  this 
work.  There  are  150  students  in  our  laboratories  all  the  while.  We 
try  to  arrange  our  work  as  teachers  so  that  one  of  us  can  practically 
be  there  all  the  time.  The  work  is  all  conducted  on  the  individual 
plan,  each  student  doing  his  own  work  in  his  own  time,  without  in- 
dividual recitations. 
Mr.  Culver — Is  it  the  ideal  plan  to  have  all  students  doing  the  same 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


387 


thing  at  the  same  time?  Is  the  work  entirely  individual?  I  do  not 
care  to  have  three  people  doing  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 

Mr.  Upham — I  have  tried  for  three  years  to  get  apparatus  so  we 
could  have  people  doing  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 

Mr.  Sage — My  idea  is  set  forth  here  in  the  last  of  the  paper: 

"Concerning  the  first  and  third  of  these  propositions,  there  will  hardly 
be  a  difference  of  opinion;  but,  as  regards  the  second,  difference  in 
practice  certainly  exists.  For  each  individual  to  perform  his  own 
experiment  independently,  cultivates  his  individuality,  strength- 
ens self-reliance,  cultivates  resourcefulness  and  ingenuity,  leads  to 
more  independent  and  thoughtful  observation,  cultivates  a  more  phil- 
osophical attitude,  and  gives  a  greater  elasticity  in  time  limits  for 
sober,  thoughtful  consideration  of  the  significance  of  the  phenomena 
observed  than  does  the  method  or  plan  of  massing  students  in  groups 
and  working  them  together  along  the  same  line  at  the  same  time. 
The  individual  plan  permits  of  the  presentation  of  work  on  its  own 
merits,  work  with  greater  scope  and  significance,  and  requiring  more 
skill  in  manipulation  and  more  thought  in  interpretation  than  does 
the  massing  plan.  Since  it  requires  less  duplication  of  apparatus,  it 
is  less  expensive  for  the  same  grade  of  work." 

Mr.  Upham — I  would  like  to  have  a  vote.  How  many  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  ideal  plan  is  to  have  just  as  many  as  possible— 
as  many  as  one  man  can  attend  to — do  practically  the  same  thing  at 
the  same  time? 

Mr.  Perisho — There  is  another  consideration  here, — the  discussion 
of  the  work  done  in  the  laboratory  after  it  has  been  done.  I  want  to 
vote  with  that  understanding.  I  do  that  partially  for  the  reason  that 
tomorrow  when  the  class  comes  into  the  recitation  room  I  want  all  to 
have  done  the  same  thing  so  they  can  discuss  it  intelligently  and  get 
reports. 

Mr.  Upham — Before  putting  the  vote  I  want  to  ask  another  question. 
These  people  who  go  in  for  the  individual  plan,  or  anybody  else,  do 
you  have  your  laboratory  experiments  run  along  parallel  with  your 
texts,  with  your  class-work,  or  does  it  come  just  as  it  happens? 

Mr.  Ewing — The  class-work  is  based  upon  the  laboratory  work. 

Mr.  Case — The  laboratory  work  follows  the  other. 

Mr.  Culver — As  nearly  parallel  as  possible. 

Mr.  Perisho — The  laboratory  work  goes  parallel  to  the  class-work. 
We  expect  to  discuss  in  the  class-room  tomorrow,  more  or  less  ex- 
tensively, what  we  have  done  today. 

Mr.  Dudley — As  I  understand  Mr.  Sage,  the  massing  plan  is  to  have 
the  same  people  work  at  the  same  pieces  of  apparatus. 

Mr.  Sage — No.  They  do  the  same  experiment  but  with  different 
pieces  of  apparatus.  Take  for  instance,  starting  in  a  class  in  elec- 
tricity, in  blow  pipes.  If  you  start  with  them  it  is  certainly  impor- 
tant that  the  class  get  some  experiments  before  taking  up  any  work 
in  regard  to  it.  When  you  come  to  the  question  of  measuring,  I  in- 
tend to  get  text  first  and  experiment  afterward.  Ine  laboratory  work 
should  run  parallel  with  class-work,  but  put  them  where  they  belong. 

Mr.  — If  they  do  not  do  the  same  experiment  at  the  same 

time,  or  if  the  apparatus  is  not  sufficient  to  permit  that,  all  being  done 
in  the  same  day,  is  there  not  more  or  less  liability  of  a  student  hav- 
ing reference  to  the  notes  of  another  who  has  gone  before  on  a  par- 


388  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

ticular  experiment  he  is  doing,  and  thus  get  a  good  deal  of  confusion 
between  the  teacher  and  pupils? 

Mr.  Upham — I  would  like  to  put  the  matter  to  a  vote.  How  many 
are  in  favor  of  getting  just  as  many  students  and  just  as  many  dupli- 
cate pieces  of  apparatus  together  as  you  can,  all  doing  the  same  thing 
at  the  same  time?  Six.  How  many  favor  more  the  individual  plan 
of  not  having  pupils  do  experiments  at  the  same  time?  Seven. 

Mr.  Perisho — Now  when  they  are  talking  about  not  doing  the  work  at 
the  same  time  there  is  just  as  much  individual  work  done  when  I  have 
six  students  in  my  laboratory,  perhaps  two  at  this  table,  and  four  at 
that,  all  doing  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time,  with  different  and 
independent  sets  of  apparatus.  There  is  just  as  much  individual  work 
as  there  would  be  if  this  student  did  it  today,  another  tomorrow,  and 
so  on.  In  fact  there  is  more  individuality,  because  these  students  are 
far  enough  apart  and  they  are  not  communicating.  They  are  not  just 
exactly  at  "the  same  place  in  their  experiment  all  the  time.  And  yet 
if  you  let  this  student  do  the  work  today,  and  that  one  do  it  tomor- 
row, if  there  is  any  tendency  at  all  for  communication  won't  that  stu- 
dent say,  "How  did  you  do  this?"  "What  did  you  do  right  here?" 

Mr.  Upham — Would  you  rather  have  twenty  pairs  of  scales  and 
twenty  people  doing  specific  gravity  today?  I  had  always  supposed 
there  was  no  question  about  what  the  ideal  way  was,  to  have  sixteen 
pupils  working  at  the  same  thing,  I  passing  around  and  watching  them. 

Mr.  —  — If  you  had  a  class  of  twenty,  all  performing  the  same 

experiment,  would  not  one  perform  it  in  five  minutes,  and  another  in 
thirty-five?  What  are  you  going  to  do  with  the  rest  of  the  time? 

Mr.  Perisho — In  every  department  of  science  students  do  not  work 
with  the  same  rapidity.  I  have  this  method.  If  I  have  a  problem  as- 
signed for  a  day,  and  that  problem  is  too  short  for  the  swifter  student, 
I  have  another  problem  for  him. 

Mr.  Ewing — That  is  individual. 

Mr.  PerisEo — I  do  not  want  this  vote  to  go  on  record  until  we  un- 
derstand each  other. 

Mr. Is  not  the  real  thought  that  we  all  want  to  get  in- 
dividual work  by  the  means  that  is  at  our  disposal?  Some  use  the 
mass  plan  of  experiments  all  at  one  time,  because  there  is  no  other  way 
to  do  it.  To  many  it  is  simply  a  necessity,  not  a  choice.  The  propo- 
sition was  stated  as  the  ideal  proposition,  if  we  could  have  things  just 
as  we  want  them.  My  daily  experience  is  just  the  other  way.  I  am 
carrying  the  laboratory  work  and  class  work  parallel,  all  doing  the 
same  thing  at  the  same  time.  I  am  not  securing  the  ideal,  I  would 
have  it  otherwise  if  I  could,  but  my  work  necessitates  my  handling  125 
students  a  day  alone  at  laboratory  work,  and  I  can't  get  individual 
work  under  those  conditions.  The  whole  thing  simmers  itself  down  to 
this, — you  may  get  the  individual  work  by  the  pupils  doing  the  same 
thing  at  the  same  time,  providing  conditions  are  such  that  you  can 
supervise  them  and  keep  them  away  from  each  other.  In  this  case 
they  have  got  to  communicate  then  or  not  at  all.  There  is  not  a  week 
or  a  day  to  compare  notes  with  a,  b,  or  c.  It  is  the  individual  thing 
we  are  after,  get  it  how  we  may. 

Mr.  Young — This  will  apply  to  biology  the  same  as  in  physics.  It 
is  a  general  question.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  question  has  been 
pretty  clearly  put  by  this  gentleman  and  Mr.  Perisho.  We  are  after 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  359 

this  individual  work,  but  at  the  same  time  have  it  as  nearly  together 
as  possible.  That  is  the  ideal  plan,  and  it  is  impossible  to  have  a  whole 
class  who  wi'll  keep  exactly  together.  That  is  not  desired,  but  this  is 
desired,  that  you  have  a  certain  length  of  time  for  laboratory  work  on  a 
certain  subject.  When  that  time  is  up,  some  students  are  through  with 
their  work,  others  have  finished  a  little  beforehand,  others  are  behind. 
The  laboratory  should  be  left  open  provided  the  instructor  has  time  to 
attend  to  this  matter,  for  those  who  are  behind.  Some  are  two  days 
behind  all  the  time,  and  can't  and  won't  keep  up.  So  the  laboratory 
should  be  left  open  and  someone  keep  prodding  them  up  a  little  all  the 
time.  Laboratory  work  should  run  parallel  with  this  class-work,  and 
experiments  should  precede  class  discussion,  except  in  cases  which 
Mr.  Sage  mentioned.  The  ideal  plan  is  to  have  every  student  working 
with  his  own  apparatus,  independent fcof  every  other,  as  nearly  to- 
gether as  possible. 

Mr.  Culver — I  should  like  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  we  seem  to  all 
want  individual  work,  after  all. 

Mr.  Upham — The  question  is, — Can  we  get  individual  work  better  by 
running  them  parallel  or  running  them  tandem? 

Mr.  — What  objection  is  there  to  having  twenty  persons  work- 
ing at  the  same  time,  and  as  far  as  possible  on  the  same  experiment? 

Mr.  Culver — If  they  are  working  at  the  same  experiment  the  dull 
slow  ones  always  do  what  the  others  are  doing,  and  simply  blindly 
copy  them,  and  do  not  do  the  thing.  I  do  not  agree  with  Mr.  Case 
as  to  the  object, — that  skill  in  manipulation,  and  skill  in  figures  con- 
stitute the  chief  aim  of  the  work.  This  way  of  putting  all  the  students 
on  the  same  work  would  tend  to  just  that  mechanical  sort  of  work 
which  is  not  the  aim,  as  I  see  it. 

Mr.  Young — I  wish  to  speak  partially  from  my  experience  as  a  stu- 
dent at  one  time.  I  had  taken  upon  myself  more  work  than  I  ought 
to  do,  and  got  behind  in  certain  subjects,  one  happened  to  be  chemis- 
try. I  confess  that  as  a  student,  when  I  got  a  little  behind,  and  got 
a  little  nervous  about  keeping  up,  that  was  the  time  I  copied  the  other 
fellow.  When  I  felt  I  was  just  about  up  with  him,  I  could  get  there 
just  as  quick  as  he  could;  but  when  I  got  behind,  the  temptation  was 
to  copy  the  other  fellow's  note  book. 

Mr.  -  — Does  every  teacher  of  laboratory  science  here  insist 

upon  perfect  order  in  the  laboratory? 

Mr.  Sage — No. 

Mr.  Upham — How  many  of  you  insist  in  your  laboratory  on  the  same 
order  that  you  have  insisted  on  in  the  study-room? 

Mr.  Case — Do  the  gentlemen  have  the  people  working  in  couples  T 
In  that  case  they  have  to  communicate,  and  you  can  not  have  perfect 
order. 

Mr.  Upham — I  would  like  to  ask  one  more  question.  Is  there  any- 
body of  the  opinion  that  laboratory  work  ought  to  be  done  by  the 
pupils  except  under  supervision? 

Many — No. 


390  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  CHEMISTRY. 
GARRY  E.  CULVER,  Stevens  Point. 

Purpose. 

I.  To  teach  the  nature  of  chemical  work.     More  specifically, — 

1.  To  differentiate  chemical  from  other  phenomena. 

2.  To  show  the  conditions  which  are  necessary  in  order  that  chemi 
ical  action  may  take  place. 

3.  To  consider  the  phenomena  of  chemical  action. 

4.  To  consider  the  means  of  determining  whether  in  a  given  case 
chemical  action  has  really  occurred. 

II.  To  give  some  acquaintance  with  the  fundamental  principles  of 
•chemistry.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 

1.  The  law  of  definite  proportions. 

2.  The  law  of  chemical  equivalence. 

3.  The  molecular  theory,  and 

4.  The  hypothesis  of  Avogadro. 

III.  To  give  facility  in  the  manipulation  of  chemicals  and  of  chem- 
ical apparatus. 

IV.  To  give  some  practical  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the  prin- 
cipal  chemical   elements   and   of   their   more   important   compounds. 
'This  should  lead  to — 

V.  A  realizing  sense  of  the  many  and  vital  points  at  which  chem- 
istry touches  life,  and  should  furnish — 

VI.  An  adequate  basis  for  important  phases  of  instruction  in  those 
other  branches  of  science  to  which  chemistry  is  fundamental. 

VII.  To  give  mental  training  and   discipline  and  to   develop  the 
.scientific  habit  of  mind. 

Plan. 

The  general  plan  is  as  follows: 

I.  Laboratory  study  of  a  group  of  related  topics. 

II.  Recitations  based  on  the  facts   brought  out  in  the   laboratory 
study. 

III.  Readings  from  reference  works  of  chapters  or  sections  related 
to  the  topics  studied  in  the  laboratory. 

IV.  Short  lectures  intended  to  clarify,  to  correlate  and  vivify  the 
facts  gained  by  the  three  methods  above  specified. 

In  detail  this  scheme  works  out  somewhat  as  follows: 
Under  Purpose  I,  a  half  dozen  experiments  are  performed  in  the 
recitation  room  by  the  instructor,  and  a  dozen  or  fifteen  in  the  lab- 
oratory by  the  students.  These  experiments  are  chosen  with  refer- 
ence to  tfie  points  enumerated  under  Purpose  I, — 1,  2,  3,  and  4, — and 
serve  not  only  to  illustrate  those  points,  but  also  to  acquaint  the  stu- 
dent with  some  of  the  fundamental  operations  in  chemical  manipu- 
lation. One  group  of  experiments  illustrates  the  different  means  em- 
ployed to  bring  about  chemical  action.  Each  group  serves  to  illus- 
trate in  some  degree  the  phenomena  accompanying  chemical  action. 
One  group  involves  quantitative  operations,  e.  g. — The  student  is  di- 
rected to  weigh  out  a  certain  quantity  of  salt  and  another  of  sand, 
to  mix  them  thoroughly  and  then  separate  and  re-weigh.  After  these 
laboratory  exercises,  which  are  performed  under  supervision,  the 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  CHEMISTRY. 

whole  matter  is  gone  over  carefully  in  recitation  and  the  important 
truths  set  in  relief.  No  special  reading  for  this  group. 

Under  II,  different  classes  of  reactions  are  studied,  i.  e.,  analytic 
and  synthetic,  qualitatively  and  quantitatively,  by  the  student  in  the 
laboratory.  Water  is  separated  into  its  elements  and  the  gases  meas- 
ured. The  gases  are  made  to  combine  and  the  quantitative  relations 
established.  Quantitative  work  in  the  formation  of  sulphides  is  also 
done.  From  these  studies  the  laws  given  under  Purpose  II,  1  and 
2,  are  shown  to  be  true,  and  portions  of  the  evidence  on  which  are 
"based  the  important  theories  under  3  and  4,  are  also  obtained.  Read- 
ing in  the  library  supplements  and  expands  this  knowledge  and  the 
recitation  sets  all  in  order. 

Following  this  group  comes  an  extended  series  of  laboratory 
studies  of  the  principal  chemical  elements  and  their  more  important 
compounds.  These  laboratory  studies  involve — 

1.  Preparation  of  elements  from  their  compounds,  and 

2.  Study  of  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  these  elements, 
and 

3.  Preparation  of  compounds  from  the  elements  and  study  of  their 
properties.       Many  of  these  are  qualitative  only  but  some  are  per- 
formed quantitatively. 

4.  Chemical  exchanges  are  considered  from  both  a  qualitative  and 
a  quantitative  standpoint,  thus  bringing  out  the  idea  of  chemical  equiv- 
alence. 

With  regard  to  III,  V,  VI  and  VII,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  re- 
sults aimed"  at  under  these  heads  will  be  secured  by  the  proper  treat- 
ment under  the  heads  already  specified  somewhat  in  detail,  e.  g.,  the 
mastering  of  the  difficulties  that  attend  many  of  the  experiments, 
will  give  what  is  sought  under  Purpose  III.  The  study  of  the  chem- 
istry of  fhe  air  has  a  direct  bearing  on  ventilation.  The  study  of 
the  chlorine  group  leads  naturally  to  the  question  of  disinfectants 
and  to  sanitation  in  general.  The  student  who  has  formed  water  by 
burning  hydrogen  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  hydrochloric  acid  by 
burning  hydrogen  in  an  atmosphere  of  chlorine,  common  salt  by  burn- 
ing sodium  in  chlorine,  and  who  has  burned  a  jet  of  air  in  an  at- 
mosphere of  hydrogen,  has  the  material  for  a  good  conception  of  the 
meaning  of  combustion.  While  the  difference  between  the  quietly 
"burning  jet  of  hydrogen  and  the  explosion  of  a  prematurely  lighted 
"hydrogen  generator  must  open  the  way  to  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  cause  of  the  disastrous  explosions  that  so  frequently  occur  in  mills 
and  mines.  These  and  similar  studies  will  secure  the  ends  aimed  at 
under  V  and  VI.  While  the  close  attention  to  details  necessary  in 
all  this  work,  the  planning  of  methods  and  the  calculating  of  results, 
and  the  constant  intelligent  oversight  of  the  varied  operations  give 
not  only  manual  dexterity  but  furnish  mental  discipline  and  training 
that  is  not  surpassed  in  excellence. 

Finally,  the  careful  collecting  of  evidence  from  the  laboratory, 
the  library  and  the  lecture  room,  the  weighing  of  this  evidence,  the 
slow  forming  of  conclusions  based  on  the  evidence,  the  making  of 
hypotheses  and  the  study  of  facts  and  phenomena  bearing  on  them, 
with  the  result  of  demolishing  or  of  sustaining  the  hypotheses,  the 
reading  of  the  history  of  similar  studies  which  have  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  grander  theories  and  laws, — all  this,  it  seems  to  me, 
may  be  said  to  have  a  direct  tendency  toward  developing  what  13 


392  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

called  the  "scientific  habit  of  mind,"  which,  though  mentioned  here 
last,  is  by  no  means  least  of  the  purposes  sought  to  be  realized  la 
our  short  course  in  elementary  chemistry. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Chairman  Upham — The  paper  on  chemistry  is  now  open  for  dis- 
cussion. 

Mr.  Culver — I  will  simply  say  that  my  idea  was  to  present,  as  briefly 
as  possible,  the  plan  which  I  am  following  in  the  teaching  of  chem- 
istry at  the  Stevens  Point  Normal  school.  The  purpose  as  I  have 
outlined  it,  is  as  follows: 

First — To  teach  the  nature  of  chemical  work.     More  specifically — 

Second — To  give  some  acquaintance  with  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  chemistry. 

Third — To  give  facility  in  the  manipulation  of  chemicals  and  of 
chemical  apparatus. 

Fourth — To  give  some  practical  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
principal  chemical  elements  and  of  their  more  important  compounds. 

Fifth — A  realizing  sense  of  the  many  and  vital  points  at  which 
chemistry  touches  life,  and  should  furnish — 

Sixth — An  adequate  basis  for  important  phases  of  instruction  in 
those  other  branches  of  science  to  which  chemistry  is  fundamental. 

Seventh — To  give  mental  training  and  discipline  and  to  develop 
the  scientific  habit  of  mind. 

The  General  Plan. — Perhaps  I  can  state  the  general  plan  without 
reading.  In  this  work  experiment  precedes  in  nearly  every  case.  Ex- 
periment is  made  the  subject  of  discussion  in  nearly  every  case.  A  cer- 
tain related  group  of  experiments  is  always  performed  "individually, 
sometimes  collectively,  but  each  one  does  it,  and  they  keep  as  near  to- 
gether as  may  be  in  this  respect.  They  then  meet  together  in  the 
classroom  and  the  results  of  the  experiments  are  discussed,  and  fur- 
ther information  perhaps  given  by  the  instructor  along  this  line. 
Then  I  usually,  if  the  subject  admits  of  it,  assign  some  reading  In 
the  reference  library  that  bears  on  the  same  line,  and  after  that 
reading,  there  is  further  discussion  of  the  same  subject.  -Then  an- 
other related  group  of  experiments  is  taken  up  and  followed  right 
through.  That  is  the  general  plan, — first  experiment,  then  recitation 
upon  it,  reading,  and  perhaps  some  lectures  or  short  talks  by  the 
teacher.  That  general  plan  is  followed  throughout,  and  all  aims  are 
supposed  to  be  secured  in  that  way. 

Mr.  Goddard — I  agree  thoroughly  with  the  points  that  have  been 
presented  by  Mr.  Culver.  There  is  just  a  point  which  seems  to  me 
worthy  of  being,  taken  up  more  fully;  that  is,  the  purpose  to  provide 
discipline.  I  think  in  general  that  it  may  be  said  that  the  discipline 
to  be  derived  from  physics  and  chemistry  is  much  the  same  kind  of 
discipline  in  both  cases;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  there  are  one  or 
two  points  in  which  the  chemistry  offers  a  peculiarly  fine  branch  of 
work  to  develop  certain  phases  of  discipline,  and  I  would  like  to  call 
attention  to  one  or  two  of  those.  I  have  just  jotted  down  my  ideas 
in  connection  with  one  or  two  of  these  points. 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  393 

This  discussion  is  one  of  general  agreement  with  Prof.  Culver's  pa- 
per. However,  I  wish  to  emphasize  some  points  and  enlarge  upon 
some  briefly. 

With  reference  to  the  value  of  chemistry,  both  as  a  disciplinary  and 
an  informational  study,  I  feel  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  underesti- 
mate its  place  in  Normal  school  work  as  well  as  in  high  schools.  In 
a  number  of  respects,  it  seems  to  me,  that  chemistry  has  a  value 
which  is  not  excelled,  if  equaled,  by  any  other  science  branch,  especial- 
ly in  its  disciplinary  value. 

First,  it  is  exceptional  in  cultivating  and  quickening  the  power  of 
close  and  accurate  observation  of  objects  and  phenomena  presented 
to  the  senses,  especially  where  the  data  are  somewhat  obscured  and 
not  apparent  at  first  glance. 

Second,  it  is  exceptionl  in  cultivating  the  power  of  clear  and  ac- 
curate reasoning  by  inference,  i.  e.,  from  cause  to  effect,  or  vice  versa. 
I  maintain  that  nx>  finer  example  of  such  reasoning  can  be  found  in  any 
branch  of  science  than  is  presented  in  the  determination  of  molecular 
and  atomic  weights  by  the  vapor  density  method,  and  much  of  the 
other  work  in  chemistry  has  this  superior  value. 

Third,  it  is  exceptional  in  cultivating  the  power  of  rapid  and  ac- 
curate generalization,  from  particular  facts  and  data  observed  to  gen- 
eral conclusions  or  inferences. 

I  submit  that  these  powers  of  mind  are  among  the  most  valuable 
for  use  in  life  and  especially  in  the  work  of  a  teacher.  We  are  con- 
stantly'called  upon  to  draw  inferences  from  observations  of  conditions 
and  phenomena  about  us,  and  the  correctness  of  our  conclusions  de- 
pends upon  our  taking  into  account  all  the  conditions,  and  seeing  them 
accurately.  This  is  the  problem  constantly  before  the  properly  di- 
rected student  of  chemistry.  These  are  exceptional  disciplinary 
values. 

I  believe  also  that  chemistry  is  very  important  for  its  informational 
value,  although  I  shall  speak  only  briefly  of  this  as  it  was  more  fully 
dealt  with  in  Prof.  Culver's  paper. 

I  will  only  say  that  the  wide  applications  of  chemistry  in  important 
industries;  its  important  bearing  upon  domestic  economy,  agriculture, 
etc.;  and  its  very  close  relationship  to  subjects  like  physiology,  physics, 
etc.,  make  it  a  subject  of  great  practical  importance  in  Normal  school 
work  as  well  as  in  high  schools. 

It  seems  to  me  that  these  values  are  too  little  appreciated  by  many, 
and  that  we  as  chemistry  teachers  should  do  what  wre  can  to  bring 
about  a  better  appreciation  of  the  subject. 

Right  here,  while  all  that  has  been  said  about  discipline  in  physics 
is  true,  there  is  a  difference  in  favor  of  the  discipline  in  the  subject  of 
chemistry,  for  the  reason  that  the  data,  the  objects  that  are  observed 
in  the  chemical  work  and  reasoning  that  must  be  done  upon  those 
phenomena,  are  not  so  readily  done  as  they  are  in  theiphysics  work. 
I  believe  that  right  here  we  come  more  thoroughly  to  the  kind  of 
training  that  people  meet  everywhere  in  life.  The  data  are  not  al- 
ways plain,  but  many  times  obscure.  That  is  the  reason  people  come 
to  different  conclusions,  one  person  sees  one  set  of  conditions,  another 
person  another  set  of  conditions.  Chemistry  affords  unusual  training 
in  this  way.  Data  are  not  apparent  at  first  glance,  but  have  to  be 
looked  over.  Something  may  be  said  later  in  which  this  phase  of  the 
work  can  be  brought  out. 


394  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Second,  to  cultivate  the  power  of  clear  and  accurate  reasoning.  This 
follows  along  the  same  idea.  Two  students  do  not  see  alike,  and 
they  must  be  very  careful  to  be  accurate  and  very  clear  in  their  think- 
ing on  the  data  that  they  have.  In  this  connection  it  seems  to  ma 
that  chemistry  offers  a  number  of  phases  of  work  which  develop  this 
power  of  reasoning  from  cause  to  effect,  or  effect  to  cause,  perhaps 
better  than  any  other  line  of  work.  I  feel  that  there  is  an  inclination 
to  treat  chemistry  as  a  minor  subject.  It  occupies  a  comparatively 
small  place  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin.  It  may  not  be  so  in  other 
places,  but  is  in  this  state  considered  a  university  subject,  and  has 
little  value  below.  The  subject  of  chemistry  offers  an  exceptionally 
fine  field  for  discipline  in  accurate  observation,  and  careful,  clear  read- 
ing, and  arriving  at  certain  conclusions. 

Another  point  which  comes  under  the  same  head, — training  to  cul- 
tivate the  power  to  produce  an  accurate  generalization  from  typical 
facts  and  data  observed.  There  the  field  of  chemistry  offers  an  ex- 
ceptional field  for  the  taking  of  certain  data  and  working  those  out 
and  arriving  at  some  conclusion  which  can  be  made  more  or  less  gen- 
eral,— another  power  we  need  in  life  everywhere.  We  have  got  to  take 
certain  data  which  we  can  see,  work  with  those  data,  and  from  them 
come  to  some  general  conclusions.  The  accuracy  with  which  we  do 
that  determines  our  power  to  take  up  a  great  many  of  the  questions  of 
life.  It  may  seem  that  I  am  talking  about  the  kind  of  training  high 
school  pupils  should  have,  but  it  is  right  in  line  with  what  was  said  in 
connection  with  physics.  The  kind  of  training  to  be  given  high  school 
students  should  be  given  our  students  who  may  go  out  to  teach,  and  need 
this  training  in  all  their  lines  of  work.  As  teachers  dealing  with  our 
children,  we  should  aim  to  develop  the  faculty  to  take  a  great  number 
of  data  which  we  see  everywhere,  and  classify  them  and  systematize 
them.  In  fact  our  power  of  acquiring  knowledge,  of  arranging  it  so 
we  can  use  it,  depends  upon  our  power,  from  all  this  large  amount  of 
data  before  us,  of  selecting  certain  differences,  certain  similarities, 
classifying  them  so  that  we  can  get  what  material  we  need  when  we 
need  it.  Oh  these  points  I  have  ground  for  the  statement  that  chem- 
istry offers  a  subject  which  gives  discipline  along  these  lines  in  an 
unusual  degree.  Therefore  the  feeling  that  there  is  about  chemistry, 
that  it  is  a  minor  subject  and  should  not  be  taught  much  outside  the 
university,  is  groundless. 

Mr.  Upham — Your  idea,  if  I  understand  it,  is  the  seventh  reason 
that  Mr.  Culver  gives  us,  the  great  reason  for  chemistry,  that  is,  dis- 
cipline. The  point  we  settled  about  physics  would  hold  here. 

Mr.  MerriR — It  occurred  to  me  while  Mr.  Goddard  was  talking,  that 
the  practical  knowledge  of  chemistry  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other  sub- 
ject. It  deals  with  elements  that  surround  us,  that  the  teacher  must 
constantly  have  in  mind,  illustrates  and  helps  to  make  clear  questions 
of  geography,  and  various  other  subjects,  and  in  that  waif  becomes  a 
valuable  information  subject,  as  well  as  a  disciplinary  subject.  And 
I  believe  that  the  greatest  value  of  chemistry  is  as  an  information  sub- 
ject. It  has  great  value  as  a  disciplinary  subject,  no  doubt,  but  it 
touches  us  in  so  many  ways,  and  especially  in  biology,  and  in  all  sub- 
jects relating  to  life  that  it  becomes  a  valuable  subject  for  the  teacher 
to  know. 

Mr.  Upham — I  should  say  for  Mr.  Goddard's  benefit,  that  in  general 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION. 


395 


he  can  count  on  all  the  biologists  in  assisting  him  in  any  attempt  to 
get  an  increased  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject  of  chemistry. 

Mr.  Culver — The  chemists  need  all  the  help  they  can  get. 

Mr.  Goddard — I  found  that  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  schools, 
practically  no  chemistry  is  required  of  students.  It  is  allowed  to  be 
taken  as  a  science  elective,  but  in  our  course  here  in  Oshkosh  it  is 
required  of  the  four  years  scientific  students,  English  Scientific  course, 
which  includes  a  small  number  of  students.  Outside  of  that  it  is  en- 
tirely an  elective  study.  Very  little  chemistry  is  required  in  our 
Normal  schools  compared  with  the  work  required  in  physics. 

Mr.  Upham — Chemistry  at  Whitewater  is  optional  with  zoology,  etc. 

Mr.  Culver — I  should  like  to  ask  whether  the  conditions  which  ob- 
tain at  the  Stevens  Point  school  in  regard  to  chemistry,  exist  else- 
where. In  two  of  our  courses  onljc  twenty  weeks  of  science  is  re- 
quired to  be  elective,  and  if  the  students  elect  the  chemistry,  it  will 
not  count  for  that  twenty  weeks.  They  must  elect  something  else, 
too.  It  is  a  sort  of  a  ban  that  is  put  upon  the  chemistry  with  us.  That 
is  one  reason  I  had  for  putting  in  that  point,  to  give  them  a  realizing 
sense  of  the  great  number  of  vital  points  at  which  chemistry  touches 
life. 

Mr.  Dudley — I  understood  Mr.  Goddard  to  say  that  it  was  required 
here  in  one  course. 

Mr.  Goddard — It  is  required  in  the  English  Scientific  course  of  four 
years. 

Mr.  Dudley — That  is  contrary  to  the  rules  of  the  Board.  The  rules 
do  not  require  any  chemistry.  It  is  an  elective  study.  I  would  like  to 
emphasize  that  point  a  little,  because  it  is  a  fundmental  in  straighten- 
ing out  some  of  our  difficulties.  There  is  more  or  less  deviation  from 
the  requirements  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  We  have  no  right  to  do 
that,  no  President  has  a  right  to  do  that.  Of  course  I  take  that  state- 
ment from  our  President.  He  has  spoken  over  and  over  again,  em- 
phasizing tKe  fact  that  we  must  do  nothing  that  is  contrary  to  these 
rules.  The  natural  sciences  that  must  be  given  are  geography,  botany 
or  elementary  zoology,  physiology,  physics.  Now  the  electives  are 
botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  geology,  physics,  physiology.  Chemis- 
try is  not  a  study  that  may  be  required,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
Board,  and  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Board  a  minimum  of  610  weeks 
in  the  course,  and  a  maximum  of  650. 

Mr. In  those  elective  subjects  that  you  speak  of,  how 

much  science  is  required? 

Mr.  Dudley — It  depends  upon  the  course.  English  70  weeks,  the 
others  20  weeks  each. 

Mr. Can  not  the  President  insist  upon  chemistry  by  put- 
ting it  in  as  one  of  the  electives?  Could  he  not  insist  upon  it  by 
having  a  habit  of  advising  pupils  to  do  that,  and  advising  in  such  a 
way  that  they  will  consider  it  a  good  thing  to  do? 

Mr.  Upham — uftler  purpose  one,  a  half  dozen  experiments  are  per- 
formed in  the  recitation  room  by  the  instructor,  and  a  dozen  or  fifteen 
in  the  laboratory  by  the  student,  with  some  of  the  fundamental  opera- 
tions in  chemical  manipulation.  The  point  is  this:  We  all  do  it  I 
suppose,  and  every  text-book  that  I  ever  saw  does  it.  Fifteen  or 
twenty  experiments  are  put  in  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  book  il- 
lustrated, before  the  pupil  has  had  any  experiment  at  all.  Is  that 


396  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

pedagogical?     Is  it  the  consistent  way  to  do,  to  set  him  in  the  first 
week  or  so  to  deriving  general  principles? 

Mr.  Culver — I  should  like  to  be  sure,  before  the  discussion  ends, 
that  we  understand  each  other.  I  do  not  follow  the  method  which 
seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  interpretation  you  put  upon  my  paper.  I 
do  not  demand  of  the  student  that  he  shall  make  generalizations  on 
data  that  is  altogether  new  to  him.  The  phenomena  that  pass  before 
him  in  those  few  preliminary  experiments  are  phenomena  that  he  is 
already  familiar  with,  in  an  indistinct  way.  I  give  him  in  a  very 
brief  way  a  few  simple  points  or  principles,  by  which  he  may  throw 
this  phenomena  all  into  two  classes.  He  passes  them  in  review, 
throws  that  part  on  the  one  side  and  this  part  on  the  other,  making 
a  simple  test  of  phenomena  he  is  already  acquainted  with.  I  put 
upon  the  table  forty  or  fifty  rocks,  and  ask  him  to  classify  them.  I 
say — "There  is  one  particular  property  which  certain  of  these  rocks 
possess,  and  others  do  not.  Put  them  in  two  piles, — one  which  shows 
these  characteristics,  the  other  that  does  not  show  these  character- 
istics." They  only  have  one  idea  to  think  of,  and  it  is  not  a  severe 
task.  I  give  them  practice  in  that  sort  of  thing,  and  then  add  another 
class  of  phenomena  to  classify  in  the  same  way.  I  do  not  take  it  as 
absurd  to  give  a  student,  as  I  have  suggested,  a  measure  of  salt  and 
sand,  after  I  have  shown  him  that  the  principle  of  chemical  analysis 
is  simply  tfiis, — If  we  have  two  substances  together,  treat  the  mixture 
with  some  other  that  will  act  upon  one  of  them  only,  and  then  ask 
him  to  separate  them.  He  is  ready  to  try  it.  Water  will  dissolve 
sugar  or  salt,  but  not  the  sand.  He  gets  an  idea  of  chemical  separa- 
tion. He  is  getting  the  fundamentals  of  chemical  analysis  in  that 
simple  experiment.  Then  I  give  him  a  measure  of  marble  dust,  salt, 
and  sand.  He  can  get  the  salt  out  as  before,  but  the  marble  won't 
come  out  that  way,  and  he  must  have  recourse  to  another,  which  will 
take  out  the  marble,  but  won't  affect  the  sand.  I  don't  ask  unreason- 
able things  of  the  student. 

Mr.  Merrill — I  had  in  mind  to  ask  Mr.  Culver  some  questions.  What 
would  be  the  objection  to  having  the  pupil  perform  these  experiments 
himself?  As  I  understand  it  you  have  a  half  dozen  experiments  per- 
formed in  the  recitation  room  by  the  instructor. 

Mr.  Culver — That  is  usually  the  first  day  the  subject  is  introduced. 
I  try  a  few  experiments  myself,  then  the  student  goes  to  the  laboratory, 
and  all  subsequent  experiments  are  done  by  the  students  themselves. 

Mr.  Merrill — Do  you  have  your  pupils  recite  daily? 

Mr.  Culver — Not  absolutely  so,  but  practically  it  amounts  to  pretty 
nearly  that.  If  we  are  working  on  a  group  of  experiments  and  do  not 
get  through,  we  go  into  the  laboratory  tomorrow,  and  perhaps  two  or 
three  days.  When  the  group  is  finished  we  come  into  the  recitation 
room,  and  perhaps  spend  two  periods  on  recitation. 

Mr.  Merrill — Which  do  you  consider  more  important  for  the  student, 
the  recitation,  or  the  experiment? 

Mr.  Culver — Without  the  experiment  the  recitation  would  be  worth- 
less. I  think  if  I  were  to  weigh  the  two,  I  should  say  the  experimental 
work  was  perhaps  the  most  valuable,  but  I  can  hardly  divorce  the  two. 
The  one  is  needed  for  the  other. 

Mr. What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  main  object  of  the 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  397 

recitation,  to  report  upon  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  his 
experimentation  ? 

Mr.  Culver — No,  that  is  a  minor  feature.  I  want  to  bring  out  all 
that.  For  instance,  suppose  they  have  been  having  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  acids  and  bases.  When  they  went  into  the  laboratory  they 
knew  of  acids,  and  something  of  bases,  but  knew  nothing  from  experi- 
ments. The  experiments  have  brought  out  some  ideas.  They  have 
learned  some  characteristic  things  about  each.  When  I  have  given  as 
much  time  as  I  think  I  can  afford,  I  call  a  halt  on  the  experimentation, 
and  then  in  the  recitation  room  I  find  out  how  much  they  have  learned 
about  these  two  classes  of  substances. 

Mr.  — Do  you  consider  the  conclusions  reached  upon  their 

experimentation  in  any  way  depend  upon  the  reference  reading  you 
require  them  to  do?  ...  ^ 

•  Mr.  Culver — My  idea  about  reference  reading  is  tnis:  It  is  impossi- 
ble for  the  student  to  perform  all  experiments,  but  must  rely  partly  on 
the  records  of  experiments  of  others.  If  I  send  him  to  the  library 
before  he  performs  any  experiments,  they  do  not  mean  anything  to 
him. 

Mr. Do  you  send  him  to  the  reference  library  before  reci- 
tation upon  a  line  of  matters,  or  after? 

Mr.  Culver — After,  usually. 

Mr.  Goddard — After  a  student  has  worked  in  the  laboratory,  as  Mr. 
Culver  suggests,  he  has  only  been  able  to  work  perhaps  one  or  two 
experiments  under  each  point  that  you  want  him  to  come  to  under- 
stand. Is  not  this  a  valuable  part  of  the  class-work, — the  opportunity 
it  affords  to  lead  the  student  to  amplify  and  to  generalize  from  these 
statements?  He  could  not  follow  out  enough  experiments  to  justify 
any  general  conclusions.  The  class-work  is  an  opportunity  for  me  to 
lead  the  students  to  see  that  that  experiment  is  only  one  of  many  ex- 
periments which  justify  a  certain  general  conclusion.  I  want  to  per- 
form as  many  experiments  before  the  class  as  I  can,  different  from 
those*  performed  by  the  student,  so  as  to  give  a  larger  basis  for  con- 
clusion if  possible. 

Mr.  Merrill — If  the  student  performs  a  certain  number  of  experi- 
ments, and  they  seem  to  point  to  a  certain  conclusion  which  he  would 
arrive  at  himself,  would  it  be  necessary  to  perform  additional  experi- 
ments yourself? 

Mr.  Goddard — If  the  students  always  arrive  at  the  proper  conclusion, 
then  that  won't  be  necessary,  but  they  do  not. 

Mr.  — If  the  pupils  do  not  arrive  at  the  conclusions  from  ex- 
periments themselves,  do  you  perform  experiments  before  them? 

Mr. 1  think  you  have  to  do  it  in  chemistry.     I  do  not 

think  you  ought  to  state  the  conclusions  to  the  students,  but  your  ex- 
periment will  help  them  to  see  its  application.  When  a  student  per- 
forms a  single  experiment  he  feels  rather  a  hesitancy  about  saying 
that  that  is  a  proof  of  some  principle  that  you  want  him  to  get  hold  of. 
I  want  him  to  do  that. 

Mr.  Upham — My  question  is  this :  If  you  take  a  text-book  there  will 
be  fifteen  or  twenty  experiments  in  the  first  chapter.  They  are  there 
to  be  done,  or  to  read  up  about.  Would  you  ask  him  to  start  right  off 
and  either  generalize  or  see  a  generalization  that  somebody  else  makes 
on  experiments  which  are  so  numerous  they  are  a  maze  to  him?  We 


398  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

folks  do  not  realize  as  much  as  we  ought,  what  a  maze  there  is  in  the 
mind  of  a  student;  when  fifteen  or  twenty  experiments  have  been 
performed  they  are  all  mixed  up.  He  can't  quite  remember  whether 
we  put  this  and  that  together,  or  this  and  the  other  thing  together; 
that  this  must  be  heated,  this  must  be  wet,  and  this  must  be  pounded 
in  order  to  make  them  combine. 

Mr.  Ewing — What  would  be  your  remedy? 

Mr.  Upham — Let  these  generalizations  go  for  six  weeks.  Go  ahead 
and  get  to  doing  something.  After  about  ten  chapters  go  back  and 
then  you  have  the  data.  There  are  two  phases  of  work  in  these 
sciences, — observation  and  generalization.  You  have  got  to  do  ob- 
servation and  get  data,  then  go  off,  sit  down  and  make  your  gener- 
alizations. Pupils  can  not  hold  fifteen  or  twenty-two  experiments. 
Prof.  Culver  has  set  down  fifteen  by  the  class  and  seven  by  the 
teacher.  Is  this  not  a  definite  principle  to  go  upon, — that  as  soon 
as  the  data  including  all  the  experiments  that  are  necessary  for  es- 
tablishing the  great  principles  of  chemistry  have  been  arrived  at,  that 
is  the  time,  not  to  be  deferred,  and  not  to  be  hastened,  for  establish- 
ing that  principle?  When  the  pupil  has  them  in  his  grasp,  to  establish, 
to  clinch  the  thing  that  the  teacher  wants  him  to  understand  as  a 
definite  principle  of  chemistry,  or  physics,  or  biology? 

Question — Can  you  give  him  enough  experiments  to  justify  him  in 
coming  to  conclusions  as  original  investigators  come  to  conclusions? 

Mr.  Upham — I  think  by  proper  direction  you  can.  It  would  be  folly 
to  attempt  to  have  a  student  in  the  laboratory  attempt  to  work  out 
the  principles  of  any  science  on  a  system.  He  must  have  very  defi- 
nite directions  as  to  what  the  problem  before  him  may  be.  State  a 
problem, — and  for  that  matter  it  may  be  a  very  small  one;  in  fact, 
only  a  part  of  a  problem, — a  problem  within  a  problem, — which  has 
something  to  do  with  his  solution  of  a  question  before  his  mind.  As 
soon  as  he  has  the  data  for  arriving  at  the  solution,  that  is  the  time 
it  should  be  emphasized.  It  should  not  be  deferred  to  sum,  up  at 
the  end  of  the  course.  Each  principle  should  be  established  when  the 
data  for  the  demonstration  of  that  principle  is  ample  enough. 

Mr.  Case — I  do  not  ask  my  students  in  chemistry  to  do  all  the  ex- 
periments at  the  same  time.  I  do  not  like  to  have  them  do  it.  I 
have  a  small  enough  class  so  I  can  get  them  to  work  individually.  I 
like  to  have  them  perform  experiments  on  the  same  subject,  but  I 
want  the  pupils  to  do  their  work  individually. 

Mr.  Upham — How  does  anybody  in  chemistry  know  how  to  make 
oxygen?  You  either  tell  him,  or  give  him  a  written  direction  on  a 
sheet  of  paper.  Why  not  all  be  doing  it  at  once? 

This,  I  understand,  is  what  Mr.  Case  means  by  mass  work.  Not 
as  I  see  it  in  primary  and  intermediate  schools, — all  marching  in  at 
once,  all  putting  slates  in  desk  at  once.  That  is  an  absurdity  I  should 
not  care  to  bring  into  the  laboratory.  We  may  have  a  certain  amount 
of  work  assigned  to  do  this  day,  another  amount  of  work  to  be  done 
next  day.  To  very  close  approximation,  that  work  can  be  done  par- 
allel by  all  students  at  one  time.  There  may  be  disadvantages  in 
this  plan,  but  there  are  also  disadvantages  in  individual  work.  If 
there  is  proper  order,  there  is  no  occasion  for  students  to  communi- 
cate in  the  laboratory  if  they  are  working  on  individual  work.  There 
are  some  experiments  in  physics  where  they  must  work  together, 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  399 

but  where  there  is  individual  work  to  be  done  there  is  no  occasion 
that  there  shall  be  any  communication  at  all.  This  is  not  iron-clad, 
but  there  should  be  no  communication, — that  is,  no  conference  upon 
the  work  that  they  are  doing.  Each  one  is  doing  his  own  work.  The 
rule  is:  "Draw  the  thing  as  you  see  it  without  any  reference  to  any- 
body else."  I  move  that  we  reconsider  that  vote  of  seven  to  six. 

(Motion  seconded.) 

1  move  we  re-discuss. 

(Motion  seconded.) 

Mr.  Upham — Motion  open  to  the  house  for  a  little  more  discussion. 

Mr.  Case — As  to  mass  work:  this  is  the  plan  as  outlined  in  physics: . 
You  assign  today  in  physics  or  chemistry  a  certain  piece  of  work, 
or  experiment  to  be  performed.  The  teacher  must  necessarily  have 
control  of  the  whole  laboratory. ...  He  stands  up  before  the  class  and 
says:  "Get  to  work."  They  all  bring  out  the  same  piece  of  appa- 
ratus. They  all  have  a  definite  time  in  which  to  complete  the  work, 
write  it  up,  and  hand  it  in.  Is  that  your  mass  work?  That  is  what 
I  understand  by  mass  work.  I  want  to  arrive  at  a  clear  conclusion. 
I  say  in  my  laboratory,  "We  will  work  on  heat  until  we  get  done.  If 
the  apparatus  is  in  use  so  you  can't  do  latent  heat,  then  work  on 
specific  heat."  If  you  are  going  to  say  in  mass  work,  "We  will  work 
now  on  heat."  If  you  do  that  way,  I  am  right  with  you. 

Mr.  Upham — If  I  could  have  my  way,  I  would  have  just  as  many 
pieces  of  apparatus  as  there  are  students  in  the  laboratory. 

Mr.  Case — If  you  had  your  way,  would  you  have  every  student  start 
at  the  beginning  and  all  do  latent  heat  at  the  same  time? 

Mr  Upham — Yes,  but  they  won't  come  out  even  then.  When  one  gets 
through,  let  him  go. 

Mr.  Case — As  I  understand  mass  work,  you  would  have  them  all 
doing  the  same  experiment  at  the  same  time. 

Mr.  Upham — As  near  as  I  could,  all  doing  the  same  experiment 
at  the  same  time.  I  would  have  every  student  stop  the  experiment 
at  as  near  the  same  time  as  possible,  so  if  there  are  any  general  di- 
rections to  be  given,  you  can  give  them  in  mass;  then  all  start,  and 
I  would  move  around  among  them.  I  never  should  expect  that  they 
would  all  get  through  in  the  same  time. 

Mr.  Case — The  ideal  of  mass  work  would  be, — all  start  at  the  same 
time  and  stop  at  the  same  time.  If  the  average  is  two  hours,  would 
you  expect  them  all  to  complete  it  in  two  hours?  Is  that  mass  work? 

Mr.  Perisho — I  would  like  to  explain  what  I  mean  by  mass  work. 
The  discussion  arose  in  this  way:  I  made  a  statement  like  this:  The 
student  ought  to  be  given  a  definite  problem  to  perform,  and  all  the 
class  ought  to  have  the  same  problem.  We  are  discussing  the  ideal 
way.  All  the  class  in  the.  laboratory  should  have  the  same  definite 
problem  to  perform,  and  apparatus  enough  to  do  it.  Then  they  should 
go  into  the  laboratory  and  begin  it  at  the  same  time.  Suppose  one 
g-ets  through  it  before  the  hour  is  over.  I  always  have  an  extra 
problem,  not  compulsory  upon  the  class,  but  for  those  students  who 
get  through  before  the  regular  time.  These  problems  are  so  assigned 
that  the  student  will  be  able  to  finish  them  unless  he  is  very  slow. 
If  too  slow,  he  would  have  to  come  back  outside  the  laboratory  hour 
and  finish  up.  Here  is  a  second  point  I  want  to  make  in  that  mat- 
ter: If  you  put  your  students  into  the  laboratory  and  let  them  do 
different  experiments  all  the  way  round,  when  are  you  going  to  give 


400  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

the  specific  instruction  to  the  class  "which  must  necessarily  precede 
every  intelligent  piece  of  laboratory  work  done  by  the  inexperienced 
student?  And  second,  if  you  follow  this  method,  then  when  are  you 
going  to  make  the  summary,  and  the  explanation,  and  sum  it  all  up? 
If  you  are  running  twenty  students,  or  twelve  students,  that  means 
that  you  have  got  twelve  different  experiments  that  must  be  done; 
that  it  will  take  you  six,  or  eight,  or  ten  days  to  go  through  that  set; 
that  the  student  who  performs  his  experiment  first  will  wait  a  fort- 
night before  the  discussion  comes  up  in  the  final  recitation,  or  a 
student  must  wait  a  week  before  he  does  the  experiment  which  has 
been  prepared  by  the  teacher.  He  will  have  to  wait  a  fortnight  be- 
fore he  can  do  the  work  he  was  prepared  to  do  two  weeks  before, 
because  he  has  to  wait  until  fourteen  other  experiments  have  been 
performed,  or  whatever  the  number  may  be.  I  claim  that  along  with 
this  laboratory  work  should  go  the  recitation  next  day,  so  we  may 
have  an  opportunity  to  sum  up  and  talk  over  the  work  that  was  done 
in  the  laboratory.  It  is  infinitely  better  if  fresh  in  the  laboratory, 
than  if  it  is  two  weeks  old. 

Mr.  Young — The  instructor,  as  an  instructor,  will  not  carry  a  dozen 
different  lines  of  work  as  clearly  in  his  mind,  with  different  purposes 
for  instruction  in  the  laboratory,  as  he  will  one  or  two.  It  seems 
to  me  for  that  reason  that  it  is  essential  that  this  work  be  carried 
along  together.  As  you  say,  give  your  general  directions,  and  then 
arrive  at  your  conclusions. 

Mr.  Merrill — I  should  think  this  same  question  would  come  up  with 
people  who  teach  from  a  text-book.  Here  is  a  class  of  forty  pupils 
in  Latin.  Some  of  them  have  read  two  lines,  some  ten  lines.  If 
you  are  going  to  have  individual  work,  tomorrow  you  will  assign  a 
lesson  which  fits  on  ten  lines,  and  one  that  fits  on  fifty.  When  you 
come  to  the  recitation  the  next  day,  they  will  be  further  apart  than 
ever,  and  so  the  next  day.  Finally  at  the  end  of  the  term  you  will 
have  them  like  the  north  and  south  pole.  That  principle,  if  carried 
out,  will  lead  to  confusion.  I  think  the  gentlemen  who  are  advocat- 
ing that  do  not  intend  that  it  should  be  carried  out  in  this  manner. 
But,  nevertheless,  that  is  a  system  of  investigation  that  goes  on  in 
colleges  and  universities,  and  it  is  valuable  where  a  pupil  can  take 
a  set  of  notes  which  he  takes  from  the  teacher,  and  interpret  those 
notes,  and  apply  them  any  length  of  time  after  they  have  Been  given. 
Students  in  Normal  schools  and  high  schools  can  not  do  that.  They 
can  not  carry  a  line  of  notes  that  far.  In  addition,  we  teach,  all  of 
us,  that  a  recitation  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  that  the  subject 
may  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil;  that  he  may  be  al- 
lowed, in  the  presence  of  his  preparation,  and  in  the  presence  of  the 
questioning  of  the  teacher,  to  think  for  himself.  If  you  have  a  class 
of  ten  or  fifteen  students,  one  has  done  something,  another  some- 
thing else,  still  another  something  else;  there  is  no  common  ground 
whatever  for  the  recitation,  and  the  recitation  will  either  have  to  be 
individual,  or  it  will  have  to  be  on  subjects  that  have  been  passed 
so  long  ago  that  the  freshness  will  have  disappeared.  Why  is  it  not 
allowable  in  physics,  as  well  as  in  biology,  or  any  other  subject,  to 
assign  two  hours'  work,  for  instance,  for  the  average  pupil — allow 
the  average  pupil  to  do  that  work  in  two  hours;  those  who  do  it  more 
quickly,  do  something  else,  or  use  the  reference  books;  or,  better  still, 
make  something,  some  piece  of  apparatus  originally,  and  allow  those 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  401 

who  are  constitutionally  slow  to  come  back  after  the  class  and  do 
that  work  over, — that  is,  finish  their  work?  They  may  be  quick  in 
Latin,  or  English,  but  slow  in  physics.  If  so,  they  may  prepare  their 
lesson  in  some  other  branch  in  time  to  come  during  some  study 
period  during  the  day,  and  finish  up  that  experiment.  Let  it  be  un- 
derstood that  on  the  next  day  a  test  will  be  had  upon  the  subject 
assigned  for  today  and  every  student  will  be  held  accountable  for 
the  experiment  and  for  the  recitation  which  logically  follows. 

Mr.  Upham — I  suppose  you  all  know  about  that  Normal  in  Colorado 
where  the  thing  is  done  on  that  plan.  All  students  start  In  the  first 
day  togetner,  but  they  are  never  together  again. 

Mr.  Sage — It  seems  to  me  that  it  ought  not  to  be  required  by  us 
for  ourselves,  and  that  we  ought  not  to  encourage  anybody  else  in 
requiring  that  we  do  just  alike  in  this  matter.  I  want  to  show  rea- 
sons why  it  is  true.  Some  are  speaking  of  a  class  of  ten  or  fifteen. 
You  evidently  like  the  plan  of  massing,  so  far  as  you  have  explained 
it.  I  have  at  the  present  time  forty-six  students  all  studying  sound. 
The  expense  of  fitting  up  my  laboratories  with  anything  like  the  du- 
plicate apparatus  that  would  be  required  to  keep  those  people  going, 
would  simply  be  enormous.  Here  is  an  apparatus  that  measures  the 
length  and  velocity  of  sound.  What  would  it  cost  to  reproduce  this 
apparatus?  I  do  not  believe  in  giving  to  students  who  are  on  the 
average  older  than  college  students, — that  is  what  our  Normal  stu- 
dents are, — little,  petty  experiments  that  they  know  beforehand  just 
what  is  going  to  occur,  just  how  it  will  turn  out,  and  what  there  is 
in  it.  Give  them  something  that  taxes  them,  calls  for  thought,  and 
gives  them  a  chance  to  grow.  If  that  is  the  case  we  have  to  be  gov- 
erned in  some  measure  by  individual  circumstances.  I  could  not  pos- 
sibly think  of  asking  the  state  to  furnish  me  with  conditions  to  en- 
able me  to  have  students  all  do  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 
When  they  begin  in  the  laboratory  they  have  a  little  work  in  sim- 
ple measures.  There  is  a  simple  illustration  of  where  we  can  do  work 
at  the  same  time.  Very  soon  the  work  differentiates.  Certain  stu- 
dents need  to  be  carried  along  certain  lines  to  get  what  is  best  for 
them.  The  young  man  who  has  taught  school  eight  years,  and  holds 
a  state  certificate,  is  in  the  same  class  with  a  young  girl  of  seven- 
teen, who  can't  think  from  cause  to  effect  in  two  terms.  You  can't 
give  these  two  students  the  same  work  and  do  justice  to  them.  You 
may  put  the  man  upon  certain  experiments  testing  the  laws  of 
strength,  and  give  him  more  work  than  the  girl,  if  he  is  to  do  indi- 
vidual work  and  grow.  The  girl  takes  this  instrument,  and  performs 
very  simple  experiments  suited  to  her  capacity.  The  individual  plan 
makes  all  these  things  possible.  It  is  an  enormous  expense  to  the 
state  to  begin  to  duplicate  apparatus,  to  come  up  to  this  grade  with 
such  things  as  we  ought  to  use,  and  have  enough  so  that  any  con- 
siderable number  can  do  it.  It  may  be  that  some  pupils  in  the  class 
ought  not  to  have  that  kind  of  work.  I  do  not  require  every  student 
to  perform  that  particular  experiment, — some  are  not  qualified  for 
doing  it.  You  must  differentiate  the  work.  You  ought  not  to  set 
any  hard  and  fast  rule  for  those  who  are  to  prescribe  things  for  us 
to  go  by. 

Question — Would  you  give  the  same  credit  to  this  man  at  the  end 
of  the  course  as  to  the  girl? 
26 


402  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Sage — In  a  certain  sense,  I  do;  in  another,  I  do  not. 

Question — Each  counts  the  same  toward  the  diploma? 

Mr.  Sage — That  is  true.  If  they  all  do  a  minimum  amount  of  work, 
it  counts. 

Mr.  Upham — How  many  experiments  do  your  best  students  do  in  a 
twenty  weeks  course  in  physics? 

Mr.  Sage — In  my  course  of  ten  weeks  there  are  ten  experiments, 
besides  some  preliminary  work  in  which  they  all  work  on  the  mass 
plan.  After  that,  during  the  last  six  weeks  of  the  term,  there  are 
ten  experiments.  The  second  ten  weeks  there  are  nine  experiments. 
That  is  the  minimum  amount.  Some  are. asked  to  do  a  little  more. 
Some  are  excused  even  from  that. 

Mr.  Upham — There  is  where  we  all  differ.  A  student  may  go  through 
your  course  and  do  only  twenty  experiments,  while  there  are  others 
who  perhaps  have  them  do  one  hundred. 

Mr.  Merrill — Mr.  Sage,  when  do  you  have  those  pupils  recite? 

Mr.  Sage — They  recite  every  day  for  an  hour. 

Question — Based  upon  the  laboratory  work  or  upon  the  text-book? 

Mr.  Sage — On  the  basis  of  a  syllabus.  We  discuss  the  laboratory 
work  as  it  comes  in  connection  with  the  subject  in  the  proper  place, 
trying  to  keep  the  two  as  nearly  parallel  as  possible. 

Question — Your  recitation  will  include  the  experiments,  and  all  pu- 
pils will  have  performed  those  experiments? 

Mr.  Sage — Sometimes  that  is  not  true,  but  as  nearly  as  we  can. 

Mr.  Young — Would  you  consider  it  nearer  ideal  if  each  student  could 
have  the  apparatus? 

Mr.  Upham — In  an  ideal  condition,  as  near  as  we  can  obtain  it,  shall 
we  have  duplicate  apparatus,  or  shall  we  not  have  duplicate  appa- 
ratus? 

Mr.  Case — The  question  is,  shall  the  students  all  perform  the  same 
experiments  at  the  same  time  as  nearly  as  possible? 

Mr.  Sage — It  seems  to  me  we  shall  do  ourselves  a  great  wrong 
and  those  who  are  looking  to  us  for  some  discussions, — we  shall  mis- 
represent ourselves,  if  we  vote  on  the  question  which  has  this  falsity 
in  it.  If  we  vote  on  this  massing  plan  for  our  students,  this  means 
that  the  Board  of  Regents  may  think  it  is  feasible  to  do  it.  We 
can  not  have  all  these  things  to  do  the  work  as  we  have  suggested 
here.  The  state  would  never  give  us  duplicate  apparatus  to  do  work 
on  that  plan.  I  do  not  want  to  go  on  record  as  a  science  teacher  in 
this  state  and  have  the  Board  undertake  to  carry  out  that  plan. 

Mr.  Watson — I  want  to  know  if  it  is  simply  a  question  for  the 
physicists. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  move  the  question  be  laid  upon  the  table. 

Motion  seconded.    All  in  favor. 


PURPOSE,   SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  BIOLOGY.  4Q3 

PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  BIOLOGY. 
W.  H.  DUDLEY,  Platteville. 

I.     IN  GENERAL. 
Purpose: 

(a)  To  give  teaching  power. 

(b)  To  give  teaching  material. 
Scope: 

(a)  General  Biology  (10  weeks),  required  of  all  students. 

(b)  Elementary  Botany   (10  weeks),  required  of  all  students  ex- 

cept graduates  of  4-years  high  schools. 

(c)  Advanced  Botany  (10  weeks),  elective. 

(d)  Advanced  Zoology  (30  week's),  elective. 

First  Year — 1st  Term, ;  2nd  Term,  ;  3rd  Term,  ;  4th 

Term, . 

Second  Year — 1st  Term,  ;  2nd  Term,  General  Biology;  3rd 

Term,  Elementary  Botany  (For  all  who  are  not  H.  S.  grads.) ;  4th 
Term,  Advanced  Botany  (Elective). 

Third  Year — 1st  Term,  General  Biology  (For  H.  S.  grads.  who  will 
take  adv.  Zool.) ;  2nd  Term,  Advanced  Zoology  (Elective) ;  3rd  Term, 
Advanced  Zoology  (Elective);  4th  Term,  Advanced  Zoology  (Elective). 

Fourth  lear — 1st  term,  ;  2nd  Term, ;  3rd  Term,  ;  4th 

Term,  . 

Plan : 

(a)  Individual  Laboratory  work  (45  min.  daily). 

1.  Clearly  denned  statement  of  a  problem  to  be  solved. 

2.  Careful  study  of  the  material  in  hand  under  proper  direc- 

tion, with  the  purpose  of  solving  the  problem  stated. 

3.  Record  of  all  observations  and  inferences  in  permanent 

note-book,  done  in  ink  and  not  to  be  changed  until  first 
having  passed  inspection. 

4.  Drawings  of  the  object  studied,  done  in  hard  lead  pencil 

(or  water-colors  at  the  option  of  the  student)  and  care- 
fully indexed. 

((3)  and  (4)  should  be  an  answer  to  the  problem  (1)  proposed  for 
investigation.) 

(b)  Recitations  (45  minutes  daily). 

1.  Reports  and  comparisons  of  work  done  in  the  laboratory. 

2.  Reports  upon  assigned  topics  and  readings. 

3.  Informal  talks  and  discussions  concerning  related  facts 

and  subject  matter. 

4.  Notes  to  be  taken  of  all  new  facts  or  points  brought  out 

in  the  recitation,  afterwards  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
laboratory  work  in  the  permanent  note-book. 

II.     DETAIL. OF  THE  COURSES. 
A.     GENERAL  BIOLOGY. 
Purpose: 

1.  To  give  power  to  see,  to  compare,  to  infer  and  to  apply. 

2.  To  form  a  rational  basis  for  the  more  detailed  study  of 

botany  and  zoology. 

3.  To  give  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  most  fundamental 

and    essential    laws    and    principles    underlying   the   life- 


404:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

activities  of  all  living  beings,  a  knowledge  of  which  should 
be  at  the  foundation  of  nature-study, — or  Natural  History 
by  whatever  name, — of  human  physiology,  and  should  en- 
ter into  the  general  culture  of  every  teacher. 
4.  With  (1)  and  (3)  accomplished,  to  enable  teachers  to  carry 
on  instruction  in  the  limitless  realm  of  Natural  History, 
having  sufficient  grounding  "in  the  fundamentals  to  take 
illustrations  from  the  great  world  of  life  about  them  (even 
though,  as  is  bound  to  be  the  case,  many  of  these  forms 
of  life  have  not  been  made  the  objects  of  special  previous 
study),  and  to  use  them  in  a  purposeful  way;  i.  e.,  to 
aid  teachers  to  rescue  nature  study  from  the  practice  of 
.  making  it  a  mere  cataloging  of  things,  and  a  recital  of 
unrelated  facts,  and  raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  the  study 
of  life-relations,  life-activities  and  life-sympathies. 
.Scope: 

(a)  The  study  of  the  following  forms  of  life,  and  in  the  or- 

der named:  Elodia  (simply  the  study  of  the  properties 
and  flow  of  Chara,  protoplasm),  Amoeba,  Protococcus, 
Paramoecium  or  verticella,  Faglena,  Yeast,  Spirogyra, 
Nitella  or  Chara,  Marchantia,  Pandorina,  Volvox,  Hydra, 
Obelia,  Starfish,  Squid  or  Frog. 

(b)  With  the  foregoing  types  of  illustrations  the  working  out 

of  the  following  rules  and  principles: 

1.  The  physical  basis  of  life  is  Protoplasm. 

2.  The  cell  is  the  unit  of  all  organic  structures. 

3.  Differentiation  is  the  setting  aside  of  a  certain  part 

of  an  organism  to  perform  a  special  function. 

4.  An  organism  ranks  high  or  low  in  the  scale  of  life 

according  to  the  number  of  things  it  can  do  and  do 
well,  i.  e.,  according  to  its  degree  of  differentiation. 

5.  Differentiation  may  be  within  the  cells  or  among  the 

cells. 

6.  Every  structure  in  an  organism  exists  for  the  good  of 

that  organism,  or  its  race,  and  for  no  other. 

7.  Differentiation  comes  from  a  need  in  the  organism 

to  adapt  it  more  perfectly  to  the  environment  in 
which  it  is  placed  (i.  e.,  the  great  law  of  relation 
between  structure  and  function). 

8.  Simplicity  of  structure  carries  with  it  greater  inde- 

pendence of  the  parts  of  an  organism. 

9.  A    high    degree    of    differentiation    carries    with    it 

greater  interdependence  of  the  parts  of  an  organism. 

10.  A  high  degree  of  differentiation  does  not  necessarily 

imply  greater  certainty  of  success  in  the  struggle 
for  life,  but 

11.  A    high    degree    of    differentiation    does    carry   with 

it  a  greater  certainty  of  success  in  life. 

12.  The   greater   the   specialization  the   greater   the   re- 

sponsibility of  each  part. 
Plan: 

"Things  known" — That  all  organisms  possess  life. 

The  laboratory  work,  supplemented  by  class  discussion  and 


I  PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  BIOLOGY.  4Q5 

blackboard  illustrations,  to  answer  the  following  two  funda- 
mental questions,  stated  as  problems: 

1.  Is  there  a  substance  common  to  all  living  things? 

2.  If  there  is  a  substance  common  to  all  living  things, 

what  are  its  properties,  what  various  forms  does  it 
assume,  and  how  may  those  various  forms  be  ac- 
counted for? 

B.     ELEMENTARY  BOTANY. 
Purpose: 

To  solve  as  completely  as  possible  the  problem  of  success  in 
life  from  the  standpoint  of  a  phancrogram,  i.  e.,  to  know 
a  type  of  the  higher  plants  as  a  complete  organism,  living 
its  own  life  in  a  natural  way. 
Scope: 

The  structure,  morphology  and  physiology  of  the  (a)  seed, 
(b)  leaf,  (c)  stem,  (d)  root,  (e)  flower  and  (f)  fruit,  taken 
in  the  order  named. 

(This  should  of  course  include  all  morphological  modifica- 
tions of  the  parts  named,  great  stress  being  given  to  the 
fundamental  principle  of  harmony  between  structure  and 
function.  Illustrations  should  be  introduced  from  as  many 
types  of  flowering  plants  as  possible,  especially  those  of 
greatest  economic  importance,  in  order  to  insure  a  wide  and 
first-hand  acquaintance  with  them.) 
Plan: 

The  statement  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  course  of  this 
problem  to  be  solved  by  the  student  as  a  result  of  his  work 
and  study:  "What  are  the  elements  of  success  in  life?" 
or,  "Getting  on  in  the  World,"  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
flowering  plant. 
The  development  of  the  plan  as  already  stated  under  (I). 

(For  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  elementary  botany  course 
see  "Manual  of  the  Free  High  Schools  of  Wisconsin,"  3rd  edi- 
tion.) 

C.    ADVANCED  BOTANY. 
Purpose: 

(a)  To  widen  and  deepen  the  knowledge  of  plants  and  plant 

economics  and  to  illustrate  more  fully  the  laws  of  rela- 
tion between  structure,  environment  and  function. 

(b)  To   secure  a  well-stocked  reserve  fund   of  knowledge,— 

vital,    related,    organized    knowledge, — from    which    to 
draw  for  material  in  nature-study. 
Scope: 

Comparative  studies  of  as  many  of  the  higher  forms  of  plant 
life  as  possible,  the  work  to  be  based  upon  the  Elementary 
Botany  course  and  to  include  also  some  of  the  more  com- 
mon of  the  higher  cryptograms,  such  as  the  fern,  equiactum 
and  mosses. 
Especial  stress  to  be  given  to  the  study  of  the  living  plant 

in  its  natural  environment. 
Plan : 

1.  A  statement  of  the  general  problem:     "What  relations  do 
I  find  between  the  plants  studied,  in  their  general  and 


406  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

in  their  special  organization  and  form,  and  their  condi- 
tions of  life,  or  their  environment?" 

2.  Frequent  out-of-door  studies  of  plants  in  their  natural  hab- 

itats, with  a  careful  record  of  all  observations  bearing 
upon  the  solution  of  the  general  problem. 

3.  Laboratory  work  done  upon  the  plants  brought  from  the 

field  to  further  contribute  towards  the  solution  of  the 
problem  by  more  careful  and  minute  study  of  their 
structure. 

4.  Constant  reference  to  and  thorough  familiarity  with  the 

best  botanical  literature. 
D.    ADVANCED  ZOOLOGY. 
Purpose: 

a  and  b.  (The  same  as  in  advanced  botany;  but  on  account  of 
the  greater  length  of  the  course  fuller  results  can  be  ob- 
tained.) 

c.  To  train  the  hand  to  careful,  accurate  work,  free  from  blun- 

ders in  manipulation. 

d.  To  stimulate  patient,   unremitting  endeavor;    to  cultivate 

the  habit  of  holding  tenaciously  to  a  piece  of  work  until 
it  is  done,  and  done  well. 

e.  To  secure  accurate  knowledge  of  those  forms  of  animal  life 

which  bear  important  relations  to  the  economic  interests 
of  man,  either  beneficial  or  injurious. 
Scop.e: 

The  study  in  the  laboratory  and,  so,  far  as  possible,  in  the 

field   of  the  structure,  the  most  fundamental  homologues, 

and  the  life-activities  and  relations  of  the  following  forma 

of  animal  life  in  the  order  named: 

Types  for  thorough  study.  Forms  for  comparison. 

Pigeon The  birds  of  the  state,  especially  the 

more  important  song  and  game  birds. 

Turtles Snakes,  lizards  and  aligators. 

Frog Toads,  salamanders. 

Perch Garpike,  skate,  catfish  and  eel. 

Fresh-water  clam Snails,  slugs,  squids,  oysters. 

Grasshopper The  insects  of  the  region,  especially 

those   of  economic  importance. 

Crayfish   Lobster,  crab,  pill-bug,  cyclops. 

Starfish Sea  urchin,  sea-cucumber. 

Earthworm Nereis,  leech,  trichina,  tape-worm. 

Hydra  Jelly  fish,  corals,  anemones. 

Grantia Commercial  sponges. 

Amoeba  "Hay  Infusions." 

Ending  with  White  Rat  for  the  The  common  mammals  of  the  region, 
purpose  of  summing  up  and  and  man;  besides  bringing  into  the 
for  comparison  with  all  the  study  some  of  the  most  important 
other  types.  mammals  from  other  lands. 

Plan: 

1.  Thorough  study  of  the  type,  each  day's  problem  having  first 
been  carefully  and  distinctly  stated  and  understood,  to- 
gether with  very  definite  directions  as  to  method  of  pro- 
cedure, in  order  to  obviate  needless  waste  of  time,  grop- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


407 


ing  in  the  dark,  mutilation  of  material,  and  discouraging 
failures. 

2.  Informal  talks  and  discussions  and  reports,  especially  iu 

the  forms  for  comparison. 

3.  Field  work,  to  be  done  mostly  in  the  last  term  of  the  year, 

and  chiefly  on  the  birds  and  insects. 

4.  All  the  points  enumerated  in  "plan"  under  (I)  fully  insisted 

upon. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  McCaskill — It  seems  to  me  that  one  of  the  important  things 
to  be  taken  up  in  the  first  place  has  reference  to  the  scope  of  the 
work.  With  regard  to  the  purpose  I  should  say  that  the  purpose  as 
set  down  might  just  as  well  be  placed  at  the  head  of  grammar,  arith- 
metic, or  music;  but  this  would  be  doing  wrong  to  Mr.  Dudley. 

Under  the  head  of  scope,  in  the  subject  of  general  biology,  there 
seems  to  be  a  great  variance  in  the  method  of  applying  that  work, 
and  I  want  to  speak  especially  with  regard  to  the  suggestions  which 
Mr.  Dudley  makes  with  regard  to  that  course.  He  has  put  into  the 
elementary  course,  a  course  in  general  biology  with  a  number  of  pur- 
poses, and  work  which  would  require  about  three  fourths  of  it  to  be 
microscopic  work.  It  seems  to  me, — at  least  I  get  the  idea  from 
the  wording  of  it, — that  this  is  to  be  a  course  which  is  on  the  same 
level  with  elementary  botany,  and  for  practically  the  same  purpose 
as  elementary  botany,  to  acquaint  the  students  with  the  general  facts 
around  him  with  regard  to  plant  life,  and  my  idea  is  that  the  course 
which  was  Intended  by  the  Board,  was  to  run  parallel  or  cover  about 
the  same  ground  as  in  the  line  of  biology.  To  state  the  question 
directly,  I  am  opposed  to  general  biology  which  includes  microscopic 
work.  I  am  opposed  to  the  idea  that  the  students  of  that  grade  can 
solve  the  problem  which  Mr.  Dudley  suggests,  in  the  condition  they 
are  in.  Tfie  first  point  I  make  in  favor  of  natural  history  is  that  it 
is  the  natural  order  of  things, — that  the  student  begins  to  learn  things 
around  him,  the  things  that  come  in  his  immediate  environment,  which 
he  can  find  out  with  his  eyes  and  hands.  Most  of  the  students  who 
come  to  our  school  are  able  to  do  that,  and  they  want  to  use  their 
hands  and  eyes  first,  before  they  take  up  the  microscope. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  I  favor  a  course  in 
natural  history  for  elementary  students,  rather  than  a  course  in  ele- 
mentary biology,  such  as  Prof.  Dudley  has  outlined  in  his  syllabus. 
By  natural  history  I  mean  a  careful,  connected,  and  scientific  study  of 
the  forms  of  life  most  familiar  to  the  student.  Such  a  course  does 
not  contemplate  disconnected,  haphazard  work,  without  definite  aims 
or  method.  Such  loose  work  is  as  liable  to  occur  fn  connection  with 
microscopic  work  as  in  connection  with  natural  history  study. 

1.  The  student  should  learn  to  use  his  hands  and  his  eyes  in  the 
accurate  and  careful  observation  of  the  life  around  him,  before  he  is 
required  fo  take  up  microscopic  work  on  forms  that  are  absolutely 
new  to  him.  This  follows  the  natural  order,  acquainting  him  first 
with  the  things  which  he  daily  may  see  without  the  assistance  of  com- 
plex apparatus. 


408  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

2.  Such  a  course,  if  rightly  conducted  and  rightly  pursued,  will  gain, 
for  students  of  this  grade  more  discipline  than  a  course  beginning 
with  a  study  of  microscopic  forms. 

3.  Such  a  course  under  the  supervision  of  a  careful  teacher,  with 
a  definite  aim  in  mind,  will  give  more  training  in  accurate  and  intel- 
ligent observation  than  can  be  obtained  in  the  other  course. 

4.  This  course  also  has  its  "problems."     Problems  of  life  may  be 
more  intelligently  investigated  in  connection  with  the  forms  which 
the  student  can  constantly  see  and  observe,  than  in  connection  with 
those  which  he  sees  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  laboratory  under  un- 
natural conditions. 

5.  It  furnishes  as  much  "teaching  power"  and  more  "teaching  ma- 
terial" than  the  other  course. 

6.  It  is  more  practical  for  the  rural  teacher: 

1.  Because  it  deals  with  materials  and  things  coming  within  her 
daily  experience. 

2.  It  gives  a  valuable  method  which  she  may  and  can  use  in  her 
teaching  in  the  rural  schools.     She  can  not  use  the  other  method. 

•  3.  It  furnishes  her  with  a  number  of  facts  which  may  be  used  bjr 
her,  under  conditions  in  which  she  must  work.  She  will  not  have 
compound  microscopes  through  which  she  can  lead  the  children  to 
observe  the  phenomena  which  Prof.  Dudley  considers  "fundamental 
to  a  study  of  nature." 

7.  If  .natural  history  follows  this  microscopic  work,  as  Prof.  Dudley 
has  indicated,  only  those  who  elect  the  full  course  in  zoology  will  be 
able  to  get  this  elementary  training  in  the  study  of  the  common  forms 
around  them. 

8.  Students  in  the  elementary  course   in  our  Normal  -schools  are 
not  sufficiently  trained,  or  mature  enough,  to  intelligently  solve  many 
of  the  problems  given  in  the  syllabus  submitted  by  Prof.  Dudley.     In 
fact,  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  students  in  any  grade  within  the 
limits  of  ten  weeks,  or  even  forty  weeks,  to  solve  or  "work  out"  the 
problems  which  he  suggests  for  these  elementary  students  to  solve 
within  the  space  of  ten  weeks. 

See  (b),  paragraphs  4,  5,  6,  10,  and  11. 

My  objection  is,  as  you  see,  that  this  work  is  too  advanced  and 
calls  for  too  much  generalization  for  pupils  who  have  had  no  more 
training  in  scientific  work  than  these  people  have. 

Mr.  Fling — I  agree  with  Mr.  McCaskill  as  far  as  he  has  gone.  I 
was  somewhat  surprised  in  getting  Mr.  Dudley's  paper  to  find  that 
he  had  this  course  suggested  in  the  elementary  course, — taking  up 
these  microscopic  forms.  When  this  course  was  suggested  by  the 
Board  of  Regents,  my  president  informed  me  that  it  would  be  a  course 
of  ten  weeks,  one  hour  a  day,  no  laboratory  work.  It  is  practically 
the  old  natural  history.  I  was  informed  that  I  would  be  allowed 
my  one  hour  a  day, — a  course  related  to  natural  history.  I  asked 
if  it  would  not  be  a  good  idea  to  do  some  laboratory  experiments, 
to  have  the  students  see  what  laboratory  methods  meant.  There  was 
no  objection  to  that  at  all.  On  that  basis  I  was  all  at  sea.  I  sup- 
posed it  meant  nature-study  work.  I  had  only  one,  and  have  now- 
only  one  hour  to  cover  that  work.  Again,  the  statement  was  made 
to  me  that  this  elementary  biology  was  to  take  the  place  of  elemen- 
tary botany, — either  elementary  botany,  or  elementary  biology,  not 
both,  as  Mr.  Dudley  has  in  his  course.  The  students  who  come  to- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  409 

this  school  take  elementary  biology,  which  is  practically  book  work, 
with  a  little  laboratory  work,  enough  to  amount  to  nothing  at  all. 
Supplement  that  by  botany  work,  which  does  offer  five  days'  labora- 
tory work  a  week, — five  two-hour  periods  a  week.  I  disagree  entire- 
ly about  this  being  put  into  the  elementary  course  of  study.  I  be- 
lieve this  course  does  belong  before  the  zoology  and  before  the  bot- 
any. Give  them  a  course  of  biology  and  follow  that  out  with  zoology 
and  botany.  He  has  thirty  weeks  of  zoology  following  this.  Work 
him  up  to  it,  then  take  that  thirty  weeks,  following  the  ten  weeks  you 
give  of  this. 

Another  point  on  that.  Students  who  take  that  work  with  me  do 
not  get  any  further,  because  all  my  work  is  elective,  and  they  do  not 
go  into  my  work  after  taking  that.  They  take  that  work,  get  as  little 
of  it  as  possible,  and  get  out  of  it. 

Mr.  Watson — Seems  to  me  this  whole  thing  is  a  little  broader  than 
this  one  course  in  natural  history.  It  resolves  itself  down  to  what  the 
purpose  is.  If  our  biology  work  is  intended  to  give  discipline  that 
specially  fits  the  individual  to  go  out  and  labor  in  the  schools  of  the 
state,  that  is  one  thing.  If  it  is  intended  to  give  the  best  discipline 
possible  to  pursue  the  work  in  the  university,  that  is  another  thing. 
If  I  were  shaping  the  courses  in  the  Normal  schools  so  as  to  fit  the 
students  to  take  up  the  work  in  the  university,  and  go  on  with  biology 
work,  I  should  commence  just  where  Mr.  Dudley  does.  If  I  were  shap- 
ing the  course  that  is  going  to  give  the  best  discipline  that  can  be  ob- 
tained, with  the  thought  of  making  it  utilizable  for  the  teacher  in  rural 
school  work  later,  I  should  not  put  the  students  at  work  first  upon  the 
compound  microscope,  with  the  most  difficult  problems  of  biological 
science.  If  our  purpose  is  to  help  the  teachers  in  country  school 
work,  then  I  believe  that  some  general  work  upon  the  forms  at  hand, 
the  forms  with  which  she  herself,  and  with  which  the  pupils  are  some- 
what familiar,  will  be  helpful,  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  nature  study, 
and  will  come  into  play  at  various  stages  along  the  course,  and  will 
also  have  a  value  later  in  science  work  that  follows,  both  in  biology  and 
botany.  The  third  purpose  is  to  give  a  clear  comprehension  of  the 
fundamentals,  of  the  essential  rules  and  principles.  I  believe  in  the 
first  two  points  he  makes  thoroughly.  If  he  is  going  to  take  work  in 
biology,  it  is  essential  to  have  a  knowledge  of  those  things  which 
should  be  at  the  foundation  of  nature  study.  I  contend  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  structure  of  soils,  and  the  properties  of  protoplasms  are 
not  the  foundation  of  nature  study,  and  as  I  suggested  before,  are  too 
far  ahead  of  the  student  at  this  stage.  I  would  like  to  ask,  and  I  think 
that  this  ought  to  come  in  here,  with  regard  to  just  exactly  the  kind 
of  courses  that  are  offered  in  the  different  schools.  I  would  like  to 
ask  the  biology  teachers  to  say  what  is  given  in  this  course. 

Mr.  Ewing — In  the  River  Falls  school  the  course  is  the  minimum  re- 
quired by  tEe  Board, — ten  weeks  of  botany  required,  and  ten  weeks 
elective  No  biology  required,  and  twenty  weeks  elective. 

Mr.  Watson — We  do  about  the  same  as  they  do  at  River  Falls,  with 
the  exception  that  we  have  an  additional  course  in  the  elementary 
course,  that  offers  nature  study,  the  studying  of  plants  of  the  larger 
types,  trees  particularly,  birds,  and  insects.  We  follow  the  general 
lines  of  nature-study  work  in  addition  to  the  ten  weeks  of  required 
botany  in  the  elementary  course,  and  in  the  advanced  work  we  have 
the  biology,  physiology,  and  botany. 


410  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr. 1  use  Burnett,  and  all  the  material  I  can  get  hold  of. 

I  have  three  or  four  laboratory  exercises,  and  all  the  rest  recitation  and 
illustrative  matter, — everything  I  can  get. 

Mr.  Mitchell — We  haven't  the  elementary  conrse,  so  I  can  not  speak 
from  that  standpoint. 

Mr.  McCaskill — I  have  a  study  of  birds  and  insects. 

Mr.  Young — We  give  a  straight  year  in  what  we  term  biology.  The 
first  twenty  weeks  is  zoology,  and  the  second  twenty  weeks  botany, 
and  ten  of  each  of  these  is  required  for  students  taking  the  elementary 
course.  That  is  about  all  the  work  that  I  give  in  the  biology  depart- 
ment. Mr.  Merrill  gives  them  an  advanced  course  of  ten  weeks  Ui 
biology,  and  an  advanced  course  of  ten  weeks  in  botany. 

Mr.  Watson — What  do  you  do  for  the  required  work  in  botany? 

Mr.  Young — We  don't  take  it  as  a  separate  thing  at  all.  We  take 
twenty  weeks  of  zoology  first,  and  then  twenty  weeks  of  botany.  Ten 
weeks  of  each  is  required  for  the  elementary  course. 

Mr.  Watson — In  that  ten  weeks,  do  you  require  microscopic  work? 

Mr.  Young.  No,  we  do  not.  We  have  taken  up  the  plan  adopted  by 
a  great  many  university  men,  of  beginning  with  the  insects,  and  work- 
ing the  insects  thoroughly,  including  under  the  head  of  insects  the  first 
ten  weeks,  and  that  covers  the  work  for  the  elementary  students  from 
several  points  of  view, — from  the  standpoint  of  anatomy,  the  stand- 
point of  physiology,  a  study  of  the  life  histories,  and  the  economic 
side  to  some  extent  in  the  physiology  work.  I  would  add  that  of 
course  we  believe  in  this,  or  we  would  not  pursue  it  in  this  way.  We 
begin  with  the  amoeba,  the  lowest  form  ,and  work  up. 

Mr. This  idea  of  beginning  with  the  amoeba,  as- 1  under- 
stand it,  has  been  practically  abandoned  in  our  section  of  the  country. 
Prof.  Carleton,  in  the  state  Normal  at  Normal,  111.,  has  even  gone  so  far 
as  to  object  to  microscopic  work  of  any  kind  in  the  elementary  course 
in  biology  or  botany  in  the  Normal  school. 

Mr. 1  most  heartily  agree  with  him.  It  does  not  seem  to 

me  that  this  is  the  course  appropriate  for  the  elementary  schools.  I 
also  agree  with  him  in  his  objection  to  the  use  of  the  compound 
microscope  as  a  regular  feature  of  work.  The  only  point  I  think  in 
which  I  would  diverge  from  his  objections,  would  perhaps  be  in  strik- 
ing out  the  work  in  biology  altogether,  and  really  this  is  the  funda- 
mental line  of  work  in  that  course,  to  be  followed  in  the  next  two 
years  of  professional  work,  and  the  fundamental  line  of  work  would 
be  botany,  and  not  biology.  There  is  no  reason  for  giving  biology  as 
such,  except  that  biology  as  such  involves  all  of  the  principles  of 
botany  and  zoology.  Is  not  that  true?  It  is  technically  and  theoreti- 
cally a  foundation  for  future  work  in  either  of  those  sciences,  there- 
fore either  of  those  sciences  comprehends  in  itself  all,  or  practically 
all,  of  the  faundamental  principles  that  you  teach  in  your  work  in  bi- 
ology. Therefore  in  the  line  of  condensation  of  work,  it  seems  to  me 
that  everything  could  be  involved  that  it  is  desired  to  involve  in  the 
study  of  one  fundamental  line  of  work  that  shall  commence  at  the  be- 
ginning o?  the  elementary  course  and  find  its  completion  at  the  end 
of  the  professional  course.  Then  you  have  a  line  along  which  you  can 
plow,  and  plow  deep,  and  to  which  you  can  correlate  all  of  the  rest  of 
your  natural  history  work,  and  which  will  involve  all  of  your  biology 
principles.  This  is  practically  the  only  line  in  which  I  would  departl 
from  Prof.  McCaskill  in  his  objection. 


A  GENERAL  REPLY. 


A   GENERAL   REPLY. 


411 


Mr.  Dudley — I  want  to  state  at  the  outset,  that  of  course  I  recognize 
very  clearly  that  there  will  be  nobody  perhaps  in  the  biology  fratern- 
ity, who  will  endorse  what  I  have  to  say  here.  As  I  understood  it 
from  the  directions  that  were  given  us  by  the  State  Superintendent, 
this  outline  would  be  merely  a  statement  of  work  being  done  in  each 
school.  I  asked  him  that  personally,  and  he  told  me  tnat  was  so,  hence 
I  didn't  go  into  any  discussion  whatever  of  the  pros  and  cons  in  any- 
way attempting  to  explain  or  defend  the  course.  In  short,  I  did  not 
attempt  to  give  the  reasons  why  in  any  case  whatever.  I  have  simply 
stated  how  I  have  been  giving  the  work  in  biology  in  the  Platteville 
Normal  school,  what  is  being  done,  and  the  general  purpose  underlying 
that  work,  and  also  the  plan  of  doing  the  work.  I  supposed  that  each 
one  who  had  these  papers  to  prepare,  would  have  the  opportunity  at 
the  very  outset  before  any  discussion  was  entered  upon,  to  state  his 
case  more  clearly,  of  giving  the  argument  for  the  faith  within  him. 
Of  course  ft  started  off  in  a  different  way  this  afternoon  and  I  let  it 
go  at  that.  I  find  the  other  papers  were  more  of  an  argument  than 
this.  At  tne  outset  I  want  to  say  one  thing:  It  may  seem  as  a 
criticism  on  some  who  have  made  objections  to  this  course.  Consis- 
tency is  a  jewel.  We  have  voted  here,  all  excepting  one,  at  the  very 
outset  of  this  afternoon's  work,  that  the  main  thing  in  physics  is  to 
give  discipline.  Shall  we  leave  that  work  out  of  this,  and  say  that  the 
Tnain  object  of  biology  in  the  Normal  schools  is  not  to  give  discipline? 
If  the  main  purpose  of  the  biology  in  the  Normal  schools  is  to  give 
•discipline,  which  I  judge  it  to  be,  just  as  I  hold  it  the  main  purpose 
of  physics,  chemistry,  or  any  science  whatever  that  is  given,  is  funda- 
mentally disciplinary  power,  then  I  repeat,  let  us  be  consistent.  If 
we  are  going  to  give  but  a  very  short  .time  of  the  twenty  weeks,  or 
whatever  number  it  may  be,  at  our  disposal,  to  each  of  the  grand 
-divisions  of  biology,  as  you  just  illustrated  by  giving  a  certain  amount 
of  time  to  each  of  the  grand  five  divisions  of  physics,  then  that  funda- 
mental purpose  of  discipline  must  be  thrown  out  of  the  biology.  If 
the  main  purpose  of  the  biology  work  in  the  Normal  schools  is  to  give 
discipline,  then  I  say  in  all  fairness  that  you  can  not  cover  the  whole 
line  of  animal  life,  the  whole  line  of  plant  life,  and  get  anything  that 
-will  result  in  discipline  from  it.  You  may  get  a  certain  amount  of 
unrelated  information.  I  simply  want  to  go  over  a  few  points  here, 
and  state  the  things  just  as  they  are,  and  the  reason  why  the  course 
lias  been  given  as  I  have  done  it. 

In  the  first  place,  when  I  went  into  the  Normal  school  down  there, 
there  was  a  course  in  the  catalog  of  which  I  knew  nothing  of  its  con- 
tent,— biology.  It  simply  said  biology,  and  by  biology  I  understood  as 
intended  general  biology  as  it  is  outlined  here.  Consequently  I  gave 
that  course.  I  continued  to  give  that  course  for  three  years.  A  year 
ago  in  August  this  new  rule  of  the  Board  was  passed,  in  which  there 
was  comprehended  an  elementary  nature  course  really  not  to  conflict 
with  the  elementary  course  in  botany,  that  had  always  been  given, 
that  is  required  of  everybody  in  the  institution.  The  question  came 
up  between  our  president  and  myself,  whether,  in  view  of  the  action  of 
the  Board  the  general  biology  course  that  I  had  been  giving  would 
"have  to  be  given  up.  I  want  to  state  one  or  two  things  in  connection 


412  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

with  that,  which  I  do  not  state  in  any  sense  except  to  simply  lay  the 
matter  before  this  company.  That  general  biology  course  was  re- 
quired in  the  English  Scientific  course,  and  no  other,  and  in  the  first 
year  few  took  it.  In  succeeding  years  the  class  grew  larger.  It  was 
found  that  that  course  was  valuable  to  all  students,  and  by  the  time 
this  year  arrived  the  majority  of  the  students  of  the  course  were  tak- 
ing the  general  biology,  and  the  president,  at  his  own  initiative,  said 
that  to  make  this  more  unform,  he  would  require  it  of  all. 

Now  to  go  back  to  the  question  of  a  moment  ago.  The  question 
arose  whether  that  should  be  thrown  out, — that  general  biology 
course, — and  what  the  Board  intended.  I  have  talked  with  a  good 
many  of  the  Board.  Mr.  Emery  came  down  and  visited  the  general 
biology  course,  and  we  weVe  talking  about  protoplasm.  He  said — 
"Here,  is  this  the  course  that  the  Board  intended  you  should  be  giv- 
ing?" I  said, — "No  sir,  it  is  not  the  course  that  the  Board  intended 
should  be  given.  It  is  the  course  that  was  in  the  catalog  when  I 
came  here,  and  when  this  new  outline  of  the  course  of  study  was  In- 
stituted, we  decided  it  should  be  continued  just  as  it  had  been  given." 
And  then  and  there  for  an  hour  and  a  half  we  talked  it  over,  and  Mr. 
Emery,  who  was  instrumental  in  putting  in  that  course,  was  con- 
vinced that  this  course  in  general  biology  was  of  great  value  to  the 
elementary  students. 

Now  I  would  like  to  take  up  a  few  of  the  points  that  have  been 
mentioned 'by  Mr.  McCaskill,  and  would  it  be  imposing  upon  you,  Mr. 
McCaskill,  if  I  take  those  notes  from  which  you  read?  I  would  like 
to  anwser  almost  every  objection.  In  the  first  place  let  me  reiterate 
one  thing.  I  do  not  thing  it  is  wise  in  any  subject,  as  you  have  all 
voted  upon  in  regard  to  physics,  to  try  to  spread  oneself  over  the 
whole  line  of  the  subject  considered.  There  is  just  one  little  thing 
here  I  want  to  read,  a  criticism  of  Jackman's  Nature  Study,  a  book 
which  I  think  is  doing  as  much  harm  as  anything  can  do. 

(Quotation  omitted  by  stenographer.) 

I  hold  Chat  if  a  teacher  in  our  Normal  schools  goes  out  with  that 
notion,  that  he  has  learned  so  much  about  nature  that  he  can  teach 
anything  that  comes  before  him  in  his  school  without  any  danger  of 
making  a  mistake,  if  he  has  such  a  self-satisfied  idea,  especially  to 
those  students  who  come  in  from  the  high  school,  having  had  physics 
there,  he  will  actually  do  harm,  and  I  think  the  nature  work  that  Is 
being  done  in  the  common  schools  today  is  actually  harmful.  It  is 
doing  no  good  whatever.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  all  of  it,  but  the  ma- 
jority of  nature-study,  so  termed,  is  a  direct  violation  of  every  good  and 
sound  pedagogical  principle.  Now  if  it  is  well  worth  while  for  a  stu- 
dent in  our  courses  in  physics,  or  a  student  in  our  courses  in  chem- 
istry to  understand  and  work  out  experimentally,  and  arrive  at  very 
concrete  conclusions,  and  certain  chemical,  or  certain  physical  prin- 
ciples, why  is  it  not  so  in  biology?  Why  should  we  say  that  a  thing 
is  too  difficult  in  biology,  when  it  is  not  too  difficult  in  physics  or  in 
chemistry?  Let  us  be  consistent. 

I  propose  to  take  this  outline  syllabus  and  expand  it.  I  have  said 
I  did  not  attempt  anything  of  that  kind,  but  simply  stated  what  I  was 
doing  and  made  no  attempt  to  back  up  the  statement  of  what  I  was 
doing  with  any  reasons  pro  or  con.  I  would  like  to  say  this  at  the  out- 
set, as  a  fundamental  proposition  which  I  should  want  to  think  every- 
body would  agree  to,  that  biology  as  a  science  has  the  right  to  be  put 


A   GENERAL  REPL 


on  just  as  firm  and  broad  a  basis  as  physics,  or  chemisry,  or  any 
other    science.     It   is    very   true   that   biology    is,    as    compared    with 
physics,  as  a  study  in  schools,  in  its  infancy.     It  has  not  the  history 
behind   it,  that  development  from  a  chaotic  condition  to  a  definite 
scientific  work,  which  we  know  to  be  true  of  physics.     And  so  even 
to  day,  just  as  we  have  already  seen,  there  are  very  diverse  notions  of 
what  is  to  be  done,  and  how  that  "what"  is  to  be  accomplished.     It 
was  agreed  here  yesterday  that  the  work  in  physics  should  commence 
with  fundamentals,  and  should  have  a  scope  brief  enough  so  that  cer- 
tain fundamental  principles  can  be  established.     You  will  remember 
that  the  report  of  Mr.  Sage  showed  there  were  about  19  experiments 
to  be  done  in  his  elementary  course  during  a  period  of  twenty  weeks. 
That  was  in  contrast  to  what  one  gentleman  here  suggested,  of  try- 
ing to  cover  the  entire  field  of  physics,  all  five  subjects.     Now  there 
are   the  two   methods   put   in   contrast  with   each   other.     I   want  to 
reiterate  that  it  was  voted  here  yesterday  by  a  majority  of  11  to  1, 
that  the  general  information  method  in  physics  should  be  abolished, 
and  that  the  working  out  of  a  very  comparatively  small  scope  was  the 
true  method.     Now  that  in  the  first  place  is  exactly  the  thing  that  I 
want  to  have  accomplished  in  biology, — to  do  a  little,  and  have  that 
little  directed  toward  the  solution  of  certain  well  defined  principles  of 
life.     Now  I  contradict  the  statement  that  those  principles  as  I  have 
enumerated  them  in  this  paper,  are  at  all  difficult  of  comprehension. 
They  are  principles  which  are  more  or  less  comprehended  even  before 
a  student  has  entered  the  class  in  biology,  in  a  general  sort  of  a  way. 
They  do  constitute  part  of  his  stock  of  information,  to  a  large  degree. 
And  so  I  want  to  call  attention  just  a  moment  to  this  outline.     There 
is  one  correction  here;  I  find  that  some  have  made  a  little  mistake  in 
reading  it  over;  the  paper  treats  of  biology  as  a  whole,  of  course  in- 
cluding botany  and  zoology,  and  whatever  may  legitimately  come  un- 
der the  study  of  life  problems.     It  is  true  I  have  included  here  the 
study  of  human  physiology,  and  that  is  treated  in  another  paper  in  the 
same  meeting,  and  out  of  that  biology  as  a  whole  I  have  treated  three 
sub-heads,  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan  of  them.     Then  after  treating 
the  whole  general  field  of  biology,  I  have  gone  on  here  to  detail  the 
courses,   and   under  that   general   biology,   and   by  general  biology   I 
thought  everybody  would  understand  distinctly  that  I  mean  the  ten 
weeks  course  which  is  the  only  thing  we  are  discussing  here  at  all. 
No  discussion  whatever  has  been  had  about  advanced  biology  or  zo- 
ology.    And  then  under  that  general  biology  I  have  this  set  down  as 
the  purpose,  please  note,  of  that  specific  course,  these  four  points: 
First, — To  give  power  to  see,  to  compare,  to  infer,  and  to  apply.     Sec- 
ond,— To  form  a  rational  basis  for  the  more  detailed  sfudy  of  botany 
and   zoology.     In   other   words,   an   introductory   course   to   advanced 
work,  not  at  all  an  introductory  course  to  the  university  course.     I 
Tiave  no  such  intent  whatever.     The  purpose  is  to  give  teaching  power, 
and  teaching  material.     It  has  no  reference  to  the  university  course  at 
all, — that  is  not  comprehended  in  this  paper.     Third, — To  give  a  clear 
comprehension  of  the  most  fundamental  laws  and  principles  underly- 
ing the  life-activities  of  all  living  beings,  a  knowledge  of  which  should 
"be  at  the  foundation  of  nature  study,  or  natural  history  of  whatever 
name, — of  human  physiology,  and  should  enter  into  the  general  cul- 
ture of  every  teacher.     And  Fourth,  with  one  and  three  accomplished, 
— To  enable  teachers  to  carry  on  instruction  in  the  limitless  realm  ot 


4H  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

natural  history,  having  sufficient  grounding  in  the  fundamentals  to 
take  illustrations  from  the  great  world  of  life  about  them,  even  though, 
as  is  bound  to  be  the  case,  many  of  these  forms  of  life  have  not  been 
the  objects  of  special  previous  study,  and  to  use  them  in  a  purposeful 
•way,  i.  e.,  to  aid  teachers  to  rescue  nature  study  from  the  practice  of 
making  it  a  mere  cataloging  of  things  and  a  recital  of  unrelated  facts, 
and  raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  the  study  of  life-relations,  life-activities, 
and  life-sympathies. 

That  was  the  purpose  of  this  general  biology  course.  If  I  found  that 
I  were  not  accomplishing  this  purpose,  I  should  never  give  it.  I  refer 
the  biology  fraternity  here  to  those  four  points,  and  I  claim  that  those 
four  points  are  accomplished  by  this  sort  of  a  course,  by  this  material 
and  this  method  of  work. 

I  will  now  take  up  some  of  those  objections  made  by  Mr.  McCaskill. 

The  objections  made  were  as  follows,  and  I  will  answer  them  in  suc- 
cession: "The  reasons  why  I  favor  a  course  in  natural  history  for 
elementary  students  rather  than  a  course  in  "General  Biology,"  such 
as  Professor  Dudley  has  outlined  in  his  syllabus.  By  natural  history 
I  mean  a  careful,  connected  and  scientific  study  of  the  forms  of  life 
most  familiar  to  the  student.  Such  a  course  does  not  contemplate  dis- 
connected, haphazard  work  without  definite  aim  or  method.  Such, 
loose  work  is  as  liable  to  occur  in  connection  with  microscopic  work 
as  in  connection  with  natural  history  study."  (McCaskill.) 

It  is  difficult  to  discuss  Mr.  McCaskill's  objections  with  absolute  fair- 
ness, because  in  nothing  that  he  has  said  or  written  (and  the  same 
thing  may  be  said  of  those  who  hold  similar  views  with  him)  has  he 
indicated  clearly  just  what  his  natural  history  course  would  consist  of. 
In  general  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  course  in  "General 
Biology"  is  not  recommended  because  it  involves  the  study  of  micro- 
scopic forms,  as  though  the  use  of  the  microscope  in  itself  were  a  de- 
sirable thing;  but  for  the  indisputable  fact  that  the  course  indicated, 
by  developing  and  establishing  the  most  fundamental  and  essential 
laws  and  principles  of  all  living  things  puts  the  student  in  the  right 
attitude  of  mind,  gives  him  the  correct  point  of  approach  for  all 
studies  of  a  like  nature  which  he  may  afterwards  undertake.  It  has 
not  been  shown  in  the  above  (because  none  of  the  forms  of  life  have 
been  specified)  that  a  "careful,  connected,  scientific  study  of  the  forms 
of  life  most  familiar  to  the  student"  could  be  made.  Unless  rigid 
censorship  were  exercised  (thus  eliminating  many  of  the  "familiar 
forms"  and  adding  others  that  would  certainly  not  be  familiar,  the  re- 
sult of  which  would  be  a  limited  series  of  the  higher,  more  complex 
forms  of  life  instead  of  the  simpler  ones)  it  would  be  bound  to  con- 
sist of  a  mere  cataloging  of  the  names,  habits  and  "items  of  interest" 
of  a  number  of  animals  which  happened  to  be  seen  or  collected,  which 
certainly  would  not  be  connected,  and  would  not  be  scientific. 

1.  "The  student  should  learn  to  use  his  hands  and  his  eyes  in  the 
accurate  and  careful  observation  of  the  life  around  him  before  he  Is 
required  to  take  up  microscopic  work  on  forms  that  are  absolutely 
new  to  him.  This  follows  the  natural  order,  acquainting  him  first  with 
the  things  he  daily  may  see  without  the  assistance  of  complex  appara- 
tus." (McCaskill.) 

In  the  list  of  types  suggested  in  the  syllabus  for  use  in  the  "General 
Biology"  course  seventeen  distinct  forms  (not  counting  Elodia)  are 
named,  ft  is  doubtful  whether  another  list  of  seventeen  could  be 


A   GENERAL  REPLY. 


415 


named  containing  more  forms  of  life  which,  so  far  as  the  student  Is 
concerned,  are  immediately  "around  him."  Para,  moecium,  vorticella, 
protococcus,  bacteria  (inadvertantly  left  out  of  the  list),  yeast, 
spirogyra,  marchantia,  hydra,  and  frog  may  be  found  on  every  hand, 
not  a  few  of  them  in  close  and  disagreeable  relation  to  man,  affecting 
his  interests.  The  fact  that  with  many  of  them — although  they  are 
so  near  at  hand, — the  student  may  not  have  a  "speaking  acquaintance" 
may  serve  in  the  predetermined  scheme  of  instruction  as  an  advan- 
tage rather  than  a  disadvantage,  for  then  previously  formed  errors  will 
not  have  to  be  corrected.  It  is  held  by  the  writer  of  the  syllabus,  more- 
over, that  ft  is  a  much  more  sound  pedagogical  principle  to  acquaint  a 
student  with  those  forms  of  life  which  are  the  simplest  and  have  the 
most  intimate  relation, —  (i.  e.,  that  will  illustrate  most  clearly) — to  the 
particular  principles  of  living  things  which  he,  the  teacher,  is  endeavor- 
ing to  estabish  and  emphasize,  rather  than  to  use  forms  simply  because 
he,  the  student,  "daily  may  see  them."  It  is  far  from  evident  that  the 
latter  is  "the  natural  order."  It  must  not  be  assumed  at  once  that  sucn 
a  procedure  would  be  in  conformity  with  the  maxim  "Proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown."  To  spend  all  one's  time  in  the  study  of  certain 
forms  of  life  simply  because  they  happen  to  be  "known"  in  a  superficial 
way  will  lead  to  no  conclusion,  and  will  be  much  less  the  "natural  or- 
der" than  the  study  of  forms,  "known"  or  "unknown,"  which  have  defi- 
nite bearing  upon  a  well  wrought-out  plan  of  work  which  the  teacher 
wishes  to  accomplish.  The  latter,  from  the  standpoint  of  good  pedagogy, 
is  the  "natural  order."  Here  again,  it  must  be  admitted,  In  justice  to 
Mr.  McCaskill,  that  no  definite  formulation  of  a  substitute  has  been  of- 
fered, and  as  in  all  cases  where  general  sweeping  plans  are  set  up 
against  specific  ones,  allowance  must  be  made  for  what  might  be 
worked  out  by  the  one  who  advances  the  general  conception.  The 
chief  claim  here  made  is  that  the  exact  course  outlined  accomplishes 
the  ends  specified. 

2.  "Such  a  course  if  rightly  conducted  and  rightly  pursued,  will  gain 
for  the  student  of  this  grade  more  discipline  than  a  course  beginning 
with  a  study  of  microscopic  forms."     (McCaskill.) 

As  the  above  propositions  is  entirely  unsupported  by  data  or  reasons 
of  any  sort  nothing  can  be  said  except  to  admit  that  the  author  of  it 
thinks  so. 

3.  "Such  a  course  under  the  supervision  of  a  careful  teacher  with  a 
definite  aim  in  mind,  will  give  more  training  in  accurate  and  intelli- 
gent observation  that  can  be  obtained  in  the   other   course."     (Mc- 
Caskill.) 

The  above  is  but  a  paraphrasing  of  the  previous  proposition  (No.  2.) 
and  so  has  the  same  weight.  If  one  might  learn  distinctly  just  what 
the  "definite  aim  in  mind"  is  or  might  be,  it  would  be  much  easier  to 
make  a  comparison  between  it  and  the  one  outlined  in  the  syllabus. 

4.  "This  course  also  has  its  problems.     Problems  of  life  may  be  more 
intelligently  investigated  in  connection  with  the  forms  which  the  stu- 
dent can  constantly  see  and  observe  than  in  connection  with  those 
whicn  he  sees  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  laboratory  under  unnatural 
conditions."     (McCaskill.) 

Here  again,  for  lack  of  definiteness  little  can  be  said  concerning  the 
proposed  substitution.  However,  every  teacher  of  science  knows — and 
and  is  it  not  universally  true? — that  no  hard,  consecutive,  systematic 
study  leading  to  the  solution  of  any  problem  is  ever  done  except  it  be 


416  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

undertaken  at  a  definite  time  and  in  a  definite  place?  It  is  to  the 
"few  minutes"  devoted  to  work  in  the  laboratory  (not,  however,  under 
unnatural  conditions,  but  far  more  natural  conditions  than  usually 
exist  for  the  study  of  museum  specimens  of  birds  and  other  "familiar 
forms")  that  we  must  look  for  results  rather  than  to  the  "constant  ob- 
servation" of  forms  constantly  about  the  student. 

5.  "It    furnishes    as    much    "teaching    power"    and    more    "teaching 
material"  than  the  other  course."     (McCaskill.) 

If  Mr.  McCaskill  had  read  carefully  the  "purpose"  of  the  course  in 
"general  biology"  as  outlined  he  would  have  seen  that  no  claim  was 
made  that  the  teacher  would  be  furnished  with  material  for  use  in  his 
own  school.  And  for  answer  to  objections  (5)  and  (6)  the  "purpose" 
referred  to  above  is  explicit. 

6.  "It  is  more  practical  for  the  rural  teacher: 

(1)  Because  it  deals  with  material  and  things  coming  within  the 
daily  experience  of  the  teacher. 

(2)  It  gives  a  valuable  method  which  she  may  use  in  her  teaching. 
She  cam  not  use  the  other  in  the  rural  schools. 

(3)  It  furnishes  facts  that  may  be  used  under  conditions  in  which 
she  must  work.     She  will  not  have  compound  microscopes  in  her  work, 
nor  can  profitably  use  for  her  children  the  facts  learned  in  such  study." 
(McCaskill.) 

The  most  fundamental  unreserved  claim  made  for  the  course  in 
"general  biology"  is  that  it  does  give  the  right  method  of  work.  And 
having  clearly  establishel  the  right  point  of  view  and  point  of  de- 
parture "facts"  and  "material"  in  greater  abundance  than  they  can 
be  used,  will  be  obtained  with  the  least  trouble  of  all.  It  is  a  ques- 
tion of  what  is  the  correct  way  to  introduce  a  teacher  to  the  study  of 
life  and  living  forms,  and  not  a  question  between  utility  arid  non- 
utility. 

7.  "If  natural  history  follows  this  microscopic  work  as  Prof.  Dudley 
has  indicated,  only  those  who  elect  the  full  course  in  zoology  will  be 
able  to  get  this  elementary  training  in  the  study  of  the  common  forms 
around  them."     (McCaskill.) 

In  the  course  as  indicated,  every  student  is  required  to  take  botany 
in  addition  to  the  general  biology.  It  is  not  a  question  of  election.  To 
say  that  some  of  the  other  schools  have  a  total  of  but  ten  weeks  to 
devote  to  one  or  the  other, — elementary  botany  or  elementary  zoology, 
— does  not  argue  against  the  course  outlined  as  being  the  ideal  course. 
True,  the  advanced  zoology  is  elective,  but  the  elementary  students, — 
even  those  who  object  to  the  course  in  "general  biology", — may 
"elect"  elementary  botany  instead  of  elementary  zoology,  (or  "natural 
history"  so-called).  Mr.  McCaskill  makes  no  mention  of  them  and  of 
how  they  are  equipped,  lacking  as  they  must  the  "natural  history." 

8.  "Students  in  the  elementary  course  in  our  Normal  schools  are  not 
sufficiently  trained  or  mature  enough  to  intelligently  solve  many  of  the 
problems  given  in  the  syllabus.     In  fact  it  is  absolutely  Impossible  for 
the  students  in  any  grade  within  the  limit  of  ten  weeks  or  even  forty 
weeks  to  solve  or  "work  out"  the  problems  which  he  suggests  for 
these  elementary  students  to  solve  within  the  space  of  ten  weeks. 
See  (b)  page  3.     Especial  attention  is  called  to  paragraphs  4,  5,  6,  10, 
and  11."     (McCaskill.) 

The  most  convincing  reply  to  the  above  sweeping  objection  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  what  is  indicated  in  (b)  of  the  syllabus  is  accom- 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  PHYSIOLOGY. 

plished  and  has  been  accomplished  in  the  space  of  ten  weeks  during 
the  past  four  years  on  an  average  of  three  times  each  year.  More- 
over, paragraphs  1  to  12  are  not  "problems"  as  the  above  objection 
would  indicate  that  the  writer,  Mr.  McCaskill,  supposes,  but  general 
principles  of  biology  which  are  so  easy  of  comprehension  as  to  be 
entirely  within  the  mental  possibilities  of  the  average  student  in  the 
second  year  of  our  Normal  schools, — students  of  an  average  age  of  at 
least  twenty  years. 

I  must  believe  that  had  Mr.  McCaskill  investigated  more  carefully 
into  the  real  content  and  significance  of  it,  he  would  not  so  readily 
have  fallen  into  the  error  of  branding  as  "too  difficult"  a  course  which, 
to  say  the  least,  he  has  not  tried  with  his  own  students  and  hence  of 
whose  difficulty  or  simplicity  he  was  forced  to  judge  from  an  outline 
destitute  of  all  explanation  or  qualification.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
writer  of  the  syllabus  to  expand  the  portion  on  "general  biology"  into 
a  paper  in  which  the  points  that  have  caused  the  critics  most  trouble 
will  be  gone  into  at  length,  with  the  hope  that  all  difficult  places  may 
be  made  plain. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  writer  of  the  syllabus  is  making  no  con- 
tention whatever  for  either  the  study  of  microscopic  forms  on  account 
of  their  requiring  the  microscope,  or  for  the  particular  list  of  organisms 
suggested  per  se,  but  for  the  illustration  and  the  establishment  of  the 
general  and  essential  principles  of  living  things.  That  is  considered  to 
be  as  fundamental  in  biology  as  it  is  in  physics  or  chemistry  or  any 
science  worthy  of  the  name.  If  the  development  of  those  fundamental 
principles  can  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  more  complex  forms 
of  life  instead  of  the  simple  ones,  and  without  the  aid  of  the  micro- 
scope, well  and  good.  The  microscope  is  always  to  be  regarded  as 
merely  an  assistant,  and  never  as  an  instrument  whose  use  is  desirable 
in  itself.  The  only  claim  is  that  in  order  to  reach  the  end  sought  (the 
establishment  of  principles)  the  types  suggested  and  the  methods  em- 
ployed have  by  actual  experience  yielded  the  best  result. 


THE  PURPOSES,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  IN  TEACHING  PHYSIOLOGY 
IN  OUR  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

A.  L.  Ewing,  River  Falls. 

Purpose. 

I.  An  important  purpose  in  teaching  physiology  in  a  Normal  school 
is  that  the  student  shall  gain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  human  body  and 
its  hygienic  surroundings  as  will  enable  him  to  understand  hygienic 
conditions  in  and  about  his  schoolroom  and  hence  provide  for  the 
physiological  welfare  of  the  children  under  his  charge. 

II.  Another  purpose  in  teaching  physiology  is  to  provide  efficient 
teachers  of  the  subject  for  the  public  schools;  with  the  same  end  In 
view  as  before,  viz.:  the  healthfulness  of  the  children  throughout  the 
commonwealth. 

III.  Again  physiology  should  be  taught  in  our  schools  for  its  edu- 
cational value.    This,  though  perhaps  secondary  to  the  hygienic  value, 

27 


418  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

is  by  no  means  low.  As  the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  may  be 
taught  to  quite  an  extent  objectively,  and  occurring  at  a  time  when  the 
student's  work  is  largely  literary,  it  is  frequently  a  means  of  awaken- 
ing in  the  young  mind  new  lines  of  thought,  new  animation  and 
larger  aspirations.  It  certainly  helps  the  student  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  what  he  is.  All  of  this  adds  to  his  intellectual  power  and 
makes  him  a  more  efficient  teacher. 

IV.     Physiology  also  forms  a  basis  for  other  studies,  as  zoology, 
psychology,  and  pedagogy. 
Scope. 

Physiology  in  a  Normal  school  should  embrace  a  study  of  the  gross 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene  of  the  various  organs  and  tissues  of 
the  body.  It  should  also  include  a  study  of  the  microscopic  structure 
of  certain  of  the  more  important  tissues,  as  bone,  tooth,  skin,  lung, 
kidney,  blood,  liver,  intestine,  spinal-cord,  nerve-cell,  and  nerve-fiber. 

The  subject  should  include  the  study  of  respiration,  its  chemistry  and 
mechanics;  foods,  their  nature,  composition  and  classification,  bodily- 
energy,  its  source  and  nature;  and  something  of  the  nature  of  light 
and  sound. 

The  subject  of  school-hygiene,  as  ventilation,  schoolroom  lighting, 
posture  of  the  body,  sanitary  conditions,  etc,,  should  receive  careful 
attention. 
Plan. 

Preparation  for  the  daily  physiology  lesson  is  made  by  study  of  the 
text  and  reference  books,  supplemented  by  laboratory  study  under  the 
supervision  of  a  teacher. 

The  laboratory  exercises  occur  on  an  average  of  twice  a  week  and 
consist  of  a  study  of  the  various  tissues  and  organs  including  bones 
and  the  human  skeleton;  dissections,  experimental  tests,  as  of  di- 
gestion, strength  of  muscle,  mechanics  of  respiration,  study  of  models, 
charts,  and  of  microscopic  slides — enumerated  above. 

Notes  are  taken  and  sketches  made  of  these  laboratory  observa- 
tions. 

The  hygienic  importance  of  physiology  makes  it  seem  necessary  to 
teach  the  subject  out  of  its  normal  place,  at  the  end  of  the  science  in- 
struction. Hence  the  immaturity  of  the  students  in  me  elementary 
course  precludes  doing  work  with  the  thoroughness  and  efficiency 
desired.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  the  purpose  of  the  advanced  physiology 
to  secure  this  desideratum  by  more  complete  work  along  similar  lines; 
both  in  laboratory  and  class-room  discusions. 

All  along  the  physiology  should  be  so  co-ordinated  with  the  physical 
training  that  the  two  may  reinforce  each  other. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Ewing— It  seems  to  me  that  that  is  the  line  of  work  in  physiol- 
ogy that  is  the  important  one,  and  we  have  heard  a  great  deal  about 
certain  defects  along  the  line  of  geography,  etc.;  but  in  the  hygienic 
results  of  physiology  it  seems  to  me  that  the  burden  is  even  more 
than  along  any  other  line.  There  is  no  department  of  education  that 
needs  reinforcement,  and  needs  in  some  way  to  produce  a  better  state 
of  health,  of  physical  condition,  so  much  as  in  this  one.  Physiology 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

is  the  only  study,  practically,  that  deals  very  extensively  with  this, 
and  the  other  branch  as  I  have  intimated  here,^-physical  training. 
In  regard  to  the  advanced  physiology,  it  seems  to  me  unwise  to  at- 
tempt to  do  much  of  anything  about  that  any  more  than  a  brief  sug- 
gestion, because  the  fact  is,  it  never  has  materialized  in  our  school. 
Our  classes  are  not  large,  and  no  one  has  asked  for  it,  and  it  has 
seemed  unwise  to  encourage  a  further  division  along  this  elective  line 
of  science  work.  Hence  we  have  preferred  they  should  elect  zool- 
ogy, for  instance,  rather  than  the  physiology,  and  it  has  not  seemed 
desirable  to  divide  work  further  along  this  line. 

Mr.  Upham — You  have  only  ten  weeks,  then? 

Mr  Ewing — That  is  practically  all  we  have  in  physiology. 

Mr  Upham — I  would  like  to  ask,  in  that  laboratory  work  that  comes 
twice  a  week,  is  it  done  during  the-  class  period,  or  is  there  an  extra 
period? 

Mr.  Ewing — There  is  an  extra  period. 

Mr.  Upham — Is  it  regular? 

Mr.  Ewing — On  an  average  twice,  and  more  frequently  sometimes, 
and  less  frequently  sometimes.  It  is  usually  feasible  to  arrange  to 
have  all  of  our  class  in  science  at  the  laboratory  at  one  period  a 
day  when  there  is  a  teacher,  and  almost  invariably  the  teacher  who 
hears  the  recitation  is  at  liberty  then;  or  they  come  in  groups,  some- 
times a  dozen,  sometimes  more,  sometime  less.  At  some  portions 
of  the  instruction  that  is  not  required,  although  they  frequently  come 
there  in  various  lines  of  science  to  even  study  the  text-book,  and 
reference  books  of  course.  The  program  is  always  arranged  so  there 
is  either  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  teachers  at  liberty,  or  else  the 
laboratory  is  closed.  It  has  happened  that  there  may  be  one  or  two 
students  in  one  of  these  closed  periods,  but  that  is  avoided  very 
largely. 

Mr.  McCaskill. — I  would  like  to  ask  whether  in  the  course  in  physi- 
ology you  have  any  arrangement  for  those  students  who  seem  to  be 
unprepared  to  go  into  this  ten  weeks  course  in  physiology? 

Mr.  Ewing — Not  at  present.  We  have  had  that  arrangement,  and 
it  is  a  good  thing,  and  I  can  not  see  why  it  was  abandoned  unless 
to  facilitate  having  less  classes. 

Mr.  McCaskill — In  our  school,  sometimes  by  simply  talking  with  a 
student  I  am  able  to  find  out  that  he  is  not  ready  to  enter  what  we 
call  the  Normal  physiology;  then  I  put  him  into  a  class  in  elementary 
physiology,  or  a  class  in  hygiene.  And  this  question  has  come  up  a 
good  many  times,  and  I  would  like  to  open  it  up  right  here,  with  re- 
gard to  the  question  of  how  our  hygiene  can  be  given  to  that  grade 
of  students  who  are  not  able  to  enter  the  Normal  physiology  class. 
How  much  hygiene  can  be  given  them,  with  anatomy  as  a  basis  for 
it?  How  much  hygiene  shall  we  try  to  give  them,,  and  what  relation 
has  anatomy  to  the  hygiene  for  these  people?  Can  you  give  that  hy- 
giene without  anatomy? 

Mr.  Ewing — Back  of  that  there  is  a  question.  There  is  something 
in  educational  journals  about  a  person  taking  care  of  himself  by 
knowing  something  about  it.  It  is  absurd  to  ask  the  question  in  case 
of  the  physiology.  I  should  like  to  raise  that  whole  question, — how 
much  does  it  aid  the  student  in  taking  care  of  himself  to  take  the 
course  in  physiology?  I  should  like  to  have  someone  who  has  taught 


420  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

physiology  within  the  last  seven  years,  give  some  definite  opinion  upon 
that. 

Mr.  Upham — Please  discuss  for  a  few  moments,  the  purpose  of  the 
physiology  in  the  Normal  school. 

Mr.  McCaskill — I  think  the  question  can  be  answered  all  right. 
If  the  work  that  is  done  by  the  teacher  in  physiology  is  followed  up 
by  the  teacher  in  hygienics,  it  gives  better  results.  It  impresses 
daily  the  need  for  doing  certain  things,  and  not  doing  certain  things 
because  of  .certain  effects  upon  the  students.  The  fact  that  the  stu- 
dent can  appreciate  the  why  will  have  some  influence  on  his  con- 
duct. I  know  with  very  young  children  we  have  to  teach  them  a 
good  many  things  they  must  do  so  and  so,  and  must  not,  without 
explaining  those  things;  but  when  we  get  to  that  grade  and  look  for- 
ward to  teaching,  they  ought  to  have  some .  intelligent  view  at  the 
bottom  of  this  conduct  they  are  asked  to  pursue. 

Mr.  Dudley — I  think,  as  Mr.  Ewing  has  said,  in  a  great  many  cases 
the  instruction  that  Normal  students  get  in  physiology  brings  them 
individually  very  little  benefit.  They  are  to  a  certain  extent  mature, — 
their  habits  are  formed.  As  the  old  adage  goes,  "It  is  hard  to  teach 
an  old  dog  new  tricks."  And  yet,  although  it  may  in  their  own  indi- 
vidual practice  be  of  very  little  value  to  them, — that  is,  in  helping 
them,  as  Mr.  Ewing'  expressed  it,  to  obey  these  hygienic  laws  more 
nearly, — if  they  do  understand  them,  and  are  forced  to  teach  them 
in  their  own  schools,  which  are  also  likely  to  be  schools  of  much 
lower  grade,  and  teach  these  things  systematically  to  young  children, 
it  is  of  use;  the  children  will  at  least  form  habits  which  are  correct. 
Although,  as  I  have  said,  those  who  come  into  the  Normal  school 
and  get  a  very  brief  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene  are  not  affected 
in  their  own  lives,  they  may  give  intelligent  instruction  to  the  pu- 
pils that  come  under  their  instruction.  And  of  course  the  time  may 
come  when  the  practice  will  be  what  we  suppose  to  be  the  aim. 

Mr.  Upham — Your  purpose  in  physiology  is  to  teach  teachers  to 
teach  hygiene? 

Mr.  Dudley — Yes.  And  he  may  teach  hygiene  without  practicing 
it.  From  the  very  nature  he  may  understand  certain  laws  which  he 
is  more  or  less  likely  to  neglect  in  his  own  life  because  of  habits 
formed  that  ten  weeks'  instruction  will  not  overcome. 

Mr.  Fling — Perhaps  we  preach  a  great  many  things  we  do  not  do. 
We  give  at  our  school  twenty  weeks,  or  ten  weeks  of  required  physiol- 
ogy, and  ten  weeks  are  required  before  they  come  in,  so  we  really 
get  twenty  weeks.  Then  after  they  have  had  twenty  weeks,  they  can 
have  twenty  more,  or  ten  more,  as  they  see  fit;  they  can  elect  ten 
weeks,  or  twenty  weeks  more.  All  students  coming  into  the  school 
can  get  forty  weeks  of  physiology, — really  a  whole  year.  The  work 
of  hygiene  we  take  up  first.  The  first  ten  weeks  students  who  have 
not  been  admitted  to  the  normal,  but  are  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment, or  doing  part  of  their  work  in  the  Normal  school,  take  ten 
weeks  of  anatomy,  given  by  Prof.  Goddard,  and  wherever  the  suoject 
of  hygiene  or  the  effect  of  narcotics  upon  the  system  can  be  brought 
up  to  good  advantage  in  connection  with  the  subject  we  are  talking 
about,  these  things  are  discussed.  After  they  have  passed  through 
these  ten  weeks  of  anatomy,  the  next  ten  weeks,  called  hygiene  in  the 
course,  really  deal  with  function,  and  work  is  based  on  the  anatomy. 
Students  who  come  from  the  high  schools  have  credit  for  that  anat- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  421 

omy,  and  sometimes  for  hygiene,  if  they  come  from  a  four  years* 
school.  Hygiene  is  taken  up  in  the  same  way  in  this  second  ten  weeks. 
We  try  to  place  before  the  student  the  proper  way  of  living,  and  the 
care  of  himself  as  near  as  such  things  can  be  brought  to  the  class. 
The  ten  or  twenty  weeks  taken  after  that,  elective  work,  has  been 
mostly,  I  should  say  seventy  per  cent.,  of  students  who  have  not  had 
either  the  anatomy  or  hygiene  in  the  school.  This  quarter  I  have  a 
class  in  advanced  physiology  of  sixteen  students,  and  only  one  of  the 
sixteen  I  have  ever  seen  before  in  my  classroom  physiology.  They 
are  mostly  high  school  graduates,  and  people  who  have  taught  physi- 
ology in  the  country  schools, — or  in  some  cases  in  the  high  schools, 
the  smaller  ones  of  the  state.  I  have  no  fault  to  find  with  tne  paper 
at  all.  I  agree  with  Prof.  Ewing  almost  entirely  in  the  paper.  Per- 
haps our  method  of  handling  the  subject  and  material  differs.  We 
might  give  a  little  more  of  some  things  than  he  gives,  or  perhaps 
less  in  some  places. 

Mr.  Goddard — Just  one  thing  about  which  you  mignt  get  a  wrong 
impression.  The  work  in  anatomy  is  rather  a  division  than  the  work 
that  is  given.  We  deal  with  the  anatomy  first  as  a  basis  for  the 
knowledge  of  hygiene,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  McCaskill,  the  function 
of  the  different  structures,  and  then  the  hygiene  follows  right  after 
the  work  in  anatomy.  That  is  to  say,  we  try  to  apply  the  anatomy 
to  the  hygiene  as  we  take  up  each  subject  rather  than  dealing  with 
anatomy  for  the  ten  weeks,  and  then  try  to  apply  that  to  the  hygiene 
during  the  next  ten  weeks.  I  am  in  perfect  accord  with  Mr.  Ewing's 
paper.  The  justification  for  the  physiology  work  comes  through  the 
hygiene.  I  do  not  think  it  ought  to  be  put  in  the  senior  year.  There 
is  justification  for  much  work  being  done  in  the  early  part  of  our 
course,  and  for  the  principal  reason  of  giving  these  students  an  in- 
telligent basis  for  hygienic  truths  known  before,  but  which  they  have 
not  an  intelligent  understanding  of. 

Mr.  IJpham — I  wish  a  few  people  would  talk  on  the  scope  of  physi- 
ology tor  two  or  three  minutes. 

Mr.  Sage — We  take  Martin's  Human  Body,  Briefer  Course,  and  In 
the  ten  weeks  we  have  for  it  cover  a  goodly  portion  of  it.  It  has 
to  be  done  less  completely  than  it  ought  to  be  done, — certain  parts 
are  omitted,  and  much  of  the  detail  left  out.  We  have  no  arrange- 
ments for  laboratory  work  whatever,  so  far  as  that  department  is  con- 
cerned. We  have  specimens,  and  when  we  can,  we  get  possession 
of  a  microscope,  and  we  have  slides.  We  have  a  good  assortment  of 
models,  and  such  things  as  that.  We  help  out  the  hygiene  by  ref- 
erence to  other  books.  That  seems  to  be  the  definite  part  of  it;  hy- 
giene is  the  thing  we  are  after,  at  least  an  intelligent  basis  for  that. 

Mr.  McCaskill — In  the  first  work  we  have  in  the  hygiene  course,  we 
take  up  the  study  of  anatomy.  In  that  course  we  use  Stowell's  "Es- 
sentials of  Health"  as  the  basis,  and  following  out  my  idea  as  Prof. 
Goddard  gives  it,  some  anatomy  and  some  physiology  and  hygiene, 
on  the  theory  that  we  can  not  do  good  work  without  a  basis  for  It. 
In  the  next  course,  Blaisdell,  and  Martin  as  reference.  There  is  a 
good  deal  of  laboratory  work  in  that.  The  advanced  course,  third 
quarter  of  the  year,  takes  up  circulation,  digestion,  and  respiration. 
Two  thirds  of  that  work  is  laboratory  work.  We  take  part  of  the  class 
at  a  time,  in  a  one-hour  exercise.  We  give  two  full  hours  for  the  work 
in  advanced  physiology. 


422  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Dudley — How  much  of  the  elementary  course  has  laboratory 
work? 

Mr.  McCaskill — There  is  no  laboratory  work  in  the  hygiene  course. 
It  is  text-book  work,  and  some  demonstration  work  by  the  teacher. 
The  use  of  text-books  and  reference  books  on  special  topics,  such  as 
eating,  exercise,  the  eyes.  The  student  in  hygiene  can  learn  a  great 
deal  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the  eyes,  eating,  and  over-eating,  and 
exercise,  while  in  school.  If  he  never  teaches  it,  it  is  worth  all  the 
time  he  puts  in. 

Mr.  Jegi — We  have  but  ten  weeks  for  physiology,  and  call  it  the 
advanced  course.  We  seldom  have  students  who  have  not  had  high 
school  physiology.  In  the  past  five  years  there  have  been  probably 
two  who  have  got  through  a  high  school  and  have  escaped  physiol- 
ogy. Usually  they  have  had  twenty  or  thirty  weeks  before  they  got 
through  the  high  school.  While  this  matter  of  hygiene  is  important, 
and  we  give  it  some  attention,  I  try  to  give  them  the  fundamental 
laws  of  life, — a  course  in  my  judgment  which  should  not  be  put  into 
the  first  year.  It  depends  more  or  less  upon  chemistry,  upon  phys- 
ics, and  biology.  We  attempt  to  cover  in  that  way  as  much  as  we 
can.  I  do  not  know  that  you  care  to  have  me  enumerate  tne  topics 
we  take  up.  We  do  the  work  of  Martin's  larger  book,  supplementing 
with  Kirk,  Richter,  etc.  We  do  not  cover  the  whole  subject  of  physi- 
ology at  all,  but  certain  broad  topics,  as  Mr.  McCaskill  has  mentioned, 
'with  one  or  two  others.  It  is  a  very  different  sort  of  course  from  the 
•others. 

Mr.  Upham — How  much  laboratory  work  do  you  do? 

Mr.  Jegi — No  work  in  class.  We  have,  however,  a  large  number  of 
slides,  and  the  students  are  asked  to  make  certain  drawings  at  their 
free  hours.  Perhaps  on  the  average  they  would  make  about  thirty 
drawings  of  different  kinds  during  the  course,  sometimes  forty.  I  have 
no  laboratory  period,  as  such,  but  have  outside  work. 

1  Believe  this  hygiene  is  very  important.  I  liked  very  much 

what  Mr.  Ewing  said  about  the  relation  to  physical  culture.  We  all 
teach  hygiene  without  very  much  attention  to  physiology.  Most  peo- 
ple who  know  a  great  deal  of  hygiene,  do  not  know  much  about  physi- 
ology. I  do  not  believe  it  is  necessary  to  know  so  very  much  anat- 
omy to  know  some  common-sense  hygiene.  We  ought  to  teach  that 
somewhere,  the  earlier  the  better.  Teach  them  the  right  habits. 
Teach  them  to  have  in  mind  constantly  that  the  child  physically  Is 
a  fact  that  they  must  consider.  If  they  know  just  enough  common-sense 
hygiene,  which  does  not  necessarily  depend  upon  physiology,  it  will 
do  the  children  very  much  more  good  than  anatomy.  I  believe  the 
physiology  ought  to  be  done  perhaps  very  largely  with  the  department 
of  physical  culture.  I  should  call  this  paper  hygiene,  rather  than  phy- 
siology, from  its  scope,  as  I  see  it. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  have  little  to  say  further.  It  seems  to  me  Mr.  Jegi's 
difference  from  what  is  outlined  in  the  paper  is  mainly  this, — that 
Tie  devotes  more  time  to  a  less  number  of  topics.  Otherwise  I  do  not 
see  that  there  is  any  material  difference.  In  everything  else,  I  think 
it  has  been  said,  and  repeated,  it  is  hygiene  more  than  physiology. 
In  one  matter,  however,  I  have  never  had  any  doubt;  that  is,  the 
ability  to  teach  people  plenty  of  hygiene  and  without  the  anatomy. 
The  question  of  practice  is  what  I  am  concerned  with.  We  all  of  us 
know  enough  so  that  we  might  be  perfect  specimens  of  humanity,  but 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOLOGY.      428 

I  think  we  are  a  little  faulty  in  many  respects;  and  it  is  because  we 
do  not  pay  attention  to  the  things  that  we  know  will  benefit  us,  and 
have  known  for  years.  What  I  would  like  is  to  have  somebody  tell 
me  how  to  get  the  hygiene  into  the  lives  of  people. 

Mr.  Jegi — It  is  possible  that  the  people  in  physical  culture  could 
.give  us  a  little  light  on  this  matter. 


PURPOSES,  SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  GEOLOGY. 
E.  C.  CASE,  Milwaukee. 

Purpose. 

The  purpose  of  all  instruction  in  Normal  schools  is  to  fit  the  stu- 
dent for  future  teaching.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  three  ways: 
1.  Increasing  the  student's  general  knowledge  and  intelligence.  2. 
Supplying  Him  with  a  necessary  body  of  facts  and  facility  in  using 
them.  3.  A  combination  of  both. 

From  considerations  of  time,  number  of  necessary  studies,  and  so 
on,  the  first  method  can  but  rarely  find  a  place  in  Normal  schools; 
the  second  is  applicable  in  the  strictly  professional  subjects  and  aca- 
demic reviews;  the  third  is  almost  universal  in  application. 

Subjects  taught  under  the  third  method  may  be  given  a  strong  trend 
toward  either  tne  first  or  the  second.  This  is  especially  true  of  so 
broad  a  subject  as  geology;  the  instructor  must  therefore  be  on  his 
guard  and  seek  to  make  his  course  an  aid  to  the  student,  who  will  be 
called  on  to  teach  physical  geography,  nature  work,  physiography  and 
commercial  geography  in  the  grades. 

Scope. 

The  scope  of  geology  in  Normal  schools  is  really  broader  than  is 
the  general  geology  of  colleges  and  universities.  In  the  latter  schools 
it  is  directed  toward  the  general  information  of  the  student;  in  Nor- 
mal schools,  it  must  go  farther  and  attempt  to  make  the  facts  brought 
out  available  for  teaching  the  subjects  mentioned  above. 

Geology  may  be  taught  as  a  single  subject  covering  twenty  weeks 
or  there  may  be  a  second  course  of  physiography  (including  physical 
geography)  covering  an  additional  twenty  weeks.  These  should  not  de- 
fend on  one  another,  but  should  be  so  arranged  that  a  student  may 
take  either  without  involving  a  loss  (or  review)  of  more  than  three 
"weeks  by  repetition  of  subject-matter. 

If  but  a  single  twenty  weeks  is  given,  the  subject  should  be  geol- 
ogy. Especial  attention  should  be  paid  to  matter  that  will  aid  the 
student  in  future  teaching.  A  careful  study  of  the  physical  charac- 
ters of  common  minerals,  rocks  and  soils  and  the  dynamic  action  of 
ice,  water,  wind,  etc.,  in  shaping  the  present  earth  surface.  Theories 
of  earth  origin,  internal  structure,  thermal  activities  and  historical 
geology  in  general  should  be  less  carefully  treated  and  the  student 
rather  guided  to  sources  of  information  than  held  for  accurate  study. 

If  the  two  courses  are  possible,  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
minerals  and  rocks  and  to  the  general  theoretical  questions,  with 
an  encouragement  to  wide  collateral  reading,  and  less  attention  to 
questions  of  physiography. 


424  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

The  course  on  physiography  should  include  a  brief  study  of  the 
materials  of  the  earth's  crust  and  the  forces  employed  in  its  con- 
struction and  maintenance  (sedimentation,  agradation,  mountain  and 
plateau  elevation)  and  a  thorough  study  of  the  forces  employed  In 
its  degradation  and  modification.  It  is  here  that  the  subject-matter 
of  physical  geography  may  be  largely  introduced. 

Plan. 

The  plan  of  the  work  as  here  suggested,  especially  in  laboratory 
work,  is  readily  applicable  to  both  courses  or  the  single  course;  being 
elaborated  or  reduced  as  indicated  under  the  scope  of  the  subjects. 

Laboratory  work  as  here  indicated  includes  work  in  laboratory,  field 
excursions  and  periods  given  up  to  demonstrations  by  lantern  and 
otherwise.  This  should  occupy  at  least  one  laboratory  period  (two 
consecutive  hours)  per  week,  equivalent  to  one  hour's  recitation  and 
one  of  study. 

Laboratory  work  proper  should  include — 

I.  (a)  A  study  of  rock  forming  minerals,  from  their  physical  char- 
acters.    Not  blowpipe  analysis,     (b)  A  study  of  rocks  and  soils,     (c) 
The  identification  of  a  collection  of  rocks  and  minerals. 

II.  (a)  A  study  of  geological  maps  and  sections.     The  methods  of 
preparation  and  interpretation.     Preparation  of  sections  from  maps, 
(b)  A  study  of  topographic  maps  with  especial  reference  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  land  forms  therefrom. 

III.  (a)  A  study  of  models  illustrating  land  forms  and  structural  de- 
tails,    (b)  A  study  of  photographs  and  pictures  illustrating  the  same. 

IV.  (a)  A  study  of  fossils  typical  of  the  geological  horizons,     (b) 
Identification  of  the  student  collection. 

If  the  physiographic  course  is  given,  I  and  IV  should  be  extended 
in  the  geology  and  II  and  III  in  the  physiography  with  the  addition  of — 

V.  (a)  A    study   of   meteorological    instruments.       (b)  A    study   of 
weather  maps  with  exercises  in  predicting  weather  and  following  the 
course  of  storms,     (c)  The  keeping  of  a  set  of  meteorological  observa- 
tions. 

Field  work  should  involve  the  idea  of  a  thorough  study  of  a  lim- 
ited region,  repeated  in  different  phases  until  the  student  has  mas- 
tered the  various  methods  of  investigation  and  representation  of  re- 
sults. In  the  conduct  of  field  work,  the  following  plan  is  suggested: 

The  instructor  should  decide  on  a  certain  region,  all  parts  of  which 
are  within  comparatively  easy  access;  this  should  contain  the  largest 
possible  diversity  of  forms,  and  if  possible,  have  natural  limits;  ex., 
a  wide  river  valley,  space  between  two  rivers,  etc.  The  excursions 
should  be  planned  to  follow  the  laboratory  work  on  each  subject  if 
possible. 

I  Ex.     To  the  most  available  point  to  make  a  collection  of  rocks. 
(In  a  glaciated  region  this  may  easily  reach  fifty  specimens.)     A  list 
may  be  kept  of  the  rocks  found  so  that  in  a  few  years  the  addition  of 
a  new  specimen  will  be  of  considerable  interest. 

II  and  III,  and  as  many  more  as  possible.    Visits  to  isolated  regions 
in  the  area.     Ex.,  a  river,  bluff,  lake  shore,  etc.,  each  to  be  studied 
in  detail;  the  order  in  which  they  are  taken  being  determined  by  the 
order  in  which  they  are  studied  in  class.    Suppose  a  river  is  first  se- 
lected. 

(a)  Get  a  general  survey  of  the  rivers,  locate  valley  walls,  flood 
plain,  bank,  bed,  bars,  rapids,  tributaries,  falls,  delta,  etc. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOLOGY.  435 

(b)  Character  and  amount  of  sediment  or  larger  material  carried. 
Evidences  of  larger  or  smaller  amount  having  been  carried  at  previous 
times.       Evidences  of  change  in  course.       (Here  a  local  map  of  the 
largest  possible  scale  should  be  used  and  if  an  old  map  can  be  found, 
it  would  aid  in  locating  any  change  in  the  course.) 

(c)  With   aneroid   barometer,   get  height  of  valley  walls,  slope  of 
stream,  etc.    With  topographic  map  in  hand,  follow  course  of  valley 
locating  points  indicated  in  the  map.     With  geological  map,  locate  va- 
rious outcrops.     See  that  the  student  sees  in  nature  the  thing  repre- 
sented on  the  map.       (No  attempt  should  be  made  to  use  the  maps 
until   after  the   laboratory   exercises   have   given   facility   in   reading 
them.) 

(d)  Attempt  a  model  of  the  valley  in  clay  or  sand  to  scale  (?).    Pho- 
tograph the  valley  and  show  its  features  in  the  picture  (?). 

In  general,  compare  every  means  of  illustrating  the  features  of  the 
valley  with  the  actual  features  of  the  valley  so  that  representations 
of  other  regions  shall  give  definite  ideas. 

Repeat  for  each  natural  region  in  the  area. 

At  the  termination  of  the  detailed  study  of  this  natural  area,  its 
topographic  features  should  be  studied  in  their  relation  to  commer- 
cial geography.  For  example,  the  location  of  railroads  in  the  river 
valleys  and  their  following  lowest  grade  in  entering  a  town;  location 
of  shipping  on  shores  or  on  wide  flood  plain  of  rivers,  location  of 
factories  at  falls,  etc.  The  effect  of  the  topographic  features  on  the 
climate  as  to  the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water,  elongated  north 
and  south  valleys,  high  ridges  across  prevailing  winds,  etc. 

The  study  of  the  relation  of  the  topography  to  commercial  geogra- 
phy and  climate  should  in  no  wise  be  omitted. 

IV.  Excursions  to  any  or  all  outcrop  of  fossiliferous  rocks  to  make 
a  collection  for  identification. 

Illustrative  Demonstrations. — Several  laboratory  periods  can  advan- 
tageously be  given  up  to  demonstrations  by  the  instructor  which  shall 
require  no  immediate  recitations  by  the  student. 

1.  (a)  Lantern  exhibitions  of  views  showing  details,  structures, 
land  and  water  forms,  on  as  large  a  scale  as  possible,  (b)"  Lantern 
exhibition  of  fossil  forms  restored.  Pictures  of  skeletons  convey  no 
idea  and  restorations  are  now  sufficiently  accurate  to  permit  of  in- 
troduction, (c)  Projection  by  lantern  of  rock-sections  to  show  struct- 
ure, (d)  Exhibition  of  models,  pictures,  etc. 

Class  work  should  consist  of  recitations  in  text-book,  more  or  less 
formal  lectures  by  the  instructor,  and  reports  by  students  on  the  field 
excursions. 

The  general  plan  of  the  work  in  geology,  whether  of  one  or  two 
courses,  should  run  somewhat  as  follows: 

1.  The  earth  in  its  relations  to  other  bodies,  its  origin,  structure, 
materials,  etc. 

2.  The  forces  occupied  in  building  up  the  crust. 

3.  The  forces  occupied  in  tearing  down  the  crust. 

Where  fhe  two  courses  are  given  the  last  of  these  should  be  largely 
considered  under  physiography,  the  first  two  under  geology. 

Under  the  first  heading  should  be  included:  the  position  of  the  earth 
in  space  relative  to  the  other  members  of  the  solar  system;  its  orbit 
and  special  relations  to  sun  and  moon;  the  resulting  phenomena  as 
seasonal  changes,  diurnal  changes,  tides,  etc. 


426  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

The  theories  of  the  earth's  origin  and  development  up  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  geological  historical  record. 

The  theories  of  the  earth's  internal  structure.  Relation  of  at- 
mosphere, hydrosphere,  and  lithosphere.  Past  and  present  changes  in 
these  relations. 

The  minerals,  rocks  and  soils.  Origin,  occurrence,  character, 
changes,  relative  amount,  etc.,  etc. 

Under  fhe  second  heading  sould  be  considered  those  forces  which 
are  instrumental  in  building  up  and  modifying  the  crust.  It  will  be 
impossible  to  distinguish  absolutely  between  constructive  and  destruct- 
ive forces,  but  such  a  distinction  can  be  made  in  broad  lines  and  will 
serve  as  a  help  to  the  student  in  getting  a  grasp  of  the  whole  subject. 

Such  forces  would  be  igneous,  with  all  related  phenomena,  volca- 
noes, hot  springs,  geysers,  increase  in  temperature  with  descent 
toward  center,  "blanket  theory"  of  mountain  making,  etc.;  general 
theories  of  continental,  plateau  and  mountain  elevation;  sedimentation 
and  deposition.  Attendant  phenomena  on  action  of  constructive 
forces,  or  accidents  to  crust.  Folding,  faulting,  earthquakes,  jointing, 
metamorphosis  of  rocks. 

At  the  close  of  the  work,  under  the  second  heading,  historical  geol- 
ogy should  be  introduced.  In  the  physiography  course,  the  principles 
of  physical  geography  should  largely  replace  historical  geology. 

Under  the  third  heading  should  be  considered  the  forces  employed 
in  the  degradation  of  the  land.  Rivers,  water  currents  of  all  kinds, 
underground  water,  ice,  wind,  plants  and  animals. 

Degradation  (denudation),  consisting  of  three  processes, — weather- 
ing, erosion  and  transportation, — each  of  these  may  be  considered  sep- 
arately and  in  order  mentioned. 

Weathering  consists  in  loosening  material  in  place;  action  of  frost, 
change  in  temperature,  solution,  chemical  reaction,  plants  and  animal 
action. 

Erosion  may  be  by  water:  Rivers  (introducing  life  history  of  riv- 
ers), ocean  and  lake  waves  and  currents,  rain,  ice  (glaciers,  shore 
ice,  bergs,  etc.),  and  winds.  Together  with  the  study  of  active  erosion 
should  be  introduced  the  study  of  effects  produced  by  previous  ero- 
sion; base  leveling,  mountains  of  circumdenudation,  rounded  topogra- 
phy, disappearance  of  divides,  production  of  cliffs  and  altered  coast 
line,  etc.  Also  the  checks  on  and  aids  to  erosion;  presence  of  lakes 
in  river  course,,  changes  of  slope  by  earth  movement,  changes  in  cli- 
mate, etc. 

Transportation  by  water,  ice  and  wind.  Difference  in  the  character 
of  transportation  in  each  and  difference  in  character  of  deposited  ma- 
terial. Stratified  as  opposed  to  unstratified,  etc. 

Theoretically,  after  the  careful  study  of  physiography  and  topogra- 
phy, should  follow  a  study  of  relations  of  world  topography  to  the 
commercial  geography  of  the  world.  Practically,  however,  it  seems 
best  to  give  this  distributed  through  the  course  wherever  the  instructor 
can  make  it  tell  and  have  but  a  brief  exercise  upon  it  at  the  end. 

Sample  of  suggested  treatment  of  one  subject: 

Erosion. — River  erosion  (including  life  history  of  rivers).  Labora- 
tory work  on  interpretation  of  maps  to  precede.  Excursions  to  river 
valley  to  accompany. 

River  as  an  erosive  agent. — Erosive  power  depends  on  velocity  and 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  427 

amount  of  material  carried.  Seasonal  and  local  variations  in  erosive 
power.  Relation  of  erosion  to  weathering. 

Life  history  of  rivers. — Definition  of  rivers..  Function  of  rivers. 
Youth,  maturity,  and  old  age  of  rivers,  with  characteristic  topography 
of  each.  Accidents  to  normal  development  of  rivers,  e.  g.,  changes  in 
level  of  the  land,  changes  in  climate,  etc. 

Relation  of  rivers  to  commercial  geography. — River  valleys  forming 
natural  areas  of  lowest  level  and. gentle  slope;  broad  flood  plains  and 
deltas  furnishing  location  for  cities  and  fertile  agricultural  regions; 
falls  locating  manufacturing  cities  and  limiting  navigation. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Case — The  plan  of  my  work  is  rather  long  drawn  out,  and  the 
one  or  two  points  which  I  would  think  might  be  at  all  valuable  to 
discuss  in  ten  minutes,  is  the  division  of  geology  into  two  courses, 
a  geology  per  se,  and  a  physical  geography.  A  physiography  which 
shall  be  largely  physical  geography,  and  a  physical  geography  having 
a  very  close  relation  with  commercial  geography.  In  the  division  of 
the  course  into  geography  and  physiography,  I  have  placed  in  geology, 
as  you  can  see  by  reading  the  paper,  the  consideration  of  the  more 
practical  questions.  I  have  left  out  the  more  theoretical  points, 
and  have  put  in  a  more  complete  study  of  mineralogy,  the  physical 
character  of  the  mineralogy,  and  of  topography,  and  of  physiography, 
the  study  of  topography  and  its  relations  to  commercial  geography, 
leaving  out  pretty  largely  the  theoretical  consideration,  leaving  out 
the  historical  geology  almost  entirely,  and  taking  up  only  those  points 
which  can  be  applied  in  elementary  physical  geography  and  nature 
work.  I  have  suggested  three  vital  things,  the  study  of  maps,  etc.,, 
field  excursions,  and  lectures  and  demonstrations.  I  have  indicated 
the  parallel  method  of  the  laboratory  and  the  recitation.  I  have  put 
laboratory  work  and  field  excursion  in  contrast,  but  the  point  I  want 
to  insist  upon  is  to  have  you  endorse,  if  you  will,  two  separate 
courses,  one  in  geography  and  one  in  physiography. 

Mr.  Upham — Do  you  wish  to  lengthen  the  time  already  given  to 
geology? 

Mr.  Case — I  am  only  allowed  twenty  weeks.  I  want  to  lengthen"  that 
just  three  times.  I  do  not  mean  to  lengthen  geology  to  sixty  weeks, 
but  give  sixty  weeks  of  my  time,  in  three  twenty  week  classes. 

Mr.  Mitchell — When  the  board  was  equalizing  the  taxes,  some  man 
came  in  and  wanted  his  taxes  raised.  The  story  is  that  they  all  fell 
dead.  I  don't  want  any  more  time  for  geology.  For  my  purpose  it 
is  enough.  The  purpose  in  geology  in  the  Normal  school  is  to  get 
those  people  ready  to  teach  geography,  and  that  is  all  the  purpose 
there  is  to  il,  as  far  as  I  see. 

Mr.  Upfiam — And  understand  agriculture? 

Mr.  Mitchell — Yes.  That  is  the  purpose  in  chemistry.  But  in  the 
work  in  geology,  these  schools  are  professional  schools.  They  are 
going  to  get  people  ready  to  teach  school,  and  they  are  going  to  get 
them  ready  to  teach  the  things  they  are  going  to  teach,  and  not  the 
things  we  dream  about  their  teaching.  I  have  quite  a  number  of 
students  over  the  state  of  Wisconsin  who  are  teaching  geography, 


428  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

actually  going  through  the  process  of  teaching  geography,  and  of  som'e- 
thirty  or  forty  students  I  have  had,  I  do  not  think  there  is  a  single 
one  of  them  teaching  geology.  The  purpose  of  that  work  is  to  get 
those  people  ready  to  teach  the  subject  of  geography  in  a  rational 
way,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  course  in  geography  and  in  this  school  a 
part  of  the  department  of  geography.  I  will  say  that  in  addition  to 
the  twenty  weeks  of  geology,  we  have  twenty  weeks  of  physiography. 
This  gives  the  students  the  privilege  of  electing  thirty  weeks  of  earth 
study  placed  on  top  of  thirty  weeks  of  geography,  and  those  people 
can  teach  geography  to  the  satisfaction  of  high  school  teachers  and 
superintendents. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  would  like  to  ask  Dr.  Case  when  he  is  contending 
for  two  separate  and  distinct  courses,  if  he  would  make  the  course 
in  physiography  a  prerequisite  to  the  course  in  geology. 

Mr.  Case — By  no  means.  I  have  stated  in  my  paper  that  the  courses 
should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  taken  by  one  student  with  not 
over  three  weeks  taken  up  in  covering  the  same  ground.  I  do  not 
see  how  two  courses  can  be  taken  by  the  same  students  without 
covering  somewhat  the  same  ground,  but  it  can  be  easily  arranged 
so  that  not  more  than  three  weeks  shall  be  used  up. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  agree  with  Mr.  Mitchell  that  the  one  great  aim  of 
geology  in  our  Normal  schools  is  to  prepare  our  students  for  geog- 
raphy, and  believing  so  thoroughly  in  that  aim,  my  course  has  been 
largely  geographic  in  its  character;  but  I  understood  from  the  gentle- 
man who  presents  the  paper,  that  he  wants  now  to  introduce  a  course 
in  physiography,  and  my  question  is  this:  If  we  have  a  course  in 
physiography,  will  he  have  the  course  in  geology  entirely  independent 
of  that  course?  It  seems  to  me  these  courses  should  be  thoroughly 
correlated.  The  student  taking  geography  should  have  had  the  physi- 
ography before  he  takes  it  up.  In  that  way  I  think  we  can  get  much 
better  results,  and  we  can  get  a  stronger  geography  teacher. 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  do  not  see  how  you  can  bring  that  about.  There  are 
forty  weeks  of  elective  science.  A  student  may  take  twenty  weeks 
of  physiography,  or  twenty  weeks  in  geography,  or  both.  That  ts 
the  condition  of  things. 

Mr.  Perisho — Is  there  any  course  in  the  entire  list  of  studies  taught 
that  will  better  prepare  the  teacher  or  the  student  to  teach  geography 
than  the  course  in  physiography? 

Mr. 'Mitchell — I  should  say,  "No,  there  is  not." 

Mr.  Perisho — If  the  course  in  geology  is  to  prepare  the  student  to 
teach  geography,  then  how  can  you  differentiate  them  and  keep  one 
entirely  separate  and  distinct  from  the  other?  This  student  selects 
geology  rather  than  physiography.  They  must  be  separate  and  dis- 
tinct, and  not  .overlap.  That  is  the  point  I  am  trying  to  make.  How 
can  we  keep  them  separate  and  distinct  when  aiming  at  just  the 
one  thing,  to  make  the  geography  teaching  better  in  this  country? 

Mr.  UpHam — Prof.  Perisho  states  that  he  teaches  his  geology  with 
special  reference  to  preparing  teachers  of  geography.  What  particular 
thing  would  you  do  differently  if  you  were  not  aiming  to  prepare 
teachers  to  teach  geography? 

Mr.  Perisho — I  do  not  intend  to  do  any  such  thing  as  that  at  all. 
You  know  physiography  is  a  new  thing.  I  said  in  my  opening  remarks 
that  my  course  in  geology,  twenty  weeks,  like  the  rest,  has  been  large- 
ly geographic  in  its  character. 


AL  DISCUSSION.  409 

Mr.  Perisho — I  wouldn't  to  teach  it  any  other  way  than  geographic  in 
its  character. 

Mr  Upham — What  would  you  have  done  if  it  had  not  been  geographic 
in  its  character? 

Mr.  Upham — What  sort  of  geology  would  that  be  that  wasnt  geo- 
graphic in  its  character? 

Mr.  Perisho — My  question  was  to  these  men  who  want  two  courses, 
one  in  geology  and  one  in  physiography,  not  overlaping.  I  propose, 
now  that  we  have  got  physiography,  to  teach  the  geographic  part  of 
geology,  and  then  continue  in  the  geology  and  go  a  little  farther  into 
the  geology  spoken  of  by  the  gentleman  who  presents  the  paper.  I 
propose  to  have  them  closely  correlated,  one  after  the  other. 

Mr.  Case — These  gentlemen  have  got  what  I  want,  and  I  want  what 
they  have  got.  I  have  been  teaching"  physiography,  and  if  I  had  a 
chance  I  would  teach  more  of  it. 

Mr.  Upham — I  was  about  to  suggest  to  the  gentleman  that  if  he 
had  to  teach  geology,  call  it  geology,  but  teach  what  he  had  a  mind  to. 

Mr.  Mitchell — In  the  course  of  geology  in  the  Chicago  University, 
there  are  27  or  29  courses.  Any  of  these  are  all  right  from  the  stand- 
point of  geology,  but  are  not  all  right  from  the  standpoint  of  geography 
by  a  good  deal.  There  is  five  years'  work  in  geology  which  we  never 
touch.  There  is  work  in  geology  that  would  require  a  thorough  study 
of  biology,  chemistry,  and  physics  before  the  student  could  under- 
take it- 
Mr.  Upham — I  should  like  to  ask  some  gentlemen  who  are  teaching 
geology,  about  how  much  time  they  put  into  what  you  might  call  the 
mineralogy  of  it.  My  point  is  this:  In  order  to  understand  the 
geology,  or  even  geography,  we  have  to  talk  rocks  a  good  deal.  How 
much  time  of  the  twenty  weeks  do  you  put  into  teaching  the  pupil 
so  that  he  will  know  shale  when  he  sees  shale,  and  quartz  when  he 
sees  quart*? 

Mr.  Perisho — Time  enough  so  that  the  student  will  know  the  common 
rocks. 

Mr.  Upham — About  how  many  weeks? 

Perisho — It  is  very  difficult  to  say  because  it  comes  along  with 
geography. 

Mr.  Case — From  two  to  three  weeks  on  mineralogy. 

Mr.  Ewing— Possibly  a  week,  and  then  it's  with  us  all  the  time  that 
we  are  studying  geology. 

Mr.  Merril — In  a  twenty  weeks*  course  in  geology  I  should  give 
about  five  weeks  to  the  determination  of  common  minerals,  and  the 
combination  of  these  minerals  in  the  common  rocks.  I  would  take 
perhaps  three  weeks  of  the  time  on  the  common  minerals,  that  is,  de- 
termining these  common  minerals  by  their  characteristics,  and  the  re- 
maining time  in  the  study  of  the  combinations,  and  visiting  places 
that  show  these  combinations  so  that  students  can  recognixe  the 
various  kinds  of  sedimentary  rocks,  and  in  a  general  way  recognixe 
the  more  common  ones  of  the  plutonic  rocks. 

Sims— I  would  like  to  ask  this  question.  I  would  like  to  know 
if  these  gentlement  are  using  the  physiography  and  dynamic  geog- 
raphy as  synonomous  terms.  I  do  not  know  lust  what  they  mean  when 
they  say  "that  instruction  in  geology  should  precede  the  instruction. 
in  a  Normal  school,  in  either  political  or  physical  geography.  Where 


430  '     INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

does  it  come  in?  I  ask  that  question  because  I  do  not  have  the  geology 
in  my  school,  but  do  have  the  geography. 

Mr.  Case — I  believe  that  geography  comes  first. 

Mr.  Jegi — In  our  school  geography  comes  anywhere. 

Mr.  Merrill — The  geology  nominally  belongs  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 
course,  and  geography  anywhere  else. 

Mr.  Perisho — Geography  precedes  all  work  in  geology. 

Mr.  Mitchell — Same  here. 

Mr.  Ewing — Comes  last,  in  the  fourth  year. 

Mr.  Mitchell — As  to  how  much  time  is  given  to  the  study  of  mineral- 
ogy: I  think  we  possibly  do  such  work  in  mineralogy  as 
is  suggested  by  the  other  gentlemen,  but  we  don't  do  it  that, 
way.  We  don't  study  shale  today,  we  study  shale  when  we  have  shale 
to  study,  sandstone  when  we  work  with  sandstone,  and  so  on.  There 
is  no  particular  time,  simply  a  part  of  a  lesson  instead  of  having  ten 
or  twelve  lessons  set  aside  for  that  phase  of  the  work. 

Mr.  Perisho — That  is  just  the  point  I  said  I  could  not  answer  with- 
out developing  the  whole  thing.  There  is  not  one,  two  or  three  weeks 
set  apart  for  this. 

Mr.  Upham — Some  take  a  little  time  at  first,  as  a  sort  of  a  prepara- 
tion, so  when  the  student  gets  to  this  and  reads  of  it,  he  won't  have  to 
break  the  continuity  of  that  lesson  by  stopping  and  taking  a  lesson  on 
sandstone.  There  are  two  ways  of  doing;  some  do  one,  and  some  an- 
other. 

Mr.  Culver — I  give  from  three  to  five  weeks  to  determinative  min- 
eralogy. It  seems  to  me  a  pretty  practical  thing  to  make  the  students 
measurably  familiar  with  the  commoner  rocks  containing  minerals, 
and  with  the  commoner  rocks  before  they  run  into  them  accidentally. 
That  is  what  I  want  my  course  to  do  for  them,  and  I  agree  with  Mr- 
Mitchell  that  the  main  purpose  is  to  prepare  for  geography  in  our 
schools.  Our  course  is  the  same  as  the  others,  having  geography  in 
the  first  year  and  geology  in  the  fourth  year. 

Mr.  Upham — The  geography  ought  to  be  a  little  help  in  geology. 

Mr.  Culver — There  is  one  question  I  would  like  to  get  back  to.  I  am 
not  quite  clear  in  regard  to  the  opinion  here  as  to  the  order  in  which 
physiography  and  geology  should  go.  I  was  a  little  surprised  to  get 
the  impression  that  the  physiography  should  come  first,  and  the  geol- 
ogy later.  As  I  understand  it,  I  may  be  quite  wrong  in  the  matter,  the 
study  of  dynamical  geology — of  the  forces  at  work  upon  the  earth  at 
the  present  time, — lies  at  the  basis  of  physiography.  If  I  understand 
physiography  it  is  the  study  of  landscape  geology.  What  is  the  genesis 
of  this  particular  measure  which  is  before  us  now?  Before  that  can  be 
answered,  before  understood,  the  student  must  have  some  knowledge, 
some  acquaintance  with  the  forces  we  have  in  dynamic  geology.  I  can 
not  understand  how  that  can  go  before.  I  would  like  to  know  whether 
I  misunderstood  the  gentlemen  who  spoke,  and  whether  they  would  put 
physiography  first,  and  geology  later,  or  vice  versa. 

Mr.  Mitchell — It  is  this  way  in  our  school, — I  supposed  it  was  the 
same  in  every  Normal  school  in  the  state,  but  I  am  finding  out  that 
something  that  is  in  your  school  is  pretty  sure  not  to  t>e  so  in  any 
other  school.  We  have  forty  weeks  of  elective  science,  and  that  is 
elective  in  the  sense  that  the  student  elects  it.  It  is  not  elected  for 
him,  it  is  open  to  him,  and  he  is  to  select  forty  weeks  of  it.  Now  the 
work  is  so  arranged  by  the  Board  of  Regents,  or  by  somebody,  not  by 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  431 

me,  that  a  student  can  elect  twenty  weeks  in  geology  or  twenty  weeks 
in  physiography,  or  he  can  elect  both  or  neither. 

Mr.  Culver — If  he  elects  both,  do  you  give  aim  the  physiography 
first? 

Mr.  Mitchell — He  won't  elect  but  one  at  a  time. 

Mr.  Culver — Which  one  first? 

Mr.  Mitchell — Depends  upon  him  entirely.  I  have  had  students  who 
elected  the  work  in  geology,  and  then  came  back  and  took  the  work  in 
physiography,  and  the  other  way. 

Mr.  Culver — Is  that  as  logical  as  the  other? 

Mr.  Mitchell — There  is  no  use  to  make  any  "bones"  of  it,  we  can't 
teach  geology  without  a  knowledge  of  physiography.  There  is  this  dif- 
ference,— geology  is  interested  in  the  structure  of  mountains,  for  ex- 
ample, but  geography  doesn't  care  very  much  what  the  structure  of 
mountains  is.  It  doesn't  care  a  thing  about  the  structure  of  those 
mountains,  but  the  thing  that  is  of  importance  in  that  phase  of  physi- 
ography is  the  arrangement  of  mountains.  You  could  study  geology 
for  a  long  time  and  you  would  never  get  the  arrangement  of  mountains, 
and  the  influences  of  that  arrangement  upon  other  things.  Now,  physi- 
ography looks  primarily  at  the  arrangement  of  those  mountains  more 
than  to  the  structure,  although  the  structure  comes  in,  but  the  ar- 
rangement has  the  greatest  significance. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  should  like  simply  to  raise  the  question  about  the 
amount  of  time  required  to  do  the  work  that  Mr.  Case  has  outlined. 
He  certainly  has  a  good  many  things  in  there  that  I  do  not  undertake 
in  the  same  length  of  time,  and  as  I  read  it  over  it  impressed  me  that 
I  did  not  see  how  I  could  do  it  without  leaving  out  some  things  I  feei 
that  I  want  to  do. 

Mr.  Upham — Specify. 

Mr.  Ewing — This  matter  of  studying  the  local  geology  very  closely. 
Now  of  course  I  understand  that  to  a  certain  extent,  but  as  he  has  out- 
lined it  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  there  is  considerable  in  there  that  I 
should  not  know  myself  just  how  to  go  to  work  at.  I  do  not  know 
just  what  it  means, — the  matter  of  studying  geological  maps,  the  mat- 
ter of  modeling  valleys,  and  a  number  of  questions  along  that  line, — 
there  are  a  number  of  things  there  that  I  don't  attempt,  and  yet  I 
never  get  through  with  what  I  do  attempt.  Can  all  tie  work  outlined 
be  done  in  the  time  that  we  have  to  do  it  in? 

Mr.  Perisho — It  seems  to  me  there  should  be  a  continuity  right 
through  this  whole  subject.  What  is  physiography?  It  is  not  anything 
very  different  from  geographic  geology,  not  very  different  from  dy- 
namic geography,  is  it?  It  is  a  study  of  earth  form,  a  study  of  the 
topography  of  the  country.  The  purpose  of  all  geologv  work,  of  all 
physiography  work,  according  to  Mr.  Mitchell,  is  this, — it  is  to  prepare 
the  student  to  teach  geography.  We  all  agree  to  that,  I  Chink.  I  think 
it  does  make  a  difference.  If  that  is  the  object.  I  think  The  physi- 
ography should  precede,  or  that  part  of  geology  which  we  call  physf- 
ography,  should  precede  this  dynamical  work.  Let  the  student  take 
those  two,  and  then  if  he  has  time  and  wants  more  science  along  this 
line,  he  can  take  geology  after  that.  Give  him  the  thing  tfiat  will  pre- 
pare him  best  to  teach  the  geography. 

Mr.  Upham — I  wish  to  say  again  that  these  discussions  should  deal 
"with  the  purpose,  scope,  and  plan.  All  agree  upon  the  purpose  of 
geology  in  the  Normal  school,  to  get  folks  ready  to  teach  geography. 


432  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Then  the  next  question  is  the  scope,  what  are  we  doing?  I  want  to 
know  what  every  man  is  doing,  and  I  hope  that  they  want  to  know 
what  I  am  doing.  It  is  the  purpose  to  unify  all  of  our  work.  There  is 
no  call  to  discuss  here  which  ought  to  precede.  A  condition  and  not 
a  theory  confronts  us.  Here  is  the  course.  What  are  you  doing  under 
that  course  of  study? 

Mr.  Culver — I  would. like  to  say  in  reference  to  some  of  the  points 
under  scope  which  Mr.  Case  has  made,  that  I  agree  with  him  in  this 
point,  that  we  should  teach  our  students  to  read  topographic  and  geo- 
logic maps.  It  is  a  source  of  information  of  which  as  teachers  of 
geography  they  will  wish  to  avail  themselves.  There  may  be  topo- 
graphic maps  of  a  certain  region;  if  they  are  blind  to  those  maps, 
they  are  handicapped.  They  can  not  get  information  that  is  available. 
In  regard  to  field  work,  I  have  had  visions  of  having  my  classes  take 
a  region  and  make  a  careful,  exhaustive  study  of  it,  but  I  have  to  con- 
fess my  visions  have  never  materialized  yet.  We  do  do  considerable 
of  what  we  call  field  work.  We  make  excursions  on  Saturdays,  and 
sometimes  on  other  days,  after  school,  and  last  year  I  did  get  consent 
to  take  my  geology  class  out  for  a  two  days'  trip.  This  was  not  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  detailed  study  of  any  particular  region,  but  to 
widen  their  views  and  to  give  a  more  definite  conception  of  what  we 
were  talking  about  in  the  classroom.  The  result  of  that  trip  was  worth 
more  to  them  than  any  two  weeks'  work  in  the  classroom.  The  class 
felt,  when  they  got  back,  that  that  had  been  the  case.  And  I  would 
make  a  good  deal  of  this  field  work,  because  it  has  a  direct  bearing 
upon  the  geography  work,  familiarizes  them  with  the  geographic  and 
geologic  features  of  the  country,  and  teaches  them  how  to  make  use 
of  material  when  they  take  geography  classes  out.  I  know  that  some 
of  my  students,  if  not  all,  have  found  the  work  that  has  been  done  in 
geology  of  very  great  advantage  to  them.  I  should  like  to  emphasize 
that  idea  of  local  field  work,  extended  as  far  as  the  limitations  of  time 
and  means  will  allow,  and  I  question  a  little  whether  it  is  possible  to 
do  that  detailed  work  which  Mr.  Case  suggests. 

Mr.  Case — Mine  will  be  largely  geography.  In  answer  to  Mr.  Ewing's 
question,  I  have  not  been  able  to  do  what  I  have  outlined.  It  is  an 
ideal  course-  If  you  can  do  it,  you  are  a  better  man  than  I  am,  and 
lo  be  congratulated,  but  I  think  it  should  be  done.  I  have  involved  in 
my  outline  of  geology  here,  and  in  the  detailed  study  of  a  localized 
region,  an  idea  of  discipline.  First,  to  do  as  much  of  that  as  we  can. 
Then  to.  study  a  local  region,  each  portion  of  it  in  detail,  and  carefully 
as  you  would  take  an  experiment  in  the  laboratory.  Then  to  stucly 
that  region  in  which  you  have  seen  the  rocks,  the  soil,  the  verdure,  and 
it  may  be  to  study  the  industrial  region  on  the  map,  so  the  student 
may  know  that  a  topographic  map  does  represent  what  he  has  seen. 
Then  to  measure  with  barometer  or  whatever  you  might  have,  to 
measure  and  correct  that  hill,  and  to  try  and  lay  that  out  on  the 
topographic  map,  to  increase  the  connection  he  has  between  the  actual 
object,  and  the  method  of  representation.  Then  he  may  see  the  same 
things  in  a  lantern  slide.  As  far  as  clay  modeling  goes,  I  do  not  much 
believe  in  it.  I  doubt  the  practical  value  of  modeling,  but  a  person 
might  construct  a  model  of  a  hill  or  valley  and  get  considerable  benefit 
out  of  it.  I  think  that  the  geography  might  do  a  great  many  of  the 
things  that  T  have  outlined  there  for  the  physiographic  student,  or  the 
field  excursion  study,  and  get  the  same  benefit  that  the  geology  gives. 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 


433 


So  in  putting  in  so  much  detailed  work  I  have  in  mind  first,  the  dis- 
cipline that  the  student  would  get,  and  second,  his  thorough  apprecia- 
tion of  the  object  in  relation  to  the  different  methods  of  representation, 
and  of  the  many  different  kinds  of  representation  with  the  same  ob- 
ject which  he  has  seen,  and  the  more  of  this  he  does  the  better  student 
he  will  be,  and  better  able  to  interpret  map  or  representation. 


WHAT  SHOULD  BE  THE  PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK 
IN  GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL? 

F.  E.  MITCHELL,  Oshkosh. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  done  in  a  special  school  must  be  determ- 
ined by  the  purpose  of  the  school.  For  example, — the  purpose  of  a 
medical  school  must  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  so  develop  the 
student  that  he  becomes  skillful  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  The 
dental  school  must  turn  out  graduates  that  are  skillful  in  the  treatment 
of  the  teeth. 

When  a  person  requires  the  service  of  a  dentist,  he  cares  but  little 
whether  the  doctor  of  dental  surgery  understands  Greek  or  Latin. 
The  thing  that  he  insists  upon  is  that  the  dentist  must  know  exactly 
how  to  treat  the  teeth. 

The  statute  that  established  Normal  schools  in  the  state  of  Wis- 
consin clearly  defined  the  purpose  of  these  schools.  The  state  of  Wis- 
consin clearly  and  definitely  states  that  the  exclusive  purpose  of  these 
schools  shall  be  the  instruction  and  training  of  persons,  both  male  and 
female,  in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching  and  all  the  various  branches 
that  pertain  to  a  good  common  school  education,  and  in  all  subjects 
needful  to  qualify  for  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 

While  the  state  has  been  very  definite  in  stating  the  exact  purpose 
of  the  Normal  school  it  has  been  no  less  definite  in  its  statement  of 
the  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  common  schools.  Section  447  of  the 
revised  statutes  says  that  "Orthography,  Orthoepy,  Reading,  Writing, 
Grammar,  Geography,  Arithmetic,  History  of  the  United  States,  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin  shall 
be  taught  in  every  district  school  and  such  other  branches  as  the 
Board  may  require." 

Since  the  public  schools  of  the  state  consist  largely  of  district  and 
graded  schools,  and  since  the  greater  part  of  the  public  school  work 
is  in  the  elementary,  or  common  school  branches  the  Normal  school 
must  first  of  all  seek  to  ground  its  students  thoroughly  in  the  common 
school,  or  legal  branches.  This  must  not  be  done  merely  in  theory  but 
must  be  an  accomplished  fact. 

Speaking  on  this  point  Edward  Everett  in  his  speech  at  the  opening 
of  the  first  Normal  school  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts  said,  "If  there 
be  any  persons  to  whom  the  words  'common  school'  or  'common  school 
education'  convey  any  idea  of  disparagement  or  insignificance  such 
persons  are  ignorant  not  merely  of  the  true  character  of  our  political 
institutions  but  of  the  nature  of  man."  *  *  *  *  "But  whether  we 
consider  the  number  who  enjoy  their  benefit,  the  relative  importance 
to  the  state  of  an  entire,  well  educated  population  and  the  benefit  of 
28 


434  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

those  who  receive  the  advantage  of  an  education  at  the  higher  semi- 
naries taken  with  the  fact  that  a  liberal  education  may  be  had  else- 
where, but  that  a  common  school  education  must  be  had  at  home  or 
not  at  all,  no  rational  man  as  it  seems  to  me  can  fail  to  perceive  the 
superior  importance  of  the  common  schools.  They  give  the  keys  of 
knowledge  to  the  mass  of  the  people."  ****"!  think  that  it 
may  be  said  that  the  branches  of  knowledge  taught  in  our  common 
school  when  taught  in  a  masterly,  finished  manner  are  of  greater  value 
than  all  tne  rest  taught  at  school.  Our  common  schools  are 
important  in  the  same  way  as  the  common  air,  the  common  sunshine, 
the  common  rain, — invaluable  for  their  commonness." 

In  speaking  of  the  course  of  study  he  says, — "First,  a  careful  review 
of  the  branches  to  be  taught.  It  being  of  course  the  first  requisite 
of  a  teacher  that  he  should  himself  know  well  that  which  he  is  to  aid 
others  in  learning.  Such  an  acquaintance  with  these  branches  of 
knowledge  is  much  less  common  than  may  be  generally  supposed.  The 
remark  may  seem  paradoxical  but  I  believe  that  it  will  bear  examina- 
tion, when  I  say  that  a  teacher  thoroughly  versed  in  those  branches  of 
knowledge  only  which  are  taught  in  our  common  schools,  is  as  difficult 
to  find  as  a  first-rate  lawyer,  divine  or  physician,  statesman,  man  ol 
business,  or  farmer." 

It  should  be  the  purpose  of  the  Normal  school  to  supply  to  the  state 
teachers  as  thoroughly  masters  of  the  various  branches  they  are  re- 
quired to  teach  as  a  first-rate  lawyer  is  master  of  the  law;  or  a  first- 
rate  doctor  is  master  of  the  science  of  medicine;  or  a  first-rate  banker 
is  master  of  finance. 

Each  one  of  us  has  a  general  knowledge  of  physiology,  but  no  doctor 
of  standing  would  certify  that  we  have  a  professional  knowledge  of 
that  subject.  Nor  would  he  admit  that  such  professional  knowledge 
could  be  oBtained  by  taking  a  course  of  five  or  ten  weeks  of  profes- 
sional physiology, — even  if  we  have  had  a  review  of  physiology  in  the 
high  school. 

To  know  a  subject  professionally  the  student  must  be  absolute 
master  of  it, — an  authority,  so  to  speak. 

He  must  make  critical  and  philosophical  investigation  of  the  facts 
and  see  the  relations  existing  between  the  facts  involved.  He  must  see 
the  order  in  which  the  subject-matter  unfolds  and  develops.  Rosen- 
kranz  says  that  every  subject  has  in  it  a  certain  fixed  order  of  se- 
quence. The  teacher  must  fully  comprehend  this  order.  The  law  that 
created  Normal  schools  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  says  that  the  ex- 
clusive purpose  of  these  schools  shall  be  to  prepare  teachers  for  the 
teaching  service  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  In  'defining  the 
work  to  be  taken  up  in  these  schools  among  other  branches  enumera- 
ted is  geography*.  Therefore  the  purpose  of  teaching  geography  In 
the  Normal  school  is  to  prepare  persons,  both  male  and  female,  to 
teach  geography  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  The  Normal  school 
was  established  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  supplying  professional 
teachers  for  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  therefore  the  Normal 
school  must,  among  other  things,  give  its  students  a  professional 
knowledge  of  geography. 

Geography  may  well  be  termed  the  popular  science.  It  is  taught  In 
all  the  grades  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  high  school,  and  the 
knowledge  required  to  teach  geography  successfully  in  the  primary 


PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN.  IN  GEOGRAPHY.  435 

form  is  not  a  whit  less  than  that  required  to  teach  it  in  the  high 
school.  If  there  is  any  difference  it  is  really  greater. 

When  the  teachers  of  the  common  schools  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin 
are  thorough  masters  of  reading,  writing,  grammar,  geography, 
arithmetic,  and  the  history  of  the  United  States,  there  will  be  no  place 
for  the  $18  novice,  because  teaching  will  be  in  reality  a  profession. 

There  are  many  business  men  in  every  community  who  know  these 
branches  of  learning  better  than  the  teacher  who  is  not  only  paid  for 
knowing  them  but  for  imparting  this  knowledge  to  others.  What 
standing  would  a  physician  have  in  a  community  where  it  could  be 
truthfully  said  that  there  were  many  persons  in  the  community  that 
understood  the  science  of  medicine  better  than  he?  The  teacher 
should  be  a  powerful  influence  in  the  community;  but  this  will  be  im- 
possible until  the  community  can  find  in  the  teacher,  a  master.  The 
world  is  just  as  quick  to  recognize  proficiency  as  inefficiency.  The 
teacher  can  only  be  an  influential  member  of  the  community  when  he 
above  all  otliers  is  master  of  his  profession. 

An  eminent  educator  has  said  and  with  much  truth  that  "The  world 
steps  aside  to  let  a  man  pass  who  knows  where  he  is  going."  A  great 
deal  is  heard  these  days  about  "culture  studies."  The  greatest  culture 
that  ever  comes  to  any  man  or  woman  comes  through  the  thorough 
mastery  of  some  thing  and  it  does  not  matter  much  what  the  thing  is. 
When  he  knows  and  knows  that  he  knows,  he  is,  according  to  the  Span- 
ish proverb,  a  sage  and  this  gives  that  dignity  of  character  that  noth- 
ing else  can. 

The  scope  of  the  work  in  geography  is  determined  by  the  nature  of 
the  subject.  Geography  deals  with  the  material  basis,  the  primary  con- 
ditions and  explanations  of  life  and  the  substantial  preparation  for  it. 
Lakes  and  plains,  rivers  and  mountains,  plateaus  and  deserts  are  not 
geography.  They  are  the  material  by  means  of  which  geography  is 
explained.  Geography  deals  with  the  material  basis,  the  primary  con- 
ditions and  explanations  of  life. 

In  geography  there  are  three  phases,  not  three  kinds,  and  the  phase 
is  determined  entirely  from  the  point  of  view. 

Mathematical  geography  deals  with  the  general  distribution  of  heat. 
Physical  geography  deals  with  the  general  modification  of  the  general 
distribution  of  heat  and  seeks  to  show  the  effect  of  this  general  modi- 
fication upon  the  general  distribution  of  plant,  animal,  and  human  life. 
Industrial  geography  takes  up  the  subject  where  physical  geography 
leaves  off  and  proceeds  to  investigate  those  special  modifications  of 
the  distribution  of  heat  that  immediately  affect  man  in  his  institutional 
life,  especially  the  business  world. 

Mathematical  geography  deals  primarily  with  the  earth  sphere.  A 
very  clear  understanding  of  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  other  phases  of  geography. 

In  physical  geography  there  are  four  distinct  steps.  The  lithosphere, 
the  atmosphere,  the  hydrosphere,  and  the  biosphere  including  human 
life.  The  scope  of  the  work  on  each  of  these  spheres  should  be  broad 
enough  to  set  forth  the  fact  element  in  each  of  these  spheres  and  to 
show  the  relation  existing  between  these  various  spheres. — example, 
the  effect  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  lithosphere,  hydrosphere,  biosphere, 
etc. 

In  industrial  geography  the  scope  of  the  work  must  be  of  such  char- 
acter as  to  set  forth  those  special  features  of  each  of  the  above  named 


436  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

spheres  that  immediately  affect  the  life  of  a  people,  especially  the 
business  world. 

Method  in  geography. 

The  problem  in  method  should  be  how  best  to  adapt  the  subject-mat- 
ter of  geography  to  the  growing  mind.  This  must  be  determined  by 
the  nature  of  mind,  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  purpose  of  edu- 
.cation. 

The  plan  of  the  work  is  indicated  in  the  statement  of  the  work.  It 
.seems  to  me  that  every  lesson  in  geography  in  a  Normal  school  should 
,be  a  professional  lesson,  and  that  the  student  should  get  these  ideas 
with  the  express  purpose  of  imparting  them  to  others.  The  Normal 
-student  should  be  a  professional  teacher,  not  because  he  has  selected 
teaching  as  his  vocation  but  because  he  has  a  definite  knowledge  o! 
the  matter  to  be  taught  and  because  he  thoroughly  understands  the 
method  of  imparting  this  knowledge  to  others. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Mitchell — The  question  is, — What  should  be  the  purpose,  scope, 
and  plan  of  work  in  geography  in  Normal  schools?  You  can't  tell  un- 
til you  find  out  what  the  Normal  school  is  for.  The  purpose  of  work 
done  in  a  special  school  must  be  determined  by  the  purpose  of  the 
school. 

Mr.  Donnelly — How  does  this  purpose  in  geography  differ  from  the 
purpose  in  arithmetic? 

Mr.  Mitchell— Not  a  whit. 

Miss  DeReimer — In  regard  to  the  purpose  of  geography,  I  am  quite 
interested  in  the  subject  that  was  presented  by  Mr.  Donnelly  in  regard 
to  the  exact  purpose.  I  agree  in  the  main  in  regard  to  the  outline  that 
was  presented  by  Prof.  Mitchell,  but  there  is  not  the  definiteness  in  it 
that  we  are  looking  for,  first,  in  regard  to  the  purpose.  What  is  the 
definite  purpose  of  geography  as  apart  from  the  purpose  which  is  in 
view  with  any  other  subject  of  Normal  school  instruction?  I  under- 
stand scope  to  mean  the  scope  of  Normal  work  under  the  existing  con- 
ditions. 

Mr.  Upham — That  is  as  the  State  Superintendent  has  stated  over  and 
over  again  in  his  instructions  in  connection  with  this  work. 

Miss  DeReimer — It  is  not  an  ideal,  but  scope  under  existing  condi- 
ditions.  I  Tear  that  it  is  somewhat  ideal  in  nature.  In  regard  to  the 
preparation,  Prof.  Mitchell  has  suggested  the  necessity  of  absolute 
mastery  over  the  subject.  How  is  it  possible  in  a  Normal  school  for  a 
student  to  become  master  of  the  subject  within  ten  weeks  or  twenty 
weeks'  time,  with  the  preparation  the  average  pupil  has  in  the  graded 
school?  In  our  Normal  school  training,  how  can  we  turn  out  teachers 
who  are  absolute  masters  of  the  subject? 

Mr.  Sims — The  comment  I  should  make  on  Prof.  Mitchell's  paper  is 
one  of  general  approval.  Putting  it  in  the  broadest  possible  way,  there 
are  two  subjects  taught  in  our  schools,  only  two  subjects.  One  of 
these  is  geography,  and  the  other  is  sociology,  which  may  be  a  form  of 
geography.  The  purpose  of  the  work  in  geography,  it  strikes  me,  is 
just  the  same  as  that  of  any  other  subject  we  present  in  the  Normal 
school.  Prof.  Mitchell  has  outlined  this  admirably.  He  says  Normal 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  437 

schools  are  designed  to  supply  teachers  for  all  schools  of  the  state  of 
Wisconsin,  and  whatever  subjects  are  taught  in  the  common  schools 
of  the  state  should  receive  strong  attention  on  the  part  of  the  Normal 
school  teachers.  And  that  is  true  of  geography,  surely.  Another 
point  in  Prof.  Mitchell's  paper,  which  I  think  needs  strong  approval, — 
that  every  teacher  of  geography  in  the  schools  should  know  the  sub- 
ject in  a  professional  way.  It  is  just  as  important  for  the  grade 
teacher  to  know  it  as  for  the  high  school  teacher.  In  regard  to  the 
scope  of  the  work,  it  strikes  me  that  every  phase  of  geography  should 
come  in.  What  do  we  mean  by  every  phase  of  geography? — for  In- 
stance, physical  geography,  physiography,  geological  geography,  and 
so  on.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  grade  teacher,  or  whatever  teacher  of 
geography,  in  handling  any  particulary  region  of  the  earth's  surface, 
must  know  ail  these  phases.  Take,  for  instance,  the  geography  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  known  as  the  middle  Atlantic  region. 
What  must  the  teacher  organize  in  reference  to  the  subject?  He  must 
know  the  geography  of  that  region,  especially  as  related  to  the  in- 
dustrial life  of  men;  that  depends  on  a  good  many  things.  For  in- 
stance, he  must  know  that  that  region  has  a  certain  amount  of  heat. 
How  get  that  heat?  How  does  the  region  lie  in  reference  to  the  great 
heat  belt?  How  is  heat  modified?  There  the  idea  of  mountains,  for 
instance,  in  modifying  heat;  in  what  way?  Is  that  a  part  of  physical 
geography  or  a  part  of  geology?  At  any  rate,  the  grade  teacher  must 
know  that.  Then  again,  in  that  same  region,  becuse  of  a  certain 
amount  of  heat,  a  certain  amount  of  rainfall,  which  makes  possible  a 
certain  kind  of  vegetable  life,  what  forces  are  at  work  that  produce 
that  rainfall?  Why  so  great  or  why  so  little,  in  that  particular  region? 
The  idea  of  a  certain  body  of  water  supplying  vapor,  certain  forces 
condensing  that  vapor,  therefore  a  certain  amount  of  rainfall.  There 
again  is  a  certain  amount  of  geography.  Since  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  vegetable  life  there,  certain  crops  will  be  produced. 
What  kind?  How  much  in  excess?  What  are  you  going  to  do?  Then 
would  come  the  lines  of  transportation.  They  have  in  that  particular 
region  sucft  a  structure  as  the  Erie  canal.  Why  was  that  particular 
canal  buin  where  it  is?  Why  not  from  Lake  Ontario  to  the  Hudson 
river?  The  idea  of  geology  again, — historical  geology.  You  do  not  do 
anything  with  historical  geology  in  the  Normal  schools.  In  teaching 
that  particular  thing  you  must  teach  historical  geology.  Then  because 
of  these  forces  we  have  the  gathering  of  the  people  into  large  com- 
munities. My  point  is  to  show  that  in  teaching  political  geography, 
as  it  is  related  to  man's  life,  the  student  must  have  a  broad  knowledge 
of  all  these  things,  and  unless  the  student  can  organize  these  facts 
about  any  particular  region,  that  student  can  not  receive  our  approval 
as  a  strong  teacher  of  geography  when  he  goes  out  into  the  common 
schools.  Therefore  I  take  it  that  the  scope  of  the  work  in  geography- 
should  include  what  has  been  said  here  as  dynamic  geography,  physi- 
ography, a  certain  amount  of  historical  geography,  physical  geog- 
raphy, and  ability  to  organize  all  of  these  facts  in  application  to  politi- 
cal geography. 

Mr.  Upham — In  connection  with  what  the  gentleman  has  said  about 
historical  geography,  I  would  like  to  ask  how  many  of  the  teachers  of 
geology  do  teach,  to  the  extent  of  several  weeks'  work,  historical 
geology  ? 

Mr.  Perisho — Do  not  say  several,  say  a  few.     Six. 


438  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Mitchell — The  effect  of  topography  upon  life  is  not  historical 
geography. 

Mr.  Sims — I  meant  a  general  knowledge  of  historical  geography. 

Mr.  Patzer — I  agree  most  heartily  with  everything  presented  by  Mr. 
Mitchell.  I  agree  also  with  Mr.  Sims.  That  course  of  study  that  he 
outlined,  we  pursue  at  Milwaukee,  and  have  for  the  last  three  years.  I 
taught  the  geography  there,  and  did  all  that  he  outlined  in  four  weeks 
and  one  day.  The  paper  it  seems  to  me,  calls  attention  to  a  very  large 
branch  of  study.  Geography  is  surely  as  broad  as  the  earth.  If  we  are 
ready  to  accept  the  scope  and  sequence  of  work  as  presented,  and  I 
rather  think  we  are  in  a  general  way, — if  we  are  ready  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  geography  is  to  be  taught  in  all  of  the  grades  as  it  is  at 
the  present  time,  then  we  must  realize  that  in  our  Normal  schools  we 
must  secure  more  time  for  the  teaching  of  geography.  I  happen  to  be 
teaching  geography.  I  am  teaching  other  branches  also.  I  would 
like  to  make  a  plea  here  for  more  time  for  this  broad  subject  of  geog- 
raphy. I  would  like  it,  however,  on  record.  There  is  some  satisfaction 
in  letting  off  a  little  of  this  that  has  been  bottled  up  for  some  time.  I 
believe  heartily  with  everything  that  Prof.  Mitchell  has  given  us.  I 
believe  also  that  when  these  teachers  have  secured  this  academic 
foundation  for  teaching  geography,  that  then  it  becomes  necessary  for 
us  who  are  handling  this  subject  professionally,  to  take  up  specifically 
the  work  in  the  grades.  If  that  is  granted,  and  I  purposely  use  the 
indicative  there,  because  it  ought  to  be  granted,  if  that  is  granted,  it 
seems  to  me  that  we  ought  to  have  at  least  one  year  for  geography. 
If  we  are  to  outline  the  purpose,  scope,  sequence  of  work,  and  method 
for,  say  the  third  grade,  where  the  regular  work  in  geography  begins, 
and  work  that  out  carefully,  and  somewhat  in  detail,  and  then  take 
up  the  fourth  grade  work,  and  work  that  out  somewhat  in  detail,  and 
bring  a  little  of  this  rational  geography  that  Mr.  Perisho  touches  upon, 
or  has  implied  in  his  remarks,  and  so  go  on  throughout  the  grades, 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  and  possibly  the  eighth,  and  introduce  consid- 
erable of  the  physical  geography,  as  has  been  intimated,  I  do  think 
that  we  can't  begin  to  do  that  in  ten  weeks.  Now  we  are  giving  ten 
weeks  in  our  Normal  schools  to  geometry,  which  our  graduates  never 
are  called  upon  to  teach.  They  come  fresh  from  the  high  schools 
with  an  entire  year's  work  in  geometry.  Most  of  our  graduates  never 
touch  high  school  work.  The  same  holds  true  with  reference  to  alge- 
bra, and  I  might  go  on.  The  plea  that  I  would  like  to  make  is  that  we 
get  more  time  to  do  that  which  has  been  outlined,  and  determined 
upon  as  necessary. 

Miss  Rogers — I  would  like  to  say  that  I  have  been  interested  in  this 
paper  of  Mr.  Mitchell's.  I  know  something  of  his  work  in  school,  and 
know  that  lie  makes  his  plans  work,  and  being  perhaps  the  teacher  of 
geology  is  in  his  favor.  I  thing  we  all  who  are  teaching  geography  owe 
the  teachers  of  geology  a  great  deal.  We  could  not  teach  teachers  to 
go  out  and  teach  geography  if  it  were  not  for  the  geology  teachers. 
At  least,  I  couldn't  in  the  twenty-seven  weeks  I  have  for  geography. 
So  whether  it  comes  under  the  name  of  geography,  or  physiography,  or 
nature  work,  and  I  do  not  care  what  name,  so  I  can  see  geography  in 
it,  I  welcome  it. 

Mr.  Perisho — It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  physi- 
ography and  the  geology  to  help  the  geography  teacher  to  prepare  the 
student  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  do  just  exactly  what  we  have  all 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  439 

been  saying  he  ought  to  do.  It  is  our  business  to  cooperate  with  the 
geography  teacher  in  this  preparation  of  the  student. 

Mr.  Donnelly — How  are  we  going  to  do  that,  if  we  are  asked  to  teach 
geography  in  the  first  year,  and  have  these  things  come  in  long  after- 
wards? 

Mr.  Upham — We  don't  by  having  our  geology  help  the  geography 
teacher  in  her  work  right  when  she  has  the  class,  but  I  trust  that  we 
do  help  the  student  before  he  goes  out.  If  the  student  has  geography 
twenty-seven  weeks,  and  then  geology  with  us  twenty  weeks,  he  ought 
to  go  out  very  much  better  fitted  to  teach  geography. 

Mr.  Perisho — Not  to  help  the  teacher  in  her  work,  buf  help  the 
teacher  to  prepare  the  student. 

Miss  Rogers — Another  thing.  There  are  a  great  many  students  in 
the  Normal  schools  who  do  not  teach  geology.  When  I  dismiss  my 
pupils  I  always  say,  now  take  that  geology.  But  they  don't  take  it. 
They  take  chemistry,  advanced  physics,  everything  else,  rather  than 
to  take  the  geology.  The  fault  is  not  with  the  pupil.  The  fault  is  that 
he  has  not  gotten  geography  enough  to  know  how  the  geology  is  to 
help  him,  first,  and  in  administration  second. 

Mr.  Upham — One  reason  at  Whitewater  is  that  the  pupil  feels  he 
has  gotten  so  much  geology  out  of  the  geography  he  doesn't  need 
anything  else. 

Mr.  Donnelly — The  main  purpose  is  to  prepare  pupils  to  teach  geol- 
ogy. Why  put  it  off  to  the  end?  Is  it  because  it  is  easier  to  study 
geography  than  geology? 

Mr.  Upham — Yes,  I  think  that  is  the  idea.  Another  reason  a  great 
majority  of  the  pupils  do  not  take  geology,  is  that  it  comes  so  late  in 
the  course  they  drop  out.  Most  of  you  agree  that  they  better  have  the 
geography,  twenty-seven  weeks,  then  geology,  twenty  weeks,  with  the 
purpose  of  learning  how  to  teach  geography. 

Mr.  Mit'chell — I  am  perfectly  willing  to  admit  that  the  geography 
people  want  the  earth,  and  I  am  also  willing  to  admit  there  are  some 
teachers  of  biology  and  geology  that  would  be  perfectly  willing  to 
take  a  ninety-nine  year  lease  on  it.  I  simply  want  to  say  this:  I 
didn't  make  the  subject  of  geography,  and  am  not  responsible  for  it. 
But  I  want  to  say  this,  also:  There  is  this  fact  in  the  case;  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  the  earth's  sphere  that  must  be  mastered.  That  is  the 
condition  of  geography,  that  is  what  you  have  got,  the  one  thing  that 
has  got  to  be  mastered.  There  is  the  arrangement  of  mountains,  with 
the  effect  of  moving  water,  the  effect  of  plant  life.  That  has  to  be 
mastered.  There  is  the  atmosphere,  it  is  in  geography,  antt  I  can't 
help  it,  but  it  has  to  be  mastered.  There  is  the  hydrosphere,  and  all 
of  these  things  deal  with  the  conditions  of  life.  These  things  Have  to 
be  mastered.  We  have  to  show  the  relation  of  one  to  the  other. 
Then  there  is  the  general  study  of  the  biosphere,  which  must  be  very 
general.  There  are  five  spheres.  There  are  six  continents  that  have 
structures.  I  wish  they  were  fewer,  but  they  are  not.  Every  devia- 
tion that  results  in  anything,  any  variations  in  the  coast  line,  or  varia- 
tions in  altitude,  has  a  vital  connection  with  the  life  of  the  people. 
Now  I  submit  the  proposition  to  you.  is  not  that  an  impossible  thing 
to  teach  in  ten  weeks,  with  final  examination  taken  off  of  one  end,  and 
entrance  examination  off  the  other? 

Mr.  Briggs — According  to  Mr.  Patzer,  the  teachers  commence  at  third 
grade, — third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth, — six  years  of 


440  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

geography.  To  my  certain  knowledge  they  have  ten  weeks  of  profes- 
sional, ten  weeks  of  industrial,  ten  weeks  of  physical,  ten  weeks  of 
geology,  and  twenty  weeks  of  physiography  in  this  school, — seventy 
weeks!  No  one  else  in  the  school  has  hardly  any  show  at  all. 


THE  PURPOSE,  SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  OF  WORK  IN  AGRICULTURE 
IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

A.  A.  UPHAM,  Whitewater. 

This  paper  will  be  an  attempt  to  give  an  outline  of  the  purpose, 
scope  and  plan  of  the  work  in  agriculture  in  the  Normal  school.  No 
attempt  will  be  made  at  an  argument  to  show  that  agriculture  should 
be  taught  in  the  common  schools.  This  subject  has  been  well  treated 
in  Bulletin  of  Information  No.  5,  issued  by  State  Superintendent  Har- 
vey. The  recent  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  give 
numerous  accounts  of  the  work  in  foreign  countries  and  also  in  our 
own  country,  from  which  it  appears  that  there  is  a  settled  conviction 
that  our  common  schools  should  give  instruction  in  the  principles  of 
agriculture.  It  is  also  proposed  to  make  a  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  agriculture  a  requisite  for  a  teacher's  certificate,  and  a  com- 
mittee appointed  to  propose  amendments  to  the  present  requirements 
•will  so  recommend. 

This  point  being  assumed  as  settled  this  paper  will  treat,  first,  of 
the  course  now  being  pursued  in  the  Whitewater  Normal  school,  and, 
second,  will  outline  a  plan  for  a  longer  and  more  extensive  course. 

The  Whitewater  course  is  ten  weeks  long  and  is  a  part  of  the  One 
Year  Course  for  Teachers  of  Common  Schools.  As  at  present  consti- 
tuted, the  class  contains  students  from  every  class  in  school,  from 
post-graduates  down.  The  course  is  based  upon  Bailey's  Principles 
of  Agriculture,  and  consists  of  work  as  laid  out  in  that  manual  upon 
the  three  main  topics,  The  Soil,  The  Plant  and  Crops,  and  The  Animal 
and  Stock. 

Under  the  first  topic  is  taken  up — 

The  Constituents  of  the  Soil. 

How  Soil  is  Made. 

The  Resources  of  the  Soil. 

Why  Texture  is  Important. 

How  Obtained. 

Texture  and  Manures. 

Moisture  of  the  Soil.    How  Water  is  held  in  the  Soil. 

How  Moisture-Holding  Capacity  may  be  Increased. 

Conservation  of  Moisture. 

Tillage  of  the  Soil.     Reason,  Effect  of  Tillage,  and  Manner. 

Enriching  the  Soil.  Farm  Resources.  Green  Manures,  Stable 
Manures,  Commercial  Manures. 

Elements  of  the  Soil.     Nitrogen.    Potash. 

THE   PLANT     AND    CROPS. 

Relation  of  the  Plant  to  the  Soil,  Climate,  Animal  Life,  Man. 
How  the  Plant  Lives :  Plant  Activities. 


PURPOSE,   SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Factors  of  Growth:  Water,  Salts,  Oxygen,  Carbon  Dioxide  Sun- 
light, Heat. 

Processes  of  Growth:  Propagation  of  the  Plant.  Seedage,  Bud-, 
ding,  etc. 

Preparation  of  the  Land  for  Seed. 

Subsequent  care  of  Plant  by  pruning'  training,  tilling  soil,  killing 
enemies. 

Pastures,  Meadows,  Forage. 

THE  ANIMAL    AND   STOCK. 

Offices  of  the  Animal. 

Animal  in  its  relation  to  the  Soil,  Crop,  Man. 

Animal  in  its  relation  to  Man  as  Food,  Articles  used  in  Arts,  Com- 
panions, Beasts  of  Burden,  Pest  Destroyers. 

How  the  Animal  lives:  Physiology  is  briefly  reviewed  in  this^on- 
nection.  In  a  longer  course  more  time  would  be  put  upon  this  part 
of  the  subject. 

Feeding  of  the  Animal:  Sources  of  Food,  Composition  of  Fodders, — 
Water,  Ash,  Albuminoids,  Carbohydrates,  Fats.  Feeding, — Nutritive 
ratio,  Quantity  of  Food,  Feeding  Standards. 

Management  of  Stock:   Care  of  Stock,  Housing,  Watering. 

The  above  is  chiefly  from  the  table  of  contents  of  Bailey's  book.  In 
addition  to  the  classroom  recitations,  a  series  of  experiments  is  per- 
formed by  each  pupil,  two  or  more  periods,  or  parts  of  periods  each 
week  being  devoted  to  this  work.  The  experiments  may  be  desig- 
nated as  chemical  and  biological.  I  have  planned  to  do  this  year 
about  30  experiments,  on  the  principle  that  a  few  carefully  done,  writ- 
ten up,  and  thoroughly  discussed,  are  worth  more  than  a  great  num- 
ber imperfectly  mastered. 

The  chemical  experiments  are  as  follows : 

CHEMICAL   AND   PHYSICAL   EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Dry  out  three  samples  of  soil  from  depths  6,  12,  and  18  inches 
and  find  per  cent,  of  moisture.     Dry  to  constant  weight. 

2.  Saturate  some  thoroughly  dry  soil  and  find  per  cent,  of  moisture 
it  will  hold. 

3.  Saturate  some  thoroughly  dry  sand  and  find  per  cent,  of  water 
it  will  absorb. 

4.  Dry  some  soil  and  burn  several  hours  in  a  crucible  to  find  per 
cent,  of  humus. 

5.  Balance  two  cans  of  damp  soil  and  till  one  of  them,  leaving  the 
other  compacted,  to  show  that  cultivation  retards  evaporation. 

6.  Balance  two  cans  of  soil,  one  loose  and  one  close,  to  see  how 
much  moisture  each  will  absorb,  to  show  effect  of  cultivation. 

7.  Weigh  out  10  grams  of  potato  and  thoroughly  dry  it,  to  show 
per  cent,  of  water  in  potato. 

8.  Weigh  out  10  grams  of  dry  beans  and  drive  out  all  the  water,  to 
find  per  cent,  of  water. 

9.  In  a  sealed  pint  can,  burn  a  small  piece  of  phosphorus,  to  show 
oxidation.       Open  the  inverted   can  under  water  to  allow  water  to 
enter  and  take  up  place  occupied  by  oxygen.       Notice  proportional 
part  occupied  by  water.     Shake  water  to  dissolve  fumes  of  phosphoric 
oxide.     Test  remaining  gas  with  burning  match  to  show  that  the  ni- 


442  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

trogen  will  not  support  combustion.  Test  the  water  which  has  dis- 
solved the  oxide  of  phosphorus  fumes,  to  show  that  it  is  acid.  As 
^a  preparation  for  this  test,  show  reaction  of  litmus  paper  with  acid 
'and  alkalis.  Explain  that  the  phosphoric  oxide  dissolved  in  water  is 
phosphoric  acid. 

10.  Leach  some  wood  ashes  and  filter  the  lye.     Evaporate  to  dry- 
ness.     The  residue  is  crude  potash. 

11.  Test  for  starch.     Crush  some  grains  of  wheat  and  boil  for  a  few 
minutes.     Add  a  weak  solution  of  iodine.     The  blue  color  is  a  test 
for  starch. 

12.  Make  carbon  dioxide  by  adding  H.  Cl.  to  marble  chips  in  water. 
Show  properties  by  conducting  gas  to  tumbler  in  which  short  piece 
of  candle  is  burning.     Afterwards  pour  in  lime  water  and  shake,  thus 
showing  that  it  is  heavier  than  air,  a  non-supporter  of  combustion, 
and  will  turn  lime-water  milky. 

13.  Germinate  a  lot  of  seeds  in  a  closed  bottle  and  show  presence 
of  carbon-dioxide  as  a  result  of  germination. 

14.  Make  a  kerosene  emulsion  and  show  use. 

The  biological  experiments  have  been  mostly  selected  from  a  list 
furnished  by  Prof.  Goff  of  the  university,  and  recommended  by  him 
for  such  a  course.  They  are  as  follows: 

BIOLOGICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Object:     To  acquaint  pupils   with   different  kinds   of  grain   and 
to  quicken  their  observation. 

Apparatus:  Let  each  pupil  make  a  seed  trough  by  folding  length- 
wise a  piece  of  stiff  paper  about  two  inches  wide  and  six  inches  long. 
Give  to  each  pupil  a  teaspoonful  of  threshed  grain  of  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
barley  and  buckwheat.  Have  them  thoroughly  mixed  and  let  the 
pupils  sort  them,  holding  the  seed  trough  in  the  left  hand  and  push- 
ing off  the  seeds  with  a  pencil,  moving  the  end  of  the  trough  to  the 
place  where  the  seed  is  to  be  deposited.  Have  the  pupils  make  com- 
parisons between  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  especially  with  tne 
wheat  and  rye. 

2.  A  study  of  the  wheat  kernel. 

Object.  To  quicken  observation  and  teach  how  to  judge  of  quality 
of  grain.  Give  each  pupil  a  spoonful  of  grain  and  call  his  attention 
to  the  shape  of  the  kernels,  their  taper  at  each  end,  surface,  plump- 
ness, the  scar,  the  hairy  appendage  (seen  with  magnifying  glass), 
comparative  size  and  cause  of  different  size.  Bring  out  the  relative 
value  of  plump  and  shriveled  kernels,  and  market  price  of  different 
samples. 

3.  Effect  of  water-  on  seeds. 

Object:  To  show  that  seeds  will  absorb  water  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  surface  in  contact  with  water. 

Apparatus:  A  long  narrow  bottle  or  test  tube  having  a  narrow  strip 
of  graduated  paper  parted  along  one  side.  The  tube  may  be  partly 
filled  with  water  and  the  height  of  the  water  noted.  After  the  seeds 
are  dropped  into  the  water  the  height  may  be  noted.  The  difference 
will  be  the  bulk  of  the  seeds.  A  tube  graduated  to  cubic  centimeters 
is  good  for  this  work.  One  tube  may  be  bought  and  others  graduated 
from  this.  This  is  good  work  for  the  pupil. 

Take  three  lots  of  seeds.    Measure  and  dry  the  seeds  on  a  towel. 


PURPOSE,   SCOPE,  AND  PLAN  IN  AGRICULTURE.         443 

Place  one  lot  on  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  or  cloth  thoroughly  wet 
with  water.  Cover  with  a  tumbler.  Place  one  lot  between  two 
pieces  of  blotting  paper  wet  as  before.  Cover  with  a  tumbler.  Place 
the  third  lot  in  a  tumbler  of  water.  Twenty-four  hours  later,  measure 
each  lot  of  seeds  and  see  which  has  swollen  tne  most.  The  seeds 
whose  surfaces  were  entirely  in  contact  with  water  should  have  ab- 
sorbed most  water. 

Note. — The  remainder  of  the  experiments  will  not  be  given  in  de- 
tail, but  simply  the  object. 

4.  To  show  that  seeds  will  absorb  water  sooner  from  damp  com- 
pacted earth  than  from  loose  earth. 

5.  To  show  that  seeds  will  germinate  on  damp  cloth  or  partly  cov- 
ered with  water,  but  not  in  bottom  of  tumbler  of  water. 

6.  To  test  the  vitality  of  clover  seed.     For  this  experiment  use  a 
seed  tester  consisting  of  two  circular  pieces  of  cloth  on  a  covered 
plate  set  in  a  warm  place.     Use  100  clover  seeds  and  then  the  per 
cent,  of  viable  seeds  will  easily  be  seen. 

7.  Study  of  the  structure  of  the  wheat  seed. 

8.  To  show  that  the  larger  the  seed  the  deeper  it  may  be  planted. 
Apparatus:     Cans  of  soil  in  which  seeds  are  planted  at  different 

•depths. 

9.  To  show  two  methods  of  germination:   lifting  seed  leaVes  to  the 
surface  and  not  lifting  seed  leaves  to  the  surface.     Beet,  radish,  pump- 
Inn;  pea,  wheat,  and  Indian  corn. 

10.  To  show  importance  of  compressing  soil  after  clover  and  other 
small  seeds  have  been  planted. 

11.  To  show  importance  of  using  plump  seed. 

12.  To  show  the  rooting  of  Indian  corn. 

13.  To  show  root  hairs  and  roots.     Plant  seeds  in  seed  tester,  and 
-also  in  sand  in  cans. 

14.  To  show  chlorophyll  and  its  uses.     Plant  clover  seed  in  two  cans, 
one  out  in  the  light  and  the  other  shut  up  in  a  tin  box.     Put  a  few 
matches  in  each  can  to  prevent  mould.     One  can  will  have  live  green 
seedlings  and  tKe  other  dead  white  ones. 

15.  To  show  that  plant  food  is  necessary.     Plant  seeds  in  two  cans. 
Have  boiled  rain  water  in  one  can  and  well  water  in  the  other.     Rain 
water  must  be  caught  in  clean  wash-bowl  away  from  spatterings  or 
smoke. 

16.  To  show  value  of  clover  to  the  farmer  and  to  teach  nitrates, 
liaise  clover  in  sand  and  show  nodules  on  roots.     Explain  to  pupil 
the  relation  of  those  nodules  to  nitrogen  and  nitrates. 

17.  One  lesson  in  grafting. 

The  design  of  these  experiments  is  to  give  the  Normal  school  pupil 
knowledge,  and  to  train  him  to  do  experiments.  Most  of  them  should 
"be  done  by  each  pupil  in  any  course. 

The  chief  question  arising  in  regard  to  the  experiments  in  the  rural 
school  will  be  the  matter  of  scales  for  weighing.  Prof.  Goff  has  de- 
vised a  scale  for  weighing  up  to  10  grams,  sensitive  to  one-fifth  of 
a  gram,  which  would  be  accurate  enough  for  the  ordinary  work  pre- 
scribed. These  he  expects  to  be  able  to  have  made  at  a  cost  of  less 
than  two  dollars  each.  German  hand  scales  can  be  bought  for  a 
dollar,  including  weights,  and  are  much  used  by  students  in  foreign 
schools.  They  give  results  correct  to  within  one  or  two  per  cent. 
If  this  subject  is  worth  putting  into  the  rural  schools  it  is  worth 


444  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

spending  some  money  for  the  purchase  of  apparatus.  School  work 
should  aim  to  make  the  child  know  and  do,  and  there  is  no  better 
course  for  teaching  manipulating  of  apparatus  than  experiments 
with  soil,  seeds,  plants,  and  foods. 

The  Whitewater  course  aims  to  acquaint  the  student  with  agri- 
cultural literature.  In  fact,  one  of  the  chief  benefits  of  this  whole 
movement  is  the  getting  of  the  pupil  to  read  agricultural  literature. 
References  are  constantly  supplied,  on  a  bulletin  board,  to  the  U.  S. 
Agriculture  year  book,  Report  of  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Wiscon- 
sin Reports  of  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  societies,  Experiment 
Station,  and  general  books  of  agriculture.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned: Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,"  King's  "The  Soil," 
Bailey's  "Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  Darwin's  "Formation  of  Vegetable 
Mould,"  Gaye's  "Great  World  Farm,"  Roberts's  "Fertility  of  the  Land," 
Stockbridge's  "Rocks  and  Soils,"  Bailey's  "Garden  Making,"  Henry's 
"Feeds  and  Feeding,"  The  Farmer's  Bulletin  sent  out  by  the  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture  and  Cornell  University,  Sargent's  "Corn  Plants," 
Bailey's  "Evolution  of  Native  Fruits." 

Such  is  the  course  now  pursued  at  the  Whitewater.  Normal.  Its 
limitations  are  as  well  realized  by  the  teacher  of  the  subject  as  by 
anybody  else.  The  course  is  too  short.  The  class  is  too  mixed,  em- 
bracing those  who  have  had  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  and  zoology, 
and  those  who  have  had  none  of  them. 

I  believe  it  would  be  better,  if  we  expect  any  good  results  in  the 
way  of  teaching  in  the  common  schools  from  the  Normal  course,  to 
combine  the  chemistry,  geology  and  agriculture. 

There  are  those  who  believe  that  knowledge  gotten  with  an  im- 
mediate practical  end  in  view  is  more  easily  learned,  more  thoroughly- 
gotten,  and  longer  retained.  The  plan  proposed  is  this:  The  course 
now  includes  twenty  weeks  of  chemistry,  twenty  weeks  of  geology, 
and  ten  weeks  of  agriculture.  Of  these  fifty  weeks,  turn  over  ten  to 
the  geography  work,  leaving  forty  for  agriculture.  In  that  time  there 
could  be  taught  much  more  thoroughly  than  now,  the  composition  of 
minerals,  their  chemical  relations,  the  weathering  of  rocks,  and  the 
resulting  soils,  the  soils  produced  by  rocks  weathering  in  situ,  the 
effect  of  glacial  action  and,  incidentally,  its  extent.  The  chemistry" 
of  the  non-metals  and  some  of  the  metals  found  in  soil-producing  rocks 
could  be  taught.  Also  the  chemistry  of  rocks,  soils,  plants,  fertilizers, 
and  foods;  and  being  thus  taught  would  make  more  impression  on  the 
average  pupil  than  now,  when  those  things  seem  to  most  as  abstract 
science. 

In  this  way,  the  properties  of  gases,  water,  acids,  alkalis,  etc,  would 
be  approached  in  _a  natural  way.  If  there  is  anything  in  "natural 
method"  this  would  furnish  a  subject  for  its  trial.  The  course  could 
be  extended  a  little  in  various  directions  to  include  some  dynamical 
geology,  and  theories  of  chemistry.  It  might  not  work  as  well  as 
it  promises,  but  most  of  the  topics  in  geology  not  included  in  this 
scheme  have  to  be  taken  as  mere  text-book  work,  and  the  parts  of 
chemistry  not  included  here  make  very  little  impression  on  the  major- 
ity of  those  taking  the  subject. 

A  pupil  who  had  a  year  of  this  work  would  have  confidence  in  his 
ability  to  give  instruction  and  perhaps  would  have  knowledge  enough 
to  inspire  confidence.  It  should  be  the  constant  aim  to  have  the  pupil 


GENERAL    DISCUSSION.  445 

do  as  much  as  possible  and  observe, — not  simply  learn  facts  out  of 
a  book. 

Below  is  appended  a  list  of  recent  articles  on  Agricultural  Educa- 
tion: 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1898-99. 

School  Gardens,  p.  1067. 

Agricultural  Schools  in  Sweden,  p.  254. 

Domestic  Science  Schools  in  Great  Britain,  p.  26. 

School  Gardens  in  Europe,  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1897-98,  p.  224. 

Agricultural  Schools  in  Argentine  Republic,  Report  of  Commissioner 
of  Education,  1897-98,  p.  1212. 

Methods  of  Instruction  in  Agriculture,  Report  of  Commissioner  of 
Education,  p.  1575. 

School  Gardens  in  Russia,  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education, 
p.  1632. 

Instruction  in  Agriculture  in  France,  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, p.  1614. 

Gardener's  School  in  Russia,  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education, 
p.  1623. 

Curriculum  of  Land  Grant  colleges,  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 1896-97,  p.  427. 

School  Garden  in  Thuringia,  Educational  Review,  17-237. 

Schools  of  Agriculture  in  Italy,  Scientific  American,  53-139. 

Briarcliff  School  of  Farming,  Public  Opinion,  28-727. 

To  teach  Farming,  Outlook,  66 — 243-5. 

Minnesota  Plan,  Outlook,  65 — 656. 

Rural  Life  and  Education,  Independent,  52 — 1631-32. 

Improvement  in  college  courses  in  Agriculture,  Educational  Review, 
19—169-74. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Upham — The  plan  consists  in  text-book  work,  and  in  some  oral 
work  given  to  the  pupils,  and  in  experiments  in  the  laboratory.  These 
are  of  two  kinds, — you  might  call  them  biological  and  chemical.  The 
biological  are  simply  such  as  have  been  done  by  teachers  of  botany 
always, — planting  of  seeds,  observation  of  the  roots,  and  things  of 
that  kind,  and  others  which  will  suggest  themselves  to  you  who 
teach  botany,  or  who  have  taught  botany.  The  chemical  takes  up 
a  few  experiments,  in  order  that  a  pupil  may  understand  what  he 
means  when  he  talks  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon;  what  he 
means  when  he  talks  about  acid,  what  about  other  things  coming  into 
this  work  of  agriculture.  There  are  some  two  dozen  experiments  of 
this  kind,  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher,  written  up  in  note 
book,  and  discussed  in  the  class.  That  is  the  way  the  work  is  done 
in  the  Whitewater  Normal  school.  There  is  a  proposition  here  that 
the  course  ought  to  be  longer  than  ten  weeks.  I  have  learned  since 
I  wrote  the  paper,  that  it  was  somewhat  out  of  order  to  approve  ex- 
tension of  time,  and  it  might  be  just  as  well  not  to  discuss  that.  I 
have  this  proposition:  We  have  geology,  chemistry,  and  agri- 
culture. Supposing  we  do  have  geology,  and  chemistry,  and  agrl- 


446  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

culture  in  the  school, — fifty  weeks  of  work.  There  are  people  who 
believe  that  certain  things  can  be  taught  incidentally  when  they  are 
wanted,  and  the  pupil  get  a  great  deal  more  or  out  them,  than  to 
make  a  direct  course  in  those  subjects,  and  not  use  them  for  a  good 
while.  The  proposition  I  have  put  in  here  is  rather  tentative,  and 
will  not  want  any  great  explanation,  but  the  point  is  this:  That  there 
be  a  course  of  one  year  in  agriculture  put  in,  and  that  under  that 
course  of  agriculture  all  the  chemistry  and  all  the  geology  taught  In 
the  school  be  taught,  and  that  the  other  ten  weeks  now  in  the  course 
be  given  to  the  geography  department.  Those  are  the  principal  points 
in  the  paper. 

Mr.  Mitchell — It  seems  to  me  that  the  tentative  proposition  that 
you  offer  of  an  agricultural  course  is  an  opportunity  to  fritter  away 
time,  to  use  time  and  energy  to  disadvantage;  that  the  time  that 
would  be  given  to  a  course  in  agriculture  would  better  be  given  to 
teaching  these  same  things  as  an  integral  part  of  the  work  in  bot- 
any. You  have  a  course  already  established  in  the  Normal  schools 
of  which  this  is  a  part,  and  now  the  proposition  is  to  separate  your 
subject  and  turn  one  part  off  as  agriculture,  when  it  properly  belongs 
in  the  line  of  botany.  This  would  scatter  the  work  and  defeat  the 
very  ends  of  condensation  of  work.  I  do  not  see  anything,  so  far 
as  you  have  outlined  that  course,  that  may  not  with  perfect  propri- 
ety, be  embodied  in  the  course  in  botany,  teaching  the  chemistry  and 
soils, — that  is,  the  chemical  relation  of  the  elements  of  the  soils,  in- 
cidentally, if  necessary,  or  in  connection  with  the  chemistry  of  the 
school.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  whole  plan  is  scattered,  and  is  dif- 
fusing our  energy  unnecessarily.  More  than  that,  it  seems  to  me  there 
is  an  objection  in  this.  The  state  of  Wisconsin  has  a  magnificent 
equipment  at  Madison  for  the  especial  training  of  young  people  in 
agriculture,  and  they  have  gone  to  the  expense  and  very  great  care 
in  establishing  a  short  course  in  agriculture  that  shall  appeal  to  the 
young  men  and  women,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  in  the  dairying  school 
of  the  state,  to  take  that  short  course  in  agriculture,  where  they  will 
get  immensely  more  in  that  line  than  they  will  ever  get  in  a  Normal 
school.  Now,  it  seems  to  me  that  we,  as  Normal  school  teachers, 
ought  to  oppose  the  institution  of  a  course  in  agriculture  per  se,  as 
long  as  there  is  nothing  essential  in  that  course  that  is  not  already 
involved  in  the  present  courses.  I  do  not  wish  to  stand  as  opposing 
that  work, — the  teaching  of  these  topics  to  bring  to  the  young  peo- 
ple who  come  to  the  Normal  schools  from  the  farms,  and  who  will 
either  go  back  to  the  farms,  or  into  the  rural  schools,  a  knowledge 
of  those  questions, — botanical,  chemical,  geological,  or  whatever  it 
may  be, — that  pertain  directly  to  agriculture.  I  should  be  very  will- 
ing to  pu€  some  sort  of  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  we  are  doing  that 
work,  but  doing  it  in  the  line  of  some  other  fundamental  course  of 
study,  or  line  of  study. 

Mr.  Dudley — It  strikes  me  that  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Mitchell  are 
entirely  out  of  order,  because  we  are  confronted  with  the  course  as 
established  by  the  Board  of  Regents,  and  the  subject  is  the  purpose, 
plan,  and  scope  of  this  course. 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  understand  that  this  is  a  course  established  in  one 
Normal  school  in  the  state.  A  tentative  course. 

Mr.  Upham — There  is  a  course  of  ten  weeks  established  in  the 
Normal  schools.  In  addition  to  that,  the  tentative  part  is  to  make 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  447 

the  course  longer,  and  do  this  work  combined  with  geology  and  chem- 
istry. The  "ten  weeks'  course  is  not  a  tentative  thing;  it  is  here. 

Mr.  Dudley — I  understood  Mr.  Mitchell's  ren;arks  to  refer  to  the 
ten  weeks'  course,  as  well  as  to  the  tentative  plan.  However,  I  would 
like  to  ask  the  Chairman  why  he  would  not  include  besides  geology 
and  chemistry,  botany  and  zoology  also?  Why  should  they  not  all 
come  in  there,  and  for  that  matter,  increase  it  to  a  two  years'  course? 
Botany  really  is  the  fundamental  thing  in  agriculture,  is  it  not? 

Mr.  Upham — The  point  is  this:  That  geology  is  taught  in  the  Nor- 
mal school,  and  unless  we  geological  folks  can  justify  that  as  we  have 
been  trying  to  do  this  afternoon,  with  its  direct  connection  with  the 
geography,  ft  is  in  a  shaky  condition.  One  of  these  days  the  Regents 
will  come  down  on  us  and  say:  "What  have  you  got  it  for?"  Keep 
the  geology  in,  and  keep  the  chemistry  in.  I  have  felt  that  both  these 
subjects  are  in  danger  in  the  Normal  schools. 

Mr.  Dudley — As  the  agriculture  is  in  the  course  and  may  be  given 
by  any  one  of  the  Normal  schools,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  out  or 
our  province  to  discuss  whether  it  should  be  there  or  should  not;  take 
it  as  it  is  stated.  I  would  make  the  same  objection  to  a  very  large 
extent  that  Mr.  Mitchell  has  done,  and  that  I  have  already  ma'de  In 
regard  to  teaching  nature  study,  that  it  is  too  diffuse,  that  it  is  not 
hewing  to  the  line,  not  accomplishing  anything.  Now  that  we  have 
that  course  I  want  to  put  myself  on  record  in  just  this  one  point: 
that  if  we  can,  in  conducting  it,  eliminate  the  personal  equation,  and 
carry  on  the  course  in  elementary  agriculture  as  a  science,  distinct 
from  the  material  benefit  that  the  student,  or  that  the  agriculturist 
is  to  get  from  it, — in  other  words,  to  study  the  plant  from  ttie  stand- 
point of  the  plant,  to  study  the  soil  from  the  standpoint  of  the  science 
involved  in  the  soil;  if  to  get  a  little  more  information  in  practical 
agriculture,  I  think  it  would  be  time  wasted.  If  we  could  make  the 
course  in  the  Normal  school  contribute  toward  the  fundamentals  that 
all  teachers  should  have,  of  marked  increase  in  power  by  studying 
natural  things  in  a  natural  way,  instead  of  studying  them  merely  to 
see  what  beneficial  results  can  be  obtained  from  it,  then  the  course 
in  agriculture  will  have  as  much  value  as  perhaps  any  other  ten  weeks' 
course. 

Mr.  Culver — It  is  only  a  few  minutes  since  I  first  saw  the  paper. 
As  I  understand  it,  this  course  in  agriculture  is  for  those  students 
who  are  fhe  very  lowest,  poorest,  most  unpromising  we  have  in  the 
Normal  school. 

Mr.  Dudley — May  it  not  be  substituted  for  one  of  the  other  sciences? 

Mr.  Upham — No,  it  may  not. 

Mr.  Culver — The  students  in  that  course  are  the  weakest,  most  im- 
mature students  we  have.  They  are  confronted  with  problems  which 
involve  something  of  chemistry,  something  of  botany,  and  a  little  of 
geology,  of  which  subjects  they  know  nothing,  and  have  had  no  op- 
portunity to  know  anything, — therefore  are  handicapped  exceedingly 
to  Begin  with.  The  time  is  too  short  to  do  very  much,  and  what  is 
attempted  to  be  done  in  this  course,  it  seems  to  me  to  be  difficult  for 
them,  although  as  simple  as  it  can  be.  So  I  can't  see  much  in  favor 
of  the  course.  In1  regard  to  bolstering  up  geology  with  tlvs  course, 
you  will  remember  it  is  confined  to  the  first  year  people,  those  who 
do  not  take  the  regular  course,  out  those  who  take  a  special  one  year 
course.  They  are  in  no  condition  whatever  to  take  geology,  or  chem- 


448  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

istry,  as  such,  and  almost  in  as  poor  condition  to  take  the  extracts 
of  these  subjects  necessary  for  this  course.  Whether  we  look  at  it 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  present  ten  weeks'  course,  or  from  the  ex- 
tended one  year  course,  it  seems  to  me  there  is  no  excuse  for  it.  Why 
not  teach  the  same  things  distinctly  under  the  separate  heads  as  we 
do  now?  If  we  ever  have  a  course  in  agriculture,  put  it  in  further 
along. 

Mr.  Goddard — I  agree  with  what  has  been  said  with  reference  to  do- 
ing this  work  in  agriculture  and  feel  that  that  is  going  to  cover  all  the 
benefits  to  come  from  these  other  studies.  Take  the  subject  of  chem- 
istry, for  instance.  I  feel  that  in  chemistry,  and  the  same  would  be 
true  in  other  studies,  there  is  great  value  in  a  logical  treatment  of  the 
subject,  in  getting  at  some  of  the  underlying  principles  of  the  science 
in  a  logical  way,  which  gives  us  something  of  a  basis  for  thinking 
about  the  applications,  and  it  seems  to  me  that  with  mature  "students 
such  as  we  have  in  a  Normal  school,  what  they  ought  to  have  so  far  as 
the  chemistry  is  concerned,  is  a  knowledge  of  some  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  in  their  logical  relations  before  they  can  be  able  to 
make  any  applications  of  these  principles  in  agriculture.  You  can 
give  them  something  of  this  logical  treatment,  and  incidentally  call 
their  attention  to  the  application  which  can  be  made  to  agriculture. 
The  work  will  organize  our  chemistry  courses  to  make  at  least  some- 
thing of  an  application  of  the  principles  of  chemistry  to  the  subject  of 
agriculture.  Another  thought  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  nature 
study.  I  wish  to  say  this:  The  subject  of  nature  study  seems  to  be 
in  a  crude  condition  at  the  present  time.  Everybody  seems  to  feel  that 
that  work  is  a  failure,  and  has  not  met  with  good  results.  The  subject: 
of  nature  study  can  be  made  to  rest  upon  as  sound  a  pedagogical  basis 
as  any  work  we  have  in  our  schools.  It  is  because  it  has  not  been 
handled  in  the  right  way.  Because  we  have  not  teachers  who  can  get 
out  and  take  it  up  with  a  definite  purpose,  and  realize  the  purpose. 
We  ought  not  to  say  the  subject  deserves  no  consideration  because  it 
has  been  a  failure  up  to  this  time.  If  the  subject  is  handled  as  It 
should  be,  it  seems  to  me  there  is  an  opportunity  there  for  increasing 
this  subject  of  agriculture,  of  nature  study  to  a  much  broader  line  of 
work,  a  much  broader  claim  upon  our  teaching  in  the  elementary 
schools  for  its  educational  value.  I  believe  the  time  will  come  when 
our  Normal  schools  will  organize  some  work  along  the  line  of  nature 
study.  When  we  shall  be  preparing  teachers  to  go  out  and  do  the  right 
kinds  of  nature  study  work.  When  we  get  such  courses  In  the  Nor- 
mal schools,  they  will  cover  a  large  part  of  this  study  of  agriculture. 
Therefore,  if  this  time  comes,  it  seems  to  me  it  has  its  bearing  upon 
the  teaching  of  agriculture.  It  seems  to  me  if  we  can  teach  it  in  con- 
nection with  this  broa'der  subject,  because  it  has  a  wider  educational 
application,  is  not  so  specialized  in  its  import,  it  will  be  a  better  plan 
to  get  this  work  in  agriculture. 

Mr.  Perisho — If  I  should  be  at  all  consistent  I  should  be  obliged  to 
oppose  the  plan  suggested  by  the  Chairman  for  this  reason,  that  if  we 
undertake  to  give  to  these  students  who  have  just  entered  for  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  a  year's  course  in  agricultural  study,  the  course  in  ge- 
ology, for  instance,  we  would  have  to  pull  the  geology  away  down  so 
they  could  get  it  at  all,  or  have  a  separate  and  distinct  course  in 
geology.  We  have  not  time  to  do  that.  Prof.  Culver  has  touched  the 
point  exactly, — the  student  is  not  prepared  to  take  the  work.  When 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

a  student  takes  geology  he  has  to  have  a  series  of  steps  through  the 
scientific  courses  to  prepare  him  for  that  work.  It  is  a  waste  of  time 
to  bring  the  geology  down  to  the  level  of  the  student.  It  is  quite  true 
that  it  may  be  possible  for  us  to  give  a  year  of  science  work  in  addi- 
tion which  may  apply  to  a  year's  course  in  agriculture.  I  have  no  ob- 
jection to  that,  but  do  not  take  science  work  out  of  its  regular  place 
and  put  it  down  on  a  level  with  the  student. 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  think  the  Chairman  stated  that  the  purpose  of  this 
work  in  agriculture  was  rather  to  redeem  and  save  geology  and  chem- 
istry. Suppose  we  get  the  purpose  of  the  Normal  school  right  before 
us,  where  we  can  see  it.  Give  them  a  good  common  school  education, 
prepare  them  to  teach  in  the  public  school.  Does  that  course  in  agri- 
culture come  within  the  scope  of  that  purpose?  I  fail  to  see  it.  It 
seems  to  me  it  never  could  be  the  purpose  of  that  work  in  agriculture 
to  save  chemistry  and  geology.  If  that  is  the  salvation  of  them,  it  is 
simply  a  case  in  which  a  thing  had  better  not  be  saved. 

Mr.  Ewing — It  is  not  within  our  province  to  say  whether  there  should 
be  a  course,  or  not.  It  is  there.  I  do  not  believe  we  are  quite  ready 
to  say  that  it  ought  not  to  be  there.  Possibly  Mr.  Upham  might  give 
us  some  ideas  of  whether,  with  the  assistance  of  the  one  year's  course, 
which  I  presume  he  has  looked  into,  it  is  meeting  the  ends.  I  under- 
stand in  a  general  way  that  this  one  year's  course  is  to  help  out  the 
country  schools.  People  who  will  come  to  the  Normal  schools  for  a 
year,  who  will  almost  certainly  not  go  on  to  take  even  the  elementary 
course,  and  who  will  not  get  the  physics,  will  not  get  the  botany,  will 
not  get  these  things,  but  will  come  and  in  this  one  year's  course,  will 
have  this  subject  of  agriculture.  Under  those  conditions  it  looks  to  me 
as  though  if  there  is  a  demand  for  a  one  year's  course,  this  is  a  per- 
fectly legifimate  and,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  an  appropriate  part  of  it. 
Whether  we  shall  combine  the  geology,  we  all  know  that  is  off  the 
question.  We  have  been  appealed  to,  time  and  time  again,  by  the  State 
Superintendent,  not  to  talk  about  that.  I  assume  that  one  purpose  of 
it  is  so  that  the  country  school  teacher  can  help  the  boy  and  girl  in 
the  country  school  to  know  something  about  agriculture.  Whether  it 
is  going  to  meet  that  end  or  not,  I  do  not  know,  but  it  seems  to  me 
that  must  be  the  purpose,  although  I  have  not  seen  that  that  was  ex- 
actly the  purpose  stated  in  the  paper.  If  it  is.  and  it  meets  that  pur- 
pose, it  seems  to  me  there  is  justification  for  it.  I  am  not  very  much 
in  fear  of  its  upsetting  the  whole  Normal  school  curriculum. 

Mr.  Upham — The  paper  does  not  have  but  one  sentence  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  purpose,  because  I  assumed  that  in  this  paper,  and  in  all 
the  other  papers  almost,  coming  before  this  body  this  week,  the  pur- 
pose was  almost  axiomatic.  The  purpose  of  these  things  is  to  prepare 
teachers  to  teach  these  things,  or  closely  related  things,  in  the  schools 
of  the  state,  and  what  is  the  use  of  spending  two  or  three  pages  of  a 
very  short  paper  in  discussing  a  thing  which  we  all  know  about? 

Miss  Hatherell — I  took  the  freshman  work  last  year  in  the  agricul- 
tural school,  along  with  150  freshmen,  in  soil  physics  and  agriculture. 
As  I  see  it,  these  boys  are  learning  to  farm,  and  they  have  not  any- 
thing to  take  back  to  the  children  of  the  country.  They  will  incident- 
ally take  it  back,  but  that  is  not  their  business  there.  There  is  work 
being  done  in  soil  physics  and  in  agriculture  that  a  teacher  could 
adopt  wifh  excellent  results,  it  seems  to  me,  in  the  instruction  of 

29 


450  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

teachers  who  shall  go  into  the  country  districts.  You  have  perhaps  in 
mind  Mr.  Harvey's  institute  circular,  where  he  says  the  intention  of 
this  course  is  to  enrich  the  life  of  the  country  child,  and  it  seems  to 
me  that  that  is  what  we  might  be  doing  in  such  a  course,  in  the  one 
year  course  in  the  Normal  school.  It  need  not  interfere  with  botany, 
or  geology.  There  are  things  about  the  grains  of  corn,  and  the  amount 
of  moisture  taken,  that  the  child  can  know.  It  can  be  brought  down 
through  experimental  means  to  the  student.  It  will  give  him  a  body  of 
knowledge  that  he  can  carry  to  these  country  districts. 

Mr.  Sims — I  want  to  ask  you,  if  you  did  this  work,  Mr.  Upham,  with 
the  one  year  common  school  course  students. 

Mr.  Upham — The  class  was  made  up  of  everything,  from  those  first 
year  course  common  school  pupils  to  post  graduates. 

Mr.  Ewing — Was  anyone  obliged  to  take  it  who  was  not  in  the  one 
year  course? 

Mr.  Upham — No,  but  everyone  comes. 

Mr.  Sims — Your  purpose  is  to  give  instruction  in  the  art  of  teaching 
this  in  the  common  schools? 

Mr.  Upham — That  is  the  purpose. 

Mr.  Sims — What  part  of  your  plan  seemed  to  work  to  best  advan- 
tage? With  many  European  countries,  for  instance,  the  problem  of 
securing  an  adequate  amount  of  food  from  the  soil  is  a  very  serious 
one.  Germany,  and  France,  and  some  others,  are  doing  work  along 
these  lines.  That  time  is  coming  to  the  United  States.  What  special 
parts  of  tnis  work  do  you  find  most  profitable  to  those  students? 

Mr.  Upham — One  of  the  most  profitable  things  that  I  have  ever 
taught  in  connection  with  this  work  in  agriculture,  in  the  two  years 
I  have  taught  it,  is  the  matter  of  soil  moisture,  and  the  conservation 
of  soil  moisture,  and  the  relation  of  soil  moisture  to  the  soil,  and  of 
soil  moisture  to  the  plant.  It  has  been  an  eye-opener  to  these  farmer 
boys.  They  may  not  teach  this  course,  but  they  have  a  little  knowl- 
edge of  the  science  of  farming  that  they  never  dreamed  of  before. 

Miss  Devlin — It  seems  to  me  Mr.  Ewing  is  right  in  his  statement  that 
this  work  is  put  into  the  first  year  course  for  those  people  who  are 
going  out  into  the  country  schools  to  teach.  These  young  people  are 
immature,  and  untrained ;  they  have  absolutely  no  training  in  anything 
but  books.  Their  knowledge  is  simply  in  words.  This  work  in  agri- 
culture is  merely  one  phase  of  nature  work.  Instead  of  scattering  all 
over  nature  work,  they  center  on  this  one  phase  of  it,  and  in  their 
work  it  is  not  book  knowledge,  they  are  not  teaching  something  from 
the  book,  they  are  taking  an  experiment,  training  children  to  observe 
these  experiments,  and  to  get  some  knowledge  for  themselves  from  the 
things,  and  not  from  words.  Most  of  their  education  has  been  this, — 
simply  teaching  words  that  may  mean  something  later  on,  but  prob- 
ably will  not.  This  is  the  only  thing  that  we  have  to  give  to  these 
country  school  teachers  along  that  line.  I  am  inclined  to  think"  the 
Regents  are  right  in  putting  this  in  the  course  for  that  purpose,  if  for 
nothing  else. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  should  like  to  make  a  suggestion,  that  it  is  the  opinion 
and  sentiment  of  the  assembly  here,  to  look  with  approval  upon  the 
course  in  agriculture  in  the  Whitewater  Normal  school,  as  it  is,  and 
for  the  purposes  as  we  understand  them.  Some  things  have  been  said 
that  have  not  been  with  the  proper  understanding  of  the  course,  and 
I  am  disposed  to  think  that  is  our  position  now. 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Mr.  Merrill — I  suggest  that  the  teachers  who  are  interested  in  agri- 
culture meet  with  the  teachers  interested  in  geology  tonight,  and  let  us 
discuss  both  subjects.  While  the  discussions  have  been  very  good, 
they  have  not  exhausted  the  subject,  and  I  think  the  time  is  coming 
when  agriculture  will  be  not  only  a  course  in  the  Normal  schools,  but 
will  be  a  course  taught  in  every  public  school  in  this  state,  in  villages 
as  well  as  in  rural  schools,  and  its  importance  is  very  great.  There- 
fore I  make  that  suggestion. 

Mr.  Upham — I  will  invite  those  interested  to  come  to  the  Athearn. 

Mr.  Mitchell — There  is  a  sort  of  feeling  in  my  mind  that  this  whole 
discussion  is  exceedingly  inadequate.  We  go  on  record  here,  and  our 
discussion  of  these  subjects  is  to  be  read  over  by  people  who  were  not 
here,  and  who  can't  conceive  of  the  inadequacy,  perhaps,  of  these  dis- 
cussions. During  this  discussion  the  substance  of  this  resolution 
comes  up,  which  implies  a  rather  long-headed  plan  looking  into  the 
future,  a  theory  and  not  a  condition  with  regard  to  the  establishment 
of  courses  in  agriculture  in  the  common  schools  of  the  state  of  Wis- 
consin. Now  it  seems  to  me  that  when  you  realize  that  purpose  along 
toward  the  tail  end  of  the  discussion,  it  makes  a  very  great  difference 
in  the  discussion  itself,  and  in  the  attitude  we  are  going  to  take  In 
that  discussion.  I  am  in  favor  of  the  resolution  on  that  basis,  that 
it  is  simply  an  initial  step  toward  a  far  seeing  plan  to  bring  to  the  com- 
mon schools  of  this  country  something  that  shall  rejuvenate  and  vivify, 
and  give  those  children  something  that  will  enrich  their  lives  in  this 
course  of  study.  But  to  make  that  under  our  present  conditions  I 
must  go  back  to  my  other  position.  Do  you  not  see  the  anomaly?  It 
is  not  fair  to  the  people  who  are  discussing  these  questions,  it  seems  to 
me.  I  thing  it  is  due  not  only  to  me,  but  I  believe  it  is  due  to  every 
member  of  this  committee. 

Mr.  Dudley — It  occurs  to  me  that  it  will  be  a  little  premature  to  take 
a  vote  on  this  motion  just  now,  either  one  or  the  other.  We  have  not 
been  subjecting  hardly  any  of  these  discussion  to  a  vote.  The  point  I 
want  to  make  is  that  all  these  discussions  have  come  up  and  are  going 
on  record,  and  why  should  we  here  and  there,  perhaps  once  or  twice, 
subject  a  certain  proposition  to  a  vote  that  has  not  been  any  more  fully 
discussed  than  the  rest?  If  those  who  are  interested  in  the  elements 
of  agriculture  are  to  meet  with  the  geologists  tonight  for  further  dis- 
cussion, I  would  like  to  make  the  motion  that  this  specific  motion  be 
laid  upon  the  table  until  tomorrow. 

Mr.  Sage — I  would  like  to  say  it  seems  to  me  we  are  not  gaining  any- 
thing by  trying  to  put  our  approval  upon  something  we  know  but  lit- 
tle about.  We  are  taking  this  on  a  very  brief,  simple  discussion.  The 
Regents  have  established  it  anyway.  We  are  required  to  stand  by  and 
try  to  make  it  go,  but  why  put  our  stamp  of  approval  on  something  we 
do  not  know  anything  about? 

Mr.  Mitchell — We  met  for  a  specific  purpose  this  afternoon.  This 
resolution  is  immaterial,  irrelevant,  and  does  not  come  within  the  pur- 
pose of  this  meeting. 

Leader — The  original  motion  is  seconded. 

Those  in  favor, — Many. 

Contrary, — One. 


452  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


POSSIBILITY   AND   DESIRABILITY    OF   FIELD   WORK    IN   GEOG- 
RAPHY, BIOLOGY,  AND  GEOLOGY.     CHARACTER  OF  WORK. 

J.  A.  MERRILL,  Superior. 

I.  What  the  question  of  field  work  involves. 

In  this  day  and  age  when  the  mind  is  so  active  in  searching  for  the 
foundation  of  things,  the  teacher  no  less  than  his  fellows  of  the  other 
professions,  is  endeavoring  to  search  out  the  fundamental  requirements 
of  his  art.  For  many  years  teaching  has  been  an  honorable  business; 
for  a  few  years  past  it  has  been  considered  the  new  profession,  and  is 
now  like  the  other  professions  grappling  with  fundamental  problems. 
The  age  of  uncertainty  in  the  business  of  teaching  when  it  was  sup- 
posed that  all  people,  young  and  old,  must  obtain  knowledge  in  the 
same  way,  and  when  education- was  believed  to  consist  in  mastering 
'the  things  that  were,  rather  than  the  things  that  are,  some  curioua 
practices  were  forced  into  existence  which  have  had  great  weight  in 
the  solution  of  educational  problems.  Among  these  practices  which 
became  precedents  are  these, — that  instruction  should  address  the 
memory  principally  and  the  other  powers  incidentally,  and  that  the 
subject-matter  of  instruction  should  come  from  between  the  covers  of 
books  or  from  the  instructor.  The  grooves  made  by  these  and  other 
similar  precedents  have  been  worn  very  deep  and  although  there  have 
been  prophets  with  warning  cries,  these  ruts  are  scarcely  less  deep 
than  formerly. 

In  the  struggle  to  get  away  from  the  old  ideas,  educational  psychol- 
ogy has  done  its  share  and  has  established  the  fact  that  child  mind  is 
immature  mind  and  must  be  developed  as  well  as  informed,  and  that 
the  educational  process  must  both  develop  and  inform.  It  has  re- 
called the  solitary  cries  of  Pestolozzi,  Commenius,  and  Froebel,  about 
interest,  imagination,  reasoning,  etc.,  and  has  made  them  the  founda- 
tion of  modern  pedagogy.  Although  much  of  this  is  due  to  the  ef- 
forts of  the  psychologist,  it  is  certain  that  science  has  done  its  share 
and  that  when  educational  problems  are  taken  up  in  the  light  of 
modern  science,  especially  of  biology,  they  assume  an  entirely  different 
aspect. 

Biology  has  given  the  idea  of  evolution  to  the  world  and  evolution 
means  progress  through  difficulties.  When  this  idea  enters  the  edu- 
cational field,  it  not  only  means  that  the  mind  must  be  looked  upon  as 
the  theater  of  conflicting  forces  contributing  to  its  growth,  but  that 
the  subject-matter  of  a  subject  must  be  so  arranged  that  in  mastering 
it  the  student  must  see  the  forces  involved  at  work  and  judge  of  their 
value  by  the  results  of  their  activity.  By  this  means  the  student  be- 
comes a  sympathetic  observer  and  enters  into  the  life  of  the  connict 
under  consideration,  not  as  a  casual  onlooker  devoid  of  all  interest 
except  curiosity,  but  as  one  whose  interest  is  thoroughly  aroused  by 
the  reality  of  the  elements  at  work  and  the  vividness  with  which  the 
expressions  are  made. 

It  is  in  this  meaning  of  education  that  field  work  enters  as  a  factor 
and  in  any  other  view  of  education  it  is  an  absurdity.  If  we  confine 
ourselves  to  the  meaning  of  the  term,  field  work  consists  in  leaving 
the  room  with  classes  and  studying  in  the  field;  but  clearly  the  ob- 
jects of  such  work  is  to  reinforce  the  work  of  the  room  and  to  fur- 


FIELD  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY,  GEOLOGY,  AND  BIOLOGY.  453 

nish  the  basis  of  future  work.  Therefore,  field  work  does  not  begin 
with  taking  a  class  to  the  field,  nor  does  it  end  with  bringing  it  back. 
It  consists  in  the  use  of  natural,  unhindered  conditions  in  their  proper 
relations  in  the  development  of  a  subject.  Generally  such  a  plan  In- 
volves more  or  less  study  outside  of  the  regular  classroom,  but  mani- 
festly much  of  it  is  done  inside  requiring  nothing  but  mental  processes. 
Its  necessary  elements  are,  a  basis  full,  clear  and  distinct  in  which 
there  is  no  uncertainty  of  vision;  a  development  in  which  observation 
plays  a  fundamental  part  and  is  supplemented  by  the  processes  of  com- 
parison and  reflection;  and  an  application  which  connects  the  results 
with  practical  ideas. 

II.  Pedagogical  relation. 

The  pedagogy  of  this  kind  of  work  is  sound.  It  combines  the  ele- 
ments of  scientific  research  with  the  common  branches  and  makes  it 
possible  to  introduce  true  science  work  into  grades  of  the  public 
schools.  It  reaches  the  reason  through  the  natural  channels  of  mental 
activity.  In  the  order  of  their  approach,  observation,  comparison  and 
generalization  are  constantly  reached  and  exercised,  but  in  addition  to 
this,  it  has  great  value  in  that  it  directly  appeals  to  the  interest  and 
arouses  it  so  thoroughly  that  it  controls  the  entire  mental  activity. 

III.  Comparison  with  text-book  method. 

The  traditional  method  of  teaching  sciences  from  text-books  has  been 
modified  in  recent  years  by  introduction  of  laboratory  work.  Even  in 
geography,  the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  the  realm  of  the  text-book  has 
beeen  invaded  and  laboratory  exercises  In  the  construction  and  study 
of  maps  and  models  are  being  used.  It  needs  no  argument  here  to  sus- 
tain the  statements  that  even  the  most  watchful  traveler  finds  difficulty 
in  gleaning  accurate  pictures  from  the  printed  page  and  that  those  who 
have  given  no  thought  to  the  methods  of  the  interpretation  of  nature 
can  have  little  idea  of  what  the  writer  is  trying  to  describe.  Alas, 
that  all  travelers  who  have  the  literary  charm  have  not  been  trained 
in  methods  of  interpretation;  but  even  if  they  have  not,  they  generally 
acquire  a  keenness  of  insight  which  demands  a  corresponding  basis  in 
the  minds  of  the  readers. 

Text-book  work  in  any  science  lacks  vitality.  When  the  idea  thus 
reaches  the  mind  it  has  passed  through  at  least  two  translations  since 
leaving  nature  and  unless  it  be  met  with  an  experience  in  first-hand 
study,  impressions  are  vague  and  unsatisfactory. 

Laboratory  work  is  a  study  of  things  but  it  is  not  always  a  study  of 
living  things.  It  is  too  often  a  study  of  structure,  function  and  de- 
velopment— subjects  of  great  importance  in  themselves— but  leaving 
entirely  out  of  consideration  the  social  factors  for  which'  all  others 
are  fashioned.  In  addition  to  text,  in  addition  to  laboratory,  there  is 
needed  that  contact  with  living,  ecological  forces  and  processes  which 
involve  important  values,  to  give  a  natural  science  its  full  uplifting 
power.  To  meet  this  demand  it  is  desirable  to  have  systematic  field 
work  in  all  grades  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university  in  all  sub- 
jects which  deal  with  variation  in  any  form. 

IV.  Possibilities  of  field  work. 

As  a  factor  in  the  public  schools  the  field  work  which  I  have  de- 
scribed is  not  in  constant  use.  It  was  used  first  in  the  kindergarten, 
then  in  the  universities  and  colleges  and  now  it  has  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  grades. 


454  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

The  following  specific  suggestions  will  perhaps  illustrate  more  fully 
the  application  of  the  foregoing  principles. 

1.  In  geography. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  geography  includes  all  the  science  given 
in  the  elementary  grades  and  therefore  should  be  comprehensive  and 
thorough.  By  this  is  not  meant  that  there  should  be  many  topics  or 
that  they  should  be  studied  after  the  manner  of  the  specialist,  but  that 
each  type  should  be  studied  with  such  results  in  view  as  are  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  children  of  the  grade  in  which  it  is  given.  In 
formation  and  interpretation  of  contour  maps  of  small  and  large  areas, 
the  study  of  surface,  hill  and  stream,  together  with  the  mapping  and 
'definitions  to  which  the  outdoor  study  leads.  In  the  fourth  grade  the 
studies  of  coast  line  and  the  representative  industries  of  the  com- 
munity with  the  place  geography  which  naturally  grows  out  of  such 
study.  In  the  fifth  grade,  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  work  of  water 
and  tEe  formtion  of  streams,  stream  basins,  and  river  systems,  the 
the  formation  and  productive  power  of  soils,  the  growth  of  plants  and 
formation  and  productive  power  of  soils,  the  growth  of  plants  and  the 
the  industry  of  farming  and  related  industries.  In  the  sixth  grade  the 
study  of  a  bank  as  the  center  of  commercial  activity,  a  factory  as  il- 
lustrative of  division  of  labor,  the  working  of  a  city  as  a  problem  Of 
history.  In  the  seventh  grade,  geography  generally  gives  way  to  his- 
tory or  is  a  study  of  text  and  maps  with  the  application  of  previous 
"work.  In  the  eighth  grade,  if  physical  geography  is  introduced,  it  may 
consist  of  the  study  of  the  effects  of  erosion,  the  reduction  of  the  land- 
scape, the  struggle  between  divides,  the  formation  and  occurrence  of 
minerals  and  precious  metals. 

2.  In  biology. 

In  this  subject  the  matter  of  field  work  is  of  a  more  advanced  grade 
and  could  hardly  be  begun  before  the  eighth  grade  or  first  year  of 
high  school.  The  preliminary  problem  involved  is  the  structure  of  the 
animals  and  plants  with  special  reference  to  points  of  advantage.  This 
study  takes  place  in  the  classroom  or  laboratory  after  which  the  class 
is  taken  to  the  field  to  study  the  sphere  of  life — the  society, — in  which 
the  plant  or  animal  lives,  and  to  see  the  conditions  influencing  its 
tendency  to  variation. 

A.  In  botany. 

The  following  lessons  are  suggestive  and  a  study  of  sixty  minutes  in 
the  field  is  sufficient  for  each. 

(a)  The  idea  of  plant  life  complete;  the  structure,  organs  and  rela- 
tions of  a  common  phaneroganious  plant. 

(b)  The  notions  of  herb,  shrub,  and  tree — ideas  of  prairie  and  forest. 

(c)  The  location  of  plants  depending  upon  the  water  relation. 

"(d)  Parasites  and  saprophytes,  principally  fungi,  and  their  relation 
to  higher  plants. 

(e)  Leaf  display  and  its  relation  to  sunshine  and  growth.    Flowers 
and  their  relation  to  branches  and  leaves. 

(f)  Leaf  coloration, — preparation  for  winter. 

These  lessons  suggest  nothing  which  show  a  demand  for  technical 
study.  The  depth  to  which  the  observation  and  generalization  go  de- 
pend entirely  upon  the  capacity  of  the  class  and  the  time  at  its  dis- 
posal. 

B.  In  zoology. 

The  field  lessons  in  zoology  comprise  a  practical  study  of  the  prm- 


FIELD  WORK  IN  GEOGRAPHY,  GEOLOGY,  AND  BIOLOGY.  455 

cipal  factors  of  evolution.  The  special  animals  studied  have  certain 
problems  in  connection  with  their  environment  which  yield  readily 
to  the  open  air  observer.  The  study  in  the  field  must  be  preceded  by 
work  in  anatomy  in  the  laboratory  and  followed  by  a  study  of  varieties, 
species  and  genera,  which  are  collected  and  mounted. 

(a)  Defense,  involving  elusion,  imitation  and  voluntary  aggression 
•in   insects. 

(b)  Specializations  to  overcome  climate  and  enemies. 

(c)  Mimicry  and  coloration,  especially  in  butterflies  and  moths. 

(d)  Domestic  and  political  economy  of  hymenoptera. 

(e)  Spiders  at  home  and  away  from  home. 

(f)  Problems  of  food  getting  and  defense  in  water  animals. 

(g)  Habits  and  flight  of  birds. 

(h)   Movements  and  habits  of  reptiles  and  mammals. 

These  are  but  samples  of  lessons  that  may  be  extended  indefinitely. 

3.  In  geology. 

This  subject  is  generally  put  in  the  last  year  of  the  course  after  most 
of  the  science  work  has  been  done  and  therefore  covers  a  broader  field 
that  the  others.  It  includes  them  all.  The  principles  developed  in  the 
other  sciences  are  used  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  geology. 

If  the  field  work  heretofore  mentioned  has  been  properly  done, 
much  material  for  the  rational  study  of  the  earth,  geology,  will  be  at 
hand ;  but  if  it  has  not  been  done,  the  plane  of  the  work  will  be  neces- 
sarily lowered.  However  a  few  preliminary  trips  will  furnish  the  re- 
quired foundation  for  the  geological  work. 

Geology  may  be  called  the  life-history  of  the  earth  and  includes  the 
effects  of  the  physical  and  biological  forces  present  and  past  on  the 
structure  of  the  earth.  The  field  work  should  be  arranged  in  accord- 
ance with  the  above  ideas. 

(1)  Structural  studies.  This  follows  the  laboratory  study  of  about 
sixty  common  minerals. 

(a)  Study  of  as  many  kinds  of  rocks  as  possible  in  place,  including 
soil,  thus  connecting  laboratory  study  with  natural  occurrences. 

(b)  Studies  of  accidents  happening  to  rocks  in  the  process  of  ad- 
justment, as  faults,  veins,  and  dikes. 

(c)  Studies  of  forces  which  make  the  earth's  crust.     Weathering — 
work  of  running  water  and  formation  of  river  basins. 

(d)  Studies  of  development  of  rivers.     Coast  line  work — formation, 
sifting  and   depositions   of   clastic   rocks.     Effects   of  glaciation.     Ef- 
fects of  internal  heat — volcanoes,  igneous  rocks.     Effects  of  strain — 
earthquakes.     Studies    of    biological    forces.     Fossil    bearing    rocks — 
though  fossil  hunting  is  the  least  profitable  of  field  trips,  yet  fossil  beds 
may  be  made  to  represent  horizons  and  therefore  to  restore  ancient 
conditions.     Study  of  a  detailed  area.     Following  the  field  trips  for 
study  of  illustrations,  and  the  mapping  of  the  same  to  study  map  in- 
terpretations, an  area  sufficiently  near  to  admit  of  two  or  more  trips 
should  be  studied,  mapped,  modeled  if  time  allows,  and  its  history  in- 
terpreted and  written. 


456  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


(a)  VALUE  OF  ORAL  EXPOSITION  IN  DEVELOPING  TEACHING- 

POWER  OF  THE  STUDENT;  SUCH  EXPOSITION  TO  BE 
WITHOUT  APPARATUS,  AND  OF  EXPERIMENTS  PREVI- 
OUSLY PERFORMED. 

(b)  TO   WHAT  EXTENT   MAY   ORAL   EXPOSITION   AND  BLACK- 

BOARD ILLUSTRATION  TAKE  THE  PLACE  OF  EXPERI- 
MENTAL WORK  WITH  APPARATUS  IN  THE  SCIENCE 
TEACHING,  KEEPING  IN  MIND  THE  PURPOSE  OF  DEVEL- 
OPING GENERAL  TEACHING  POWER? 

HON.  L.  D.  HARVEY,  State  Superintendent. 

As  to  the  value  of  oral  exposition  in  the  development  of  teaching 
power  of  the  student,  my  judgment  is  that  the  value  of  that  exposition 
in  developing  teaching  power  is  not  always  fully  estimated.  One  of 
the  most  important  elements  that  go  to  make  teaching  power  is  the 
ability  of  the  teacher  to  express  himself  well,  definitely,  clearly,  point* 
edly,  without  rambling,  making  a  clean-cut  exposition  on  whatever  he 
is  presenting.  Training  in  oral  exposition,  and  by  training  I  mean 
exercise  in  doing  it,  is  of  the  highest  value.  A  student  may  learn 
much  in  the  laboratory,  but  if  he  does  not  learn  in  connection  with  that 
work  in  the  laboratory,  the  power  of  expression,  so  that  he  can  put 
before  his  students  clearly  and  definitely  what  they  are  to  see,  or,  if 
he  wishes,  what  he  sees,  there  has  been  a  failure.  And  I  think  that  is 
a  failure  in  'the  training  of  a  large  number  of  the  students  who  go  out 
from  our  laboratories.  It  is  a  failure  not  only  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dents from  the  laboratories  of  the  Normal  schools,  but  of  the  high 
schools,  and  even  of  the  higher  institution's. 

Now  keep  this  specific  case  in  hand;  the  exposition  to  be  without  ap- 
paratus, and  of  experiments  previously  performed.  I  do  not  know  a 
teaching  exercise  or  a  training  exercise  in  the  school  of  higher  order 
in  developing  general  teaching  power  than  that.  A  student  has  per- 
formed his  experiment,  has  reached  his  conclusion,  has  perhaps  made 
his  notes,  and  everything  is  done.  Now  to  have  that  student  stand, 
and  without  his  apparatus,  to  make  so  clear  an  exposition  to  those  who 
are  listening  to  him  that  they  shall  see  every  step  of  the  operation  as 
performed  in  that  experiment,  demands  close  observation,  retentive 
memory  growing  out  of  concentrated  attention,  a  logical  and  proper 
order  of  relating  the  one  part  to  the  other  that  is  of  the  highest  value, 
not  only  in  science  teaching,  but  in  any  teaching.  And  I  believe  there 
is  no  place  in  the  Normal  sjchool  that  offers  such  opportunities  for  this 
kind  of  training  as  the  science  department  offers.  It  is  of  value  as  I 
said,  not  only  in  the  teaching  of  science,  but  whenever  that  student 
goes  into  any  work,  no  matter  what  it  may  be,  that  training  which  he 
has  thus  had  can  not  fail  to  be  of  great  value  to  him. 

What  does  it  demand  of  him?  I  think  it  demands  certainly  many 
of  the  things  for  which  you  train  him  in  science,  for  which  you  put 
him  to  work  in  the  laboratory.  In  the  performance  of  his  experiment, 
you  set  him  to  close  observation.  He  must  work  either  with  a  definite 
end  in  view,  which  I  think  is  preferable  for  the  -elementary  work  in 
science,  or  must  work  hoping  to  find  something.  In  any  case  he  has  to 
observe  closely.  If  you  set  before  him  the  problem  of  reproducing 


ORAL  EXPOSITION  DEVELOPS  TEACHING  POWER.         457 

orally  every  step  of  that  experiment  you  have  given  an  exercise  in  the 
concentration  of  attention,  and  in  the  orderly  arrangement  of  what  has 
been  observed,  that  certainly  can  not  be  surpassed  anywhere. 

Now  perhaps  you  may  raise  the  objection,  "We  have  not  time."  It 
becomes  a  question  of  values  then.  Some  of  you,  perhaps  all  of  you, 
are  doing  something  of  this.  Perhaps  what  I  am  saying  is  entirely  ir- 
relevant. Last  week  I  met  fifty  or  sixty  high  school  teachers  for  a  few 
days.  To  those  high  school  teachers  it  was  practically  a  new  proposi- 
tion, and  they  raised  at  once  the  objection:  "We  have  not  time  to  do 
that."  What  is  the  time  for?  To  do  two  more  experiments,  or  half  a 
dozen  more  experiments,  or  to  develop  power  on  the  part  of  your  stu- 
dents? I  said  to  them,  "You  are  training  pupils;  a  few  will  go  to  the 
university,  one  in  twenty,  the  rest  out  into  life.  Will  not  the  training 
that  they  will  get  in  that  power  to  organize  the  results  of  observation, 
and  to  express  them  well  on  their  feet,  be  of  the  highest  value  to  them 
anywhere  in  life?  in  business,  in  society,  in  any  of  the  functions  which 
they  are  to  discharge  as  citizens?"  I  would  rather  have  in  the  science 
work  fewer  experiments  performed,  and  perhaps  a  little  narrower 
knowledge  of  science  even,  provided  there  were  developed  that  power 
to  express  oneself,— to  see  first,  next  to  do,  and  then  to  express  what 
was  seen  and  done  cleary  and  well. 

"To  what  extent  may  oral  exposition  and  blackboard  illustration  take 
the  place  of  experimental  work  with  apparatus  in  the  science  teaching, 
keeping  in  mind  the  purpose  of  developing  general  teaching  power?" 

Now,  who  is  to  do  this  work?  Sometimes  the  pupil,  and  sometimes 
the  teacher.  The  teacher,  perhaps,  is  to  perform  an  experiment  be- 
fore his  class.  Is  it  not  possible  that  sometimes  without  the  perform- 
ance of  ftie  experiment  he  may  make  an  oral  exposition,  using  illus- 
trative work  upon  the  blackboard,  as  may  be  needed,  that  shall  make 
just  as  clear  to  those  students  the  results  which  he  expected  to  reach, 
as  would  have  been  the  case  had  he  reached  them  through  his  manipu- 
lation of  apparatus  in  the  performance  of  that  experiment?  Does  it 
not  demand  closer  attention  and  a  higher  order  of  ability  on  the  part  of 
the  student  to  understand  the  exposition  than  the  experiment?  Per- 
haps you  may  say  too  high  an  order  of  ability.  If  so,  if  he  hasn't  the 
ability  to  do  it,  of  course  it  is  entirely  useless.  That  will  depend  some- 
what on  the  ability  of  the  professor  to  express  himself  clearly,  definite- 
ly, and  in  an  orderly  way,  and  upon  his  judgment  as  to  what  shall  be  un- 
dertaken and  when.  It  is  simply  coming  back  to  the  old  text-book 
idea,  the  text-book  does  that  in  the  one  case.  But  the  text-book,  it 
seems  to  me,  may  well  be  supplemented  by  this  actual  work  of  the 
teacher. 

Now,  gentlemen,  I  want  to  ask  you,  what  is  the  particular  value  of  a 
piece  of  apparatus,  and  the  manipulation  of  that  apparatus,  in  the  per- 
formance of  an  experiment,  when  every  concept  is  in  the  pupil's  mind 
at  the  present  time  for  which  the  apparatus  and  the  various  manipula- 
tions will  furnish  the  percept,  and  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  call  it  up? 
What  is  the  use  in  this  case,  of  manipulating  the  apparatus?  There 
can  be  but  one  purpose, — skill  in  handling  apparatus.  There  is  no 
other  value  in  it  for  training,  as  I  see  it.  I  have  seen  a  large  amount  of 
experimental  work  going  on  in  laboratories  that  seemed  to  me  to  ut- 
terly ignore  that  truth.  I  want  to  say  to  you,  too,  that  I  feel  better 
tibout  this  after  having  talked  with  one  of  the  leading  university  pro- 
fessors in  fhis  country,  who  is  supposed  to  be  an  authority  on  this 


458  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

subject.  "  And  he  feels  better,  too,  because  he  has  entirely  faced  about 
on  the  position  that  he  took  some  two  or  three  years  ago.  He  says  of 
the  high  schools,  "They  are  doing  too  much  experimental  work.  We 
would  rather  have  them  come  to  us  in  the  university  with  less  of  the 
work  they  attempt  to  do  by  experimentation,  and  more  knowledge 
that  can  be  gotten  either  from  the  text-book,  or  from  the  oral  exposi- 
tion of  the  teacher."  I  do  not  know  that  I  quote  his  exact  words,  but 
I  do  know  that  I  quote  his  exact  thought.  And  so  it  seems  to  me  that 
wherever  the  pupil  has  in  his  mind  whatever  is  necessary  to  the  under- 
standing of  what  you  wish  to  have  him  understand  today  without  using 
apparatus,  we  should  apply  one  of  those  maxims  which  we  heard  from 
Prof.  McGregor,  "Use  the  student's  present  capital."  To  relieve  him 
from  using -his  capital,  and  go  out  and  borrow  capital  in  the  way  of  ap- 
paratus, and  to  use  it  in  place  of  his  own  capital  is  not  developing  his 
power  in  the  highest  degree. 

It  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  well  to  train  your  students  to  use 
the  blackboard  and  crayon  for  illustrative  purposes,  because  if  they  go 
out  to  teach  science  they  are  not  going  to  have  very  extensive  labora- 
tories, they  must  do  without  many  things  which  you  have.  The  power 
of  expression  thus  developed  will  enable  them  to  do  many  things  which 
otherwise  they  would  be  unable  to  do  with  their  limited  laboratory 
equipment.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  quite  possible  that  more  work 
of  this  kind  can  be  done  with  profit  than  is  done  in  a  great  many  of 
the  laboratories  in  the  state. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Mitchell — Might  not  your  exposition  include  diagrams  or  charts 
as  a  sort  of  substitute  for  apparatus? 

Mr.  Harvey — I  intended  to  make  it  broad  enough  to  cover  anything 
of  that  kind. 

Mr.  Case — The  question  arises  with  me  that  a  great  many  students 
study  by  visualization.  I  do.  Now  the  question  is, — Will  it  be  worth 
while  to  insist  on  the  student's  seeing  the  apparatus  rather  than  the 
diagram?  My  drawing  is  faulty,  as  is  that  of  many  science  teachers. 
Would  they  be  able  to  understand  the  thing  they  are  dealing  with, 
instead  of  carrying  away  a  picture?  If  they  want  to  reproduce  it,  they 
have  a  more  faulty  picture  than  mine  probably,  because  it  is  second- 
hand, instead  of  knowing  what  the  thing  was.  If  a  person  happens  to 
study  by  picturing  to  himself  the  thing  he  is  dealing  with,  that  is  a 
different  question.  Pictures  on  the  board  take  the  place  in  chemistry 
of  things  that  they  ought  to  handle  in  the  laboratories. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  perhaps  ought  to  say  that  this  applies  more  espe- 
cially to  physics  than  to  any  of  the  other  sciences. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  understand  you  that  after  that  experiment  has  been 
performed  there  comes  the  chance  to  tell  exactly  what  has  been  done. 
I  understand  you  to  say  that  the  teacher  might  deal  with  concepts  that 
are  clearly  in  mind.  That  does  not  imply  the  taking  up  of  questions 
that  can't  be  made  familiar  by  actual  experiment. 

Mr.  Harvey — There  are  two  propositions:  One  with  reference  to  the 
experiment;  when  experiments  have  been  performed,  then  an  oral  ex- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


459 


position  of  them.     In  the  second  case  here,  it  refers  much  more  em- 
phatically to  the  subject  of  physics  than  to  other  subjects. 

Mr.  Mitchell — The  training  that  you  outline  woald  be  accomplished 
best  if  the  student  made  a  presentation  of  what  he  had  done,  which 
the  rest  of  the  class  had  not  done. 

Mr.  Harvey— Yes,  that  would  be  best.  I  think  most  of  the  students 
in  the  laboratory  work  perform  nearly  the  same  experiments.  Would 
it  not  be  worth  while  to  introduce  a  variety  of  experiments  purely  for 
this  purpose,  not  for  the  science?  Get  a  variety.  Here  is  one  student 
who  has  performed  a  certain  experiment.  I  want  him  to  be  ready  to 
stand  up  before  his  classmates  and  put  before  them  the  steps  in  the 
experiment  and  the  results  so  clearly  that  they  will  understand  it,  and 
be  able  to  show  that  they  understand  it. 

Mr.  Dudley — I  had  a,  concrete  illustration  of  that  very  thing.  We 
had  studied  the  amoeba,  and  I  found  half  the  students  had  a  rather 
perfunctory  idea  of  it,  although  I  did  not  expect  them  to  have  a  much 
better  conception  of  it.  The  direction  was  given  that  they  should 
bring  in  the  next  day  a  description  of  the  amoeba,  full  enough,  and  il- 
lustrated enough  by  drawings,  to  be  understood  by  a  child  ten  years 
old.  In  other  words,  that  description  should  be  couched  in  language 
that  the  child  could  understand,  that  the  drawing  should  be  full  enough 
and  clear  enough  that  the  child  might  understand  it.  Simply  for  this 
one  point,  perhaps  not  to  get  a  correct  mental  picture  of  the'  amoeba, 
but  a  mental  picture  which  would  at  least  stand  for  the  amoeba.  If 
a  Student  in  a  Normal  school  can  make  a  presentation  of  a  subject  like 
that,  to  a  child,  which  the  child  can  grasp,  which  he  can  get  the  philos- 
ophy of,  and  which  he  can  understand  in  its  essentials  ,that  very  thing 
of  being  able  to  give  an  oral  exposition  by  means  of  the  blackboard  and 
other  illustrations,  will  be  accomplished.  I  found  the  papers  brought 
in  the  next  day  were  extremely  simple,  and  the  supervisor  of  practice 
from  that  class  selected  one  to  present  before  the  practice  teachers' 
meeting. 

Mr.  Ewing — It  seems  to  me  that  we  are  doing  what  Mr.  Harvey  has 
been  talking  about  perhaps  more  than  we  are  aware  of.  I  have  en- 
couraged this  same  line  of  work,  and  we  have  done  it  considerably  by 
having  the  student  take  his  work  down  to  the  general  exercise  and 
present  it  before  the  school.  The  matter  that  was  mentioned  in  re- 
gard to  time  is  certainly  an  important  one.  One  thing  which  we 
might  do  a  good  deal  more,  I  think,  and  overcome  the  objection  on  the 
score  of  time,  is  cooperation  with  the  teacher  of  composition  or  rhet- 
oric. I  know  our  teacher  is  perfectly  willing,  and  I  have  given  our 
teacher  of  composition  science  topics  and  urged  him  to  encourage 
students  to  come  to  me  and  work  out  these  topics  with  me,  and  then 
put  it  into  the  form  of  a  composition  and  present  it  to  him.  The  only 
difficulty  is  that  the  students  have  been  allowed  freedom  to  select 
their  topics,  and  they  are  just  as  liable  to  read  up  on  Ulysses  as  to 
do  this  other  work.  I  am  inclined  to  think  this  other  work  would 
be  much  more  profitable.  As  to  the  benefit,  it  seems  to  me  that  comes 
almost  solely  to  the  student,  unless  it  is  a  very  simple  experiment. 
Other  students  do  not  get  very  much  from  it  unless  they  have  per- 
formed the  same  experiment.  One  objection  to  this  method  is  in  the 
matter  of  time,  in  that  the  teacher  of  physics  is  teaching  language, 
and  ought  to  have  the  time  charged  to  the  language  department, 
should  be  very  glad  to  teach  the  language,  and  have  credit  for  it.  I 


460  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

do  not  believe  it  is  quite  right  to  take  the  limited  time  we  have  to 
teach  science  and  spend  it  in  teaching  language,  and  it  certainly  does 
take  a  good  deal  more  time  when  done  in  this  way. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  most  heartily  endorse  Mr.  Harvey's  first  point.  The 
exposition  should  be  a  part  of  the  laboratory  work.  As  to  the  sec- 
ond point,  I  should  like  to  ask  Supt.  Harvey  if  he  does  not  intend  us 
to  understand  that  the  student  ought  to  perform  enough  at  least 
of  those  simple  experiments  to  be  able  to  thoroughly  understand 
and  use  them  when  he  goes  into  the  school,  even  though  he  has  a 
home-made  piece  of  apparatus.  The  student  should  at  least  perform 
a  type  experiment.  He  should  also  perform  enough  of  these  type  ex- 
periments to  become  accurate,  deft,  and  successful. 

Mr.  Harvey — I  do  not  mean  to  give  you  the  idea  that  I  am  trying 
to  do  away  with  experimentation.  I  recognize  its  value,  though  I  think 
you  gentlemen  over-estimate  its  value,  as  a  general  proposition.  What 
I  do  want  to  say  is  this:  I  want  them  to  do  certain  experimental 
work.  But  when  they  have  done  that  work,  or  when  they  have  in 
their  minds  all  the  concepts  necessary  to  the  performance  of  an  ex- 
periment, it  is  not  essential  to  use  apparatus,  nor  to  take  the  time. 
With  reference  to  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  Ewing,  I  think  we  don't 
want  to  lose  sight  of  this  fact,  that  general  teaching  power  is  what 
we  are  after,  -even  in  the  physics  class.  If  it  falls  short  of  developing 
this  power  of  good  oral  expression,  the  time  perhaps  better  be  used, 
a  little  of  it  at  least,  for  that  purpose.  I  am  heartily  in  favor  of  the 
cooperation  mentioned  by  Prof.  Ewing.  Instead  of  looking  in  the  en- 
cyclopedia to  find  material  for  a  paper,  let  the  science  teacher  some- 
times furnish  the  subject. 


a.  POSSIBILITY   OF   AND    MODES    OF   CORRELATING   RELATED 

SCIENTIFIC  KNOWLEDGE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  ANY  OF 
THE  SCIENCES. 

b.  VALUE  OF  THE  "LESSON  PLAN"  IN  THE  WORK  OF  CORRELA- 

TION IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING  IN  VIEW  OF  THE  FACT  THAT 
PROPOSITIONS  1,  2,  AND  3,  APPLIED,  DETERMINE  WHAT  IS 
NECESSARY  AND  WHAT  MUST  BE  MASTERED  BY  THE 
PUPIL  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  HIS  PRESENT  KNOWLEDGE  OF 
THAT  WHICH  IS  ESSENTIAL. 

I.  N.  MITCHELL,  Milwaukee. 

POSSIBILITY   OF    CORRELATION. 

As  to  the  possibility  of  correlation,  it  is  self-evident  that  related 
subjects  of  knowledge  may  be  brought  into  co-relation  in  the  teach- 
ing process,  and  successful  teaching  demands  that  they  be  so  co-re- 
lated. 

The  degree  of  correlation  that  may  be  secured  depends  largely  upon 
the  sequence  of  subjects  in  value  and  time  in  a  given  course.  The 
desirability  of  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  correlation  and  its  con- 
sequent reinforcement  of  teaching  are  therefore  reasons  for  making 
the  sequence  of  subjects  of  primary  importance.  While  it  may  be 
granted  that  there  is  an  ideal  sequence,  it  is  certainly  the  belief  of 


CORRELATING   RELATED    SCIENTIFIC    KNOWLEDGE. 

most  if  not  all  of  the  teachers  in  Normal  work  that  such  an  arrange- 
ment does  not  now  exist.  Under  present  conditions,  environment, 
personal  equation  of  teachers,  teaching  force,  programs,  maturity  and 
immaturity  of  students,  it  is  certain  that  the  best  possible  arrange- 
ment,— even  if  it  did  exist, — would  be  only  an  approach  to  the  ideal 
and  therefore  the  degree  of  correlation  attainable  is  much  less 
than  the  maximum. 

The  only  value  of  this  statement  in  this  connection  is  to  raise  the 
suggestive  questions:  Is  the  present  sequence  of  subjects  in  any  of 
the  Normal  schools  the  best  possible  under  existing  conditions?  and, 
if  not,  is  it  not  a  fit  subject  for  the  most  careful  consideration  and 
conference? 

MODES  OF  SECURING"  CORRELATION. 

A  discussion  of  the  modes  of  securing  correlation  applies  to  exist- 
ing conditions  as  well  as  to  any  others;  in  fact,  the  less  perfect  the 
sequence  the  greater  the  necessity  of  modes  of  correlation. 

The  whole  purpose  of  correlation  is  to  enable  the  student  to  under- 
stand a  new  subject  by  relating  it  to  something  already  known.  The 
Imown  acts  as  a  foundation  for  the  new  and  as  a  stimulus  to  the  im- 
agination. To  determine  modes  of  correlation,  therefore,  is  to  find 
means  of  introducing,  in  the  classroom  process  of  teaching  appropriate 
forms  of  knowledge.  , 

Some  of  the  more  evident  modes  of  securing  correlation, — whether 
it  be  of  related  sciences  or  in  the  sequence  of  ideas  in  any  subject,— 
are: 

1.  The  use  of  illustrations. — These  illustrations  may  be  brief  state- 
ments,— oral  or  other, — pictures,  charts,  models,  experiments,  etc.,  in- 
volving, in  the  mind  of  the  student,  a  recollection  or  re-presentation 
of  some  object  of  knowledge  whose  presence  shall  throw  light  upon 
the  subject  under  consideration.     A  mere  suggestion  or  reference  to 
work  known  by  the  teacher  to  have  been  done  by  the  student,  if  time- 
ly, often  throws  over  a  subject  a  flood  of  light,  whose  reflection  in 
the  face  of  the  student  is  a  fair  evidence  that  the  new  thing  has 
joined  the  apperceptive  mass. 

While,  primarily,  the  illustration  should  come  from  the  teacher,  sec- 
ondarily the  teacher  may  use  it  as  a  test  whereby  to  assure  himself 
that  his  effort  has  been  fruitful.  By  requesting  from  the  members  of 
a  class  additional  illustrations,  it  is  often  made  evident  to  the  teacher 
that  his  own  illustration  has  proven  inadequate  or  inoperative  and 
that  additional  work  must  be  done.  A  call  for  additional  illustrations 
from  other  members  of  the  class  serves  the  double  purpose  of  testing 
them  and  of  aiding  the  needy. 

2.  References.— It  is  very  probable  that,  in  many  cases,  a  new  subject 
may,  for  the  most  of  a  class,  be  adequately  illustrated  by  a  simple 
reference  to  work  already  done,  while  for  one  or  more  such  reference 
is  inadequate.     In  such  a  case  it  is  often  economy  of  time  to  give  the 
student,  on  the  spot,  or  at  a  conference  later,  a  reference  to  some 
treatise  or  other  authority  on  the  subject  that  shall  meet  his  need. 
Furthermore,  it  is  often  of  the  greatest  importance  that  in  the  assign- 
ment of  work  for  preparation  references  be  given  that  shall  enable 
the  student  to  fully  apprehend  the  matter  on  which  preparation  Is 
asked. 


4(32  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

3.  Lectures. — It  not  unfrequently  happens  that,  in  the  course  of  any 
Jine  of  work,  lectures  or  talks  are  given  on  related  lines  of  work  by 
other  persons,  advantage  of  which  may  be  profitably  taken;    or  the 
teacher  himself  may  often,  to  great  advantage,  address  his  class  on 
some  related  subject  for  immediate  or  future  use  as  indicated  to  him 
by  emergency  needs  or  premeditated  plan. 

4.  Field  work. — Environment  is  one  of  the  potent  factors  in  the  un- 
derstanding of  many  of  the  facts  of  biology,  geology,  geography  and 
other  subjects,  and  the  examination  of  the  plant  or  animal  or  other 
form  in  its  natural  relation  to  its  surroundings  often  gives  a  more  ade- 
quate idea  than  is  possible  in  any  other  way 

5.  Collateral  or  library  reading. — Library  reading  is  now  so  fully  or- 
ganized as  a  means  of  teaching  that  it  easily  serves  as  a  mode  of 
correlation.     The  fact  that  this  exercise  is  an  adjunct  of  the  depart- 
ment of  literature  does  not  prescribe  that  the  work  shall  be  confined 
to  literature  in  its  purely  art  forms,  but  allows  the  introduction,  if 
desired,  of  history  or  science.     There  is  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  many 
that  science  forms  no  part  of  literature  in  its  purest  and  most  beau- 
tiful forms.     This,  of  course,  is  not  true — can  not  be  true  as  long  as 
the  literary  master  works  with  life.       The  library  reading  gives  the 
science  teacher  an  opportunity  of  using  pure  literature  as  a  means  of 
correlation. 

6.  Museums  or  collections  of  any  kind  that  have  a  scientific  value 
offer  a  fruitful  source  of  material  for  correlation. 

7.  Teaching. — There  are  times  when  there  is  no  chance  for  co-re- 
lating a  subject  to  some  other  related  science  although  such  correla- 
tion is  essential  to  the  completion  of  the  purpose  involved.     In  such 
a  case  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  except  to  teach  that  portion  of  such 
subject  as  will  make  the  desired  relation,  or  to  refer  the  students  to 
works  from  which  they  may  secure  the  necessary  information. 

8.  Appeal  to  authorities. — As  indicated  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  dis- 
cussion, it  is  the  province  of  the  teacher  to  aid  the  student  by  care- 
fully selected  references.     It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  no  less  the  duty  of 
the  teacher  to  acquaint  the  student  with  a  fair  list  of  the  best,  up-to- 
date  works  on  kindred  subjects  as  an  appendix  to  those  on  his  own 
subject — from  which  the  student  may  secure  aid,  and  further,  to  teach 
him  to  use  such  aids  and  establish  the  habit  of  self-reliance  and  re- 
search.    It  is  here  that  the  chief  value  of  the  lesson  plan  appears. 
With  this  skeleton  before  him,  he  is  best  prepared  to  determine  just 
what  points  are  likely  to  need  to  be  correlated  to  other  subjects;  the 
mode  of  correlation  that  will  be  most  likely  to  meet  the  demand,  and 
to  provide  and  prepare  the  material  that  mav  be  needed  for  such  work. 

9.  Pondering  and  reasoning. — It  is  possible  for  the  student  himself 
to  discover  relations,  to  explain  the  new  by  means  of  the  related  old. 
It  is  possible  for  the  pupil  to  change  places  with  the  teacher  and,  in 
the  light  of  the  maxim  "Make  yourself  unnecessary  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble" it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  place  before  the  student 
problems  that  shall  demand  of  him  mental  activity  in  studying  rela- 
tions— pondering  over  them  to  the  end  that  he  shall  become  inde- 
pendent. 

10.  Value  of  the  leson  plan.— The  familiarity  with  the  four  fundamen- 
tal propositions  makes  it  unnecessary  to  repeat  them  here.    Proposition 
one  needs  no  discussion.     Proposition  two  expresses  the  content  of  the 
subject.    It  is  an  analysis,  more  or  less  minute,  of  that  content.     This 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


463 


analysis  must  be  sufficient  to  enable  the  teacher  to  establish  clearly 
the  fourth  proposition  by  subtracting,  as  it  were,  from  the  content  all 
those  parts  of  the  subject  that  the  student  already  knows.  He  is  now, 
as  nearly  as  he  can  be,  able  to  know  what  he  has  to  teach  in  order  to 
complete  his  subject. 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  McCaskill — Suppose  we  take  the  earth-worm — the  points  in  re- 
gard to  its  structure.  Your  class  have  never  studied  the  worm,  and 
know  nothing  about  it.  Under  the  things  that  ought  to  be  known,  un- 
der 2,  if  you  are  writing  out  a  formal  plan,  do  you  state  the  detail  in 
regard  to  the  earth-worm  that  you  want  them  to  work  out?  Can  you 
make  it  come  out  even? 

Mr.  Mitchell — No.  I  can't  make  my  laboratory  work  come^out  in 
forty-five  minutes  of  recitation,  and  forty-five  minutes  of  laboratory 
work.  It  is  just  as  apt  to  be  twenty  or  thirty,  whatever  there  is  need 
for.  I  begin  every  day's  work  with  a  sort  of  recitation.  That  is  al- 
most as  invariable  as  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  The  stu- 
dent has  done  certain  work  for  one  or  two  periods  of  the  day  before. 
It  is  essential  to  me  to  have  some  idea  whether  he  has  got  a  grip  on 
that  work.  Therefore  I  require  a  summary  of  the  preceding  day's 
work.  I  take  a  summary  tomorrow  of  the  subject.  I  may  have  been 
working  a  week  on  the  subject  of  the  earth-worm  and  have  about  con- 
cluded a  line  of  work.  I  want  a  summary  then  of  the  whole  thing  to 
give  him  a  little  more  perspective.  He  gets  observations  along  the 
whole  line  together  in  logical  order.  I  always  insist  upon  the  sum- 
mary. In  getting  that  summary  my  purpose  is  to  train  the  student 
with  reference  to  attention,  observation,  judgment,  and  expression.  I 
have  emphasized  expression,  because  I  am  fully  in  sympathy  with 
Prof.  Ewing's  statement  that  language  is  a  part  of  all  work.  I  am 
striving  every  day,  in  every  recitation,  for  proper  expression. 

Now  to  answer  your  other  question,  which  had  reference  to  making 
out  the  details.  I  confess  I  do  not  do  that  in  my  own  practice.  I 
think  a  person  beginning  the  lesson  plan  work,  at  the  beginning  would 
need  to  do  it,  at  least  once  or  twice,  simply  in  order  to  get  an  expres- 
sion of  his  own  purpose  and  to  know  that  he  has  in  his  own  method 
the  logical  sequence  of  his  steps. 

Mr.  McCaskill — If  he  makes  a  system  of  these  laboratory  directions, 
does  he  not  do  that? 

Mr.  Mitchell — In  a  way,  yes.  Because  in  his  laboratory  work  he  is 
simply  analyzing  his  statement.  I  do  not  want  it  understood  that  I 
give  my  lesson  plan  to  the  class. 

Mr.  McCaskill — Do  you  give  notes? 

Mr.  Mitchell — Not  often;  I  only  give  the  directions  to  the  class. 

Mr.  Culver — What  objection  to  putting  it  on  the  blackboard? 

Mr.  Mitchell — It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  this  objection,  that  if  you 
put  down  the  lesson  plan,  you  are  going  to  unfold  many  things  to  the 
student,  by  name  at  least,  that  he  has  not  discovered  at  all.  I  want 
the  student  to  reach  some  conclusions  from  his  own  observation.  So 
far  as  the  names  alone  are  concerned,  that  would  not  cut  any  figure; 
but  I  do  not  think  you  can  put  a  lesson  plan  with  all  the  details  on  the 


464:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

board  without  enabling  the  student  to  pre-judge.  It  takes  away  the 
edge  of  his  own  investigation. 

Mr.  Culver — In  some  studies  that  would  be  more  true  than  in  others, 
but  in  some  work  in  physics,  and  some  in  geology,  I  find  that  a  care- 
fully written  out  plan  is  the  greatest  help  in  the  world.  It  gives  a 
logical  method  of  procedure  in  studying  the  lesson. 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  was  speaking  particularly  of  the  laboratory  work. 
They  know  of  course  at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  the  general  line  of 
procedure  in  that  subject.  It  may  be  plain  biology.  As  an  introduc- 
tion I  give  them  the  four  or  five  groups  of  plants.  That  work  is 
given  them  in  outline,  and  often  in  printed  form,  in  order  that  they 
may  know  the  scope  of  it,  and  the  classes  and  subclasses  of  that  work. 
I  frequently  go  over  in  a  sort  of  lecture  to  the  class,  some  of  the  side 
points  all  along  that  line  in  order  that  they  may  see  the  scope  of  the 
work. 

Mr.  McCaskill — Would  you  give  to  those  students  any  specific  direc- 
tions? Suppose  it  is  a  case  of  dissection.  Can  you,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  exercise,  give  to  those  students  directions  enough  to  carry  them 
through  the  work? 

Mr.  Mitchell — No,  I  would  give  them  the  general  direction  for  the 
work,  and  I  am  right  with  them  all  the  time  and  supplement  the  gen- 
eral directions  by  my  personal  attendance. 

Mr.  Upham — I  understand,  Mr.  Mitchell,  you  begin  most  days  with  a 
recitation,  and  you  go  over  the  work  of  the  previous  day  up  to  the 
time  where  you  had  to  stop,  and  then  go  along  as  far  as  your  time 
permits,  and  then  the  next  day  you  pull  them  up  again  to  see  if  they 
understand  as  far  as  "they  have  been.  That  is  my  practice  in  chem- 
istry a  great  deal.  Keep  the  thing  raked  after  clean. 

Mr.  Case — I  was  telling  the  people  in  geology  some  of  the  conven- 
iences in  Milwaukee,  and  they  were  rather  surprised.  Our  president 
gave  us  ten  hours  a  week  of  work,  and  we  can  either  have  two  hours 
of  laboratory  work  consecutively,  or  one  hour  recitation  and  one  of 
study,  or  arrange  it  any  way  we  please.  Mr.  Mitchell  has  the  same 
facilities  in  biology  as  I  have  in  physics  and  chemistry. 

Mr.  Upham — Do  I  understand  then  that  you  have  the  right  to  re- 
quire of  your  students  anything  more  than  ten  hours  a  week  for  your 
subject? 

Mr.  Case — Yes,  we  can  have  that. 

Mr.  Upham — If  you  have  an  hour's  recitation  and  an  hour  of  lab- 
oratory work,  you  are  not  expected  to  have  that  pupil  spend  any  more 
time  on  that  subject  until  tomorrow? 

Mr.  Case — That  is,  if  the  forty-five  minutes  are  consecutive  hours. 

Mr.  Mitchell — That  Js  only  partially  true  in  my  work.  I  have  some 
difficulty  in  arranging  the  program.  In  the  primary  and  intermediate 
course  I  secure  just  that  end.  but  in  one  of  the  other  courses,  the  kin- 
dergarten course,  the  class  is  large  and  unwieldy,  and  it  is  not  possible 
to  get  in  the  two  consecutive  periods,  and  they  consequently  come  to 
me  forty-five  minutes  a  day.  with  the  understanding  that  they  do  forty- 
five  minutes  of  work  outside  the  class.  I  wish  them  to,  but  know  they 
don't. 

Mr.  Upham— Do  you  suppose  that  they  get  along  with  as  little  time 
in  their  other  studies,  one  and  a  half  hours  a  day?  Do  you  understand 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

that  in  history  and  in  all  the  other  studies  of  the  school,  the  teacher 
gets  along  with  an  hour  and  a  half  a  day  of  the  pupil's  time? 

Mr.  Mitchell— No,  I  know  they  do  not. 

Mr.  Upham— Thou  \\-\\\  should  we  be  shut  off  with  an  hour  and  a 
half  a  day  and  the  history  teacher  have  three  hours  a  day? 

Mr.  Mitchell — No  reason  why  we  should. 

Mr.  Dudley— I  know  it  is  a  sort  of  an  unwritten  law  in  a  good  many 
schools,  that  each  subject  should  have  one  period  for  recitation,  and 
two  periods  for  preparation.  In  some  schools  the  program  of  the  stu- 
dents is  made  out  on  that  basis,  that  It  should  take  just  twice  as  long 
to  prepare  a  lesson  as  to  recite  it,  and  I  have  always  proceeded  on  that 
basis.  I  take  it  to  mean  that  a  science  teacher  is  entitled  to  two 
periods  of  time  each  day,  if  he  chooses  to  demand  them. 

Mr.  Perisho — Outside  of  recitation? 

Mr.  Dudley.  No,  including  the  recitation.  Two  schedule  periods  of 
the  program.  Then  of  course  if  the  work  is  loaded  on  so  heavily  that 
he  has  to  do  some  studying  at  home,  he  will  have  to  do  it.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  in  one  of  my  courses  in  chemistry  I  have  two  formal  meet- 
ings in  the  recitation  a  week,  and  three  days  of  the  week  the  students 
meet  in  the  laboratories  two  periods  a  day.  In  that  meeting  there  Is 
somewhat  of  iv.-it.-ition  in  the  laboratory,  just  as  Mr.  Mitchell  has  men- 
tioned at  the  beginning  of  the  two  periods.  That  adjusts  itself.  I 
think  we  have  just  as  much  right  and  get  just  as  much  right,  in  that 
respect,  as  any  other  subject,  history  or  anything  else. 

Mr.  McCaskill — There  is  one  point  in  the  plan  brought  out  this 
morning  in  regard  to  the  assigning  of  lessons,  when  the  science  teach- 
ers are  conducting  laboratory  work,  assigning  topics,  and  bringing  up 
work  that  can  not  properly  be  brought  up  in  the  laboratory.  There  is 
the  lecture  side,  and  when  is  that  to  be  done? 

Mr.  Watson — I  have  understood  that  in  the  Milwaukee  school  they 
are  insisting  that  no  student  shall  take  more  than  four  studies  at  a 
time.  Also  that  no  teacher  is  assigned  to  more  than  four  classes  at 
a  time.  Is  fhis  true  in  regard  to  the  science  work? 

Mr.  Mitchell — I  can  speak  for  myself  only.  I  have  four  periods  a 
day  in  the  laboratory,  and  library  reading  once  a  week. 

Mr.  Watson — That  is,  part  of  your  work  counts  one  class  through 
two  periods,  and  two  other  classes. 

Mr.  Mitchell — The  kindergarten  has  two  sections,  forty-five  minutes 
each;  the  intermediate  one  section  in  two  periods. 

Mr.  Upham — Please  state  again  how  many  periods  you  are  tied  up 
every  day. 

Mr.  Mitchell — Four  periods  every  day. 

Mr.  Dudley — On  two  subjects,  or  three? 

Mr.  Mitchell— Just  now  in  botany,  one.     I  hope  you  won't  feel  vry 
bad  about  that,  because  this  is  my  easy  day.     For  five  or  six  years  I 
have  been  working  with  about  125  pupils  a  day,  for  five  or  six  per 
a  day,  right  straight  through.     I  don't  know,  but  I  have  flattered  my- 
self that  the  president  thought  I  needed  a  little  rest. 

Mr.  Case — I  have  three  laboratory  classes.  On  the  days  on  which 
I  am  in  the  laboratory,  that  means  six  hours.  The  days  wln-u  they  re- 
cite it  only  means  three  hours  on  an  average  of  three  days  a  week. 
Just  at  present  my  classes  are  reciting  in  physics,  two  classes  and  two 
days. 

30 


466  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Mr.  Upham — Please  put  it  in  periods  per  week. 

Mr.  Case — About  fifteen  periods  a  week. 

Mr.  Watson — Fifty-two. 

Mr.  Fling — Twenty-five  now,  and  forty  during  the  summer  course,  In 
the  spring  term. 

Mr.  Merrill — About  twenty  at  the  present  time,  or  twenty-five. 

Mr.  McCaskill — Thirty-five.  That  means  that  there  are  some  in  one 
of  my  sections.  I  can't  get  them  all  together,  they  come  at  different 
hours,  and  I  am  expected  to  be  in  the  laboratory  with  them  seven 
hours  a  day.  I  am  expected  to  be  there  every  hour  during  the  day.  I 
have  five  hours  with  large  divisions,  when  I  must  put  in  almost  all  of 
my  time.  Two  others  have  few  students,  and  I  can  give  part  of  the 
time  to  my  own  work. 

Mr.  Culver — Thirty  hours  a  week. 

Mr.  Dudley — Forty-eight. 

Mr.  Ewing — I  am  resting  on  forty  periods. 

Mr.  Sage — There  are  two  of  us.  I  put  in  forty-five  hours  every 
week,  and  that  does  not  include  Saturdays,  and  students  work  Satur- 
day forenoon.  Miss  Carter  puts  in  between  twenty-five  and  thirty, 
making  about  seventy  hours  a  week. 

Mr.  Perisho — I  have  twenty  recitations  per  week,  and  then  I  have 
laboratory  classes  every  hour  in  the  day,  so  if  you  count  that,  and  be- 
gin at  eight  o'clock  and  at  one  o'clock,  I  should  say  twenty  recitations, 
and  twenty  laboratory  periods, — forty. 

Mr.  Upham — This  is  my  easy  time.  I  have  at  the  present  time  only 
five  periods  a  day, — twenty-five. 

Mr.  Watson — On  the  basis  on  which  the  others  are  reporting,  I  need 
to  reduce  mine;  about  forty-one  will  cover  mine. 

Mr.  Merrill — I  don't  see  how  you  can  count  forty  or  fifty  hours  a 
week,  when  there  are  only  thirty-five  in  the  school  periods.  If  you 
count  the  length  of  time  you  spend  in  the  laboratory,  I  spend  from 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  six. 

Mr.  Upham — Are  the  pupils  there  all  that  time? 

Mr.  Merrill — All  but  one  hour. 

Mr.  Dudley — At  our  school  there  are  seven  regular  periods  a  day, 
beginning  at  nine  and  at  two, — nine  to  twelve-fifteen,  and  two  to  four. 
I  have  a  class  at  eight  and  at  one,  which  makes  nine  periods  a  day. 


DANGER  OF  UNDERTAKING  ADVANCED  WORK  IN  SCIENCE  NOT 
WITHIN  THE  PROPER  SCOPE  AND  PURPOSE  OF  A  NORMAL 
SCHOOL  COURSE. 

A.  -L.  EWING,  River  Falls. 

From  this  topic  it  is  a  fair  inference  that  there  is  an  impression  that 
unwarranted  advanced  work  is  undertaken  in  the  Normal  schools.  T 
cannot  acknowledge  that  in  the  only  school  concerning  which  I  have 
adequate  information,  we  are  consciously  doing  any  such  thing.  That 
would  be  self  incrimination.  Regarding  the  schools  as  a  whole  my 
lack  of  full  knowledge,  as  well  as  the  proprieties  of  the  situation,  make 
it  feasible  for  me  to  speak  only  on  general  principles.  I  am  in  full  ac- 
cord, however,  with  the  committee  in  the  opinion  that  the  topic  Is 


DANGER  IN  ADVANCED  WORK  IN  SCIENCE.  4(57 

worthy  of  our  consideration.  The  science  teacher  is,  possibly,  beset 
with  temptations  to  lead  his  pupils  beyond  prescribed  limits  more  than 
other  teachers  are.  The  fact  that  he  is  dealing  with  lines  of  informa- 
tion that  constitute  the  foreruners  of  progress  and  civilization  tends 
to  make  him  an  enthusiast  and,  possibly,  in  some  cases  induces  him  to 
attempt  to  lead  his  pupils  to  drink  deeper  drafts  from  the  founts  of 
learning  than  the  purposes  of  our  Normal  schools  contemplate. 

It  seems  axiomatic  that  the  thorough  mastery  of  the  elementary,  the 
fundamental,  should  precede  the  advanced  or  any  attempt  toward  it. 
This  simple  truth,  together  with  time  limitations  and  the  intellectual 
condition  of  our  students,  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  utterly  pre- 
cludes advanced  work.  If  we  take  up  the  work  in  order  of  its  import- 
ance to  the  student,  keeping  in  mind  the  question  whether  he  will  ever 
be  called  on  to  teach  the  particular  topic  under  consideration,  or  if  not, 
whether  it  will  have  a  direct  bearing  on  other  lines  of  teaching  that  he 
may  do,  or  again,  whether  it  will  give  him  an  insight  into  the  nature 
of  things  and  broaden  his  horizon,  then  the  limitations  will  fix  them- 
selves. 

To  go  into  more  detail:  I  would  see  the  student  in  physics  immersed 
in  the  work  of  a  businesslike  laboratory,  where  he  shall  make  quanti- 
tative determinations  with  the  question  of  accuracy  very  prominent. 
I  should  have  him  work  in  specific  gravity,  in  the  mechanics  of  fluids 
and  solids,  a  few  of  the  leading  matters  in  heat,  as  the  determination 
of  coefficient  of  expansion,  specific  and  latent  heat.  In  sound  I  should 
have  him  attempt  but  few  things  quantitatively,  as,  velocity  of  sound 
waves  and  number  of  vibrations  of  a  tuning  fork.  In  light  the  law  of  In- 
verse squares,  the  matter  of  mirrors  and  lenses,  hinging  as  they  do  on 
the  two  simple  laws  of  reflection  and  refraction,  afford  a  fair  amount  of 
work  of  a  semi-quantitative  character  admirably  adapted  to  Normal 
schools.  Along  with  this  quantitative  work  I  should  have  the  student 
do  illustrative  work  of  a  qualitative  nature.  In  electricity  practically  all 
of  the  experiments  may  fall  under  this  head.  This  laboratory  work 
forms  the  fiasis  of  the  class  discussion.  By  these  means  the  student  is 
led  mainly  by  inductive  processes  to  discover  and  define  many  of  the 
great  laws  of  physics.  If  in  taking  up  the  work  as  thus  hinted  at,  I 
find  that  there  is  no  time  for  certain  technical  determinations  that  I 
should  really  like  to  have  made,  if  the  student  is  never  able  to  use  a 
hundred-dollar  galvanometer,  it  does  not  cause  me  to  wear  sackcloth 
and  ashes  as  much  as  some  other  things  I  know  of. 

In  biology  I  would  lead  the  student  to  as  thorough  an  acquaintance 
with  the  great  plant  and  animal  world  as  possible:  to  the  habits,  re- 
lationships, structure  and  growth  of  these  organic  forms.  While  I 
should  give  attention  to  classification,  and  note  a  few  types  of  aquatic 
forms,  not  represented  at  inland  points,  I  should  lay  especial  stress  on 
forms  that  are  most  common.  Familiar  plants  and  animals,  including 
cultivated  and  domestic  forms,  insects  with  their  metamorphosis,  our 
common  birds  together  with  the  economic  relations  of  all  these,  should 
constitute  an  important  part  of  the  work.  These  organisms  should  be 
studied  as  far  as  possible  under  natural  environment.  I  should  lay 
especial  stress  on  laboratory  work  in  the  required  botany.  By  means 
of  these  studies  I  should  endeavor  to  lead  students  to  inferences  of 
the  prevalent;  ideas  of  natural  selection,  and  of  plant  and  animal  evolu- 
tion. If  I  am  able  to  attain,  in  a  measure,  the  ends  intimated,  and 
others  implied,  even  though  I  have  not  time  to  take  up  all  the  micro- 


468  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

scopic  studies  I  should  like  to,  though  my  class  is  unable  to  dissect 
out  the  nervous  system  of  a  clam,  and  though  they  never  hear  of  some 
of  the  abstruse  biological  questions  before  the  scientific  world  today, 
still  I  can  endure  the  disappointment. 

In  chemistry  the  student  again  finds  himself  attempting  to  account 
for  the  phenomena  of  his  experiment.  Early  in  the  course  he  is  led 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  matter  that  he  had  never  dreamed  of. 
He  sees  that  he  is  just  beginning  to  learn  what  things  really  are  and 
low  wonderfully  they  are  constructed.  He  has  gone  from  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  molecule  to  that  of  the  atom.  And  when  he  comes  to 
weigh  this  undivisible  infinitesimal,  and  study  how  it  combines  with 
other  similar  particles,  now  this  way,  now  that,  to  form  the  infinite 
number  of  things  in  the  universe,  and  how  its  properties  affect  theirs, 
then  the  ideas  of  these  matters  wholly  beyond  the  range  of  his  senses 
become  convictions  to  him  as  mathematical  -truths  are.  He  can  now 
appreciate  a  fund  of  information  along  economic  and  industrial  lines 
that  was  before  outside  of  his  mental  horizon.  A  very  few  well  di- 
rected quantitative  determinations  will  suffice  to  illuminate  this  won- 
derful science. 

In  geology  the  student  should  became  familiar,  in  a  general  way, 
with  the  evolution  and  growth  of  the  earth  as  illustrated  in  the  North 
American  continent.  He  should  learn  its  structure,  the  nature  of  its 
crust,  the  classification  of  its  materials,  and  be  able  to  recognize  rocks 
of  the  great  groups.  He  should  know  by  simple  tests  their  mineral 
constituents,  and  should  know  the  chemical  nature  of  these  minerals. 
He  should  learn  how  the  various  forces  have  wrought  upon  the  earth, 
and  transformed  it  and  brought  it  into  its  present  condition;  of  heat 
and  gravity  in  their  contentions,  the  one  heaying  up  the  crust,  relief 
making,  the  other  wearing  it  down  and  grooving  it  out  with  water,  air 
and  other  things  as  means.  He  should  learn  also  of  the  organic  evolu- 
tion taking  place  on  the  earth,  of  the  plants  and  animals  in  their 
progress  through  the  geologic  ages.  He  should  know  local  geology 
in  more  detail,  and  go  forth  able  to  determine  his  geological  horizon  in 
other  localities.  If  he  does  these  things,  and  he  can,  I  can  bear  with 
Tiim  if  he  does  not  know  the  technical  names  of  more  than  the  seven 
or  eight  minerals  that  really  make  up  the  great  round  earth.  I  shall 
not  insist  on  his  knowing  the  names  of  many  of  the  great  varieties  of 
igneous  rocks,  and  I  can  pardon  him  if  his  knowledge  of  fossils  is  con- 
fined to  group  names.  Beyond  the  results  aimed  at  in  the  individual 
sciences,  the  entire  science  course  must  give  the  student  a  back- 
ground of  information  and  scientific  thought  that  will  strengthen  and 
reinforce  h'is  teaching  along  many  lines.  Possibly  more  than  any  one 
thing  he  sees  (or  may  eventually  see)  how  the  mind  of  the  race  has 
^wrought  on  this  great  array  of  material,  and  has  solved  its  problems. 
He  has  a  magnificent  opportunity  to  study  how  the  mind  works.  He 
sees  that  no  matter  how  well  trained  the  senses  are  they  are  blunt  and 
clumsy  instruments  when  compared  with  the  acute  reason  reinforced 
"by  the  trained  imagination.  No  study  of  logic  as  commonly  understood 
can  compare  with  a  proper  course  of  science  even  elementary  in  fur- 
nishing means  for  developing  reasoning  power. 

I  would  have  the  work  so  conducted  as  not  to  depress  buoyant  spirits 
with  tedious  computations  and  endless  detail,  but  to  give  new  inspira- 
tion and  life.  I  would  have  the  student  feel  that  science  does  not  con- 
sist of  formulae  and  figures,  of  balances  and  books,  of  bones  and  brick- 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION.  4(59 

bats  and  bad  smelling  bottles  galore,  but  of  the  study  of  a  great  living, 
throbbing  universe  of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  hence  to  know  himself 
he  must  know  what  has  preceded,  he  must  know  these  broad  things  of 
science.  It  "follows  that  the  student  who  is  deprived  of  one  jot  or  tittle 
of  this  line  of  instruction,  is  thus  far  deprived  of  his  just  inheritance. 
What  we  may  most  hope  to  have  the  Normal  student  carry  to  the 
children  of  fne  public  schools  is  a  love  of  nature.  It  seems  to  me  that 
delving  into  technicalities  beyond  a  limit  sufficient  for  illustrative  pur- 
poses will  not  produce  these  broad  and  vivifying  results.  Neither  will 
these  results  follow  a  hasty  consideration  of  many  things,  or  a  super- 
ficial book  learning  about  scientific  facts. 

It  is  rather  in  a  study  of  the  fundamentals  that  these  ends  may  be 
gained,  and  until  that  is  done,  or  at  least  the  seeds  sown  for  the  har- 
vest, any  question  of  producing  specialists,  or  of  specifically  science 
teachers  should  be  relegated  to  other  institutions. 

The  real  question,  it  seems  to  me,  becomes — How  can  we,  under  the 
limitations,  best  secure  these  large  fundamental  aims? 


DISCUSSION— GENERAL. 

Mr.  Ewing — In  the  line  of  discussion  I  can  say  that  two  courses  might 
be  pursued.  Of  course  any  one  who  is  touched  by  the  wording  of  this 
question  has  the  liberty  to  make  a  confession.  In  another  way,  it 
might  be  that  one  would  feel  disposed  to  remove  the  beams  kindly 
from  his  brother's  eye.  I  want  to  say  to  you  that  in  nothing  that  I 
have  said  do  I  mean  to  suggest  any  such  thing  as  that  on  my  part.  If 
in  discussing  it  you  wish  to  do  that,  that  is  your  matter.  So  far  as  this 
paper  is  concerned,  it  seems  to  me  the  thing  for  you  to  do  is  to  tell 
me  without  any  particular  mercy  or  regard  for  my  feelings,  whether  I 
have  done  the  right  thing  in  attempting  to  draw  a  line  of  demarkation, 
and  whether  I  have  got  the  right  things  on  one  side,  and  the  proper 
things  on  the  other. 

Mr.  Watson — I  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Ewing  a  question.  I  under- 
stood him  to  say  that  it  was  not  the  function  of  the  Normal  schools  to 
prepare  teachers  to  teach  science  in  the  schools  of  the  state.  Does 
he  include  all  departments  of  science  in  that? 

Mr.  Ewing — I  said  until  these  other  things  were  done,  the  funda- 
mentals, the  preparation  of  specifically  science  teachers  should  be  rele- 
gated to  other  schools.  Not  that  Normal  school  graduates  should  not 
teach  science,  but  that  we  should  not  aim,  at  least  until  we  do  these 
other  things,  to  prepare  what  you  might  call  science  teachers  specifi- 
cally. 

Mr.  Watson — It  seemed  to  me  that  that  was  just  the  purpose  of  the 
Normal  school.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  Normal  school  to  give 
advanced  training  in  science  to  unfit  the  student  for  work  in  the  pub- 
lic schools.  That  work  is  especially  adapted  for  higher  institutions. 
But  it  is  the  definite  function  of  the  Normal  school  in  the  science 
lines  to  give  such  training  that  pupils  can  go  out  and  use  that  work 
in  the  schools  of  the  state.  I  think  perhaps  Mr.  Ewing  and  I  are  both 
on  the  same  ground. 

Mr.  Sage — I  want  to  ask  a  question  of  Mr.  Ewing.  I  could  not  un- 
derstand from  the  presentation  of  his  paper,  what  he  meant  by  ad- 


470  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

vanced  work  in  science.  Whether  he  means  work  in  advance  or  be- 
yond the  required  work,  or  whether  he  means  to  distinguish  between 
what  is  in  the  nature  of  the  thing  itself,  elementary  work,  and  what  in 
the  nature  of  the  thing  itself,  is  advanced  work. 

Mr.  Ewing — That  question  presented  itself  to  me  right  at  the  outset. 
I  felt  no  liberty  to  put  any  special  interpretation  on  it,  but  simply  to 
get  at  what  it  seemed  to  me  the  question  meant.  And  the  interpre- 
tation that  I  did  put  upon  it  was,  under  all  the  conditions  in  which 
we  must  discuss  all  of  these  things  with  our  programs  as  they  are, 
with  the  science,  which^at  least  in  most  of  the  schools  has  been  inter- 
preted to  be  the  minimum  amount  of  science,  should  we  attempt  to  do 
advanced  work. 

Mr.  Sage — That  is,  strictly  advanced  work?  * 

Mr.  Ewing — Yes. 

Mr.  Sage — Were  the  items  you  enumerated  advanced  work? 

Mr.  Ewing — On  one  side  advanced  work,  and  on  the  other  what 
might  be  so  termed.  It  is  a  thing  of  degreee. 

Mr.  Sage — It  does  not  seem  to  me  that  that  is  what  I  should  make 
the  difference  upon.  I  call  it  elementary  work,  no  matter  what  name 
it  goes  by,  as  long  as  you  are  sticking  to  the  elements  of  a  science,  the 
foundation  principles  of  a  science.  But  when  you  get  away  from  a 
consideration  of  the  elements  as  elements,  in  a  science,  and  go  into 
them  for  some  other  purpose  than  that  of  getting  a  foundation  in  the 
elements  of  a  science,  you  may  be  in  the  field  of  what  I  call  advanced 
science.  One  element  must  be  distinctive,  intensive  work.  To  take 
up  the  original  elements  of  physics,  for  instance,  and  study  them,  is  not 
doing  advanced  work,  no  matter  how  carefully  we  may  do  that.  It 
is  still  in  the  elements  of  phsics.  But  to  apply  some  of  these  ele- 
mentary principles  to  some  deeper  or  profound  problem,  is  another 
thing,  and  constitutes  what  you  might  call  advanced  physics.  Only 
those  take  it  who  are  looking  to  a  higher  field  of  education,  going  to 
the  university.  The  state,  it  seems  to  me,  does  have  a  right  and  even 
a  duty  within  reasonable  limits,  to  take  these  young  men  and  women 
who  say  to  the  state  clearly  and  distinctly,  I  am  going  to  serve  you  in 
a  higher  field.  We  are  not  very  numerous,  but  enough  are  ready  so 
we  can  demand  some  time.  I  think  there  ought  to  be  a  distinction 
made  between  advanced  physics,  and  continuation  of  elementary 
physics. 

Mr.  Ewing — This  last  work  I  did  not  have  in  mind  at  all.  This  whole 
question  is  one  of  administration,  and  not  one  for  us  to  settle.  In  the 
question  of  what  advanced  physics  is,  as  Mr.  Sage  defines  it,  I  think  we 
would  all  agree  with  that.  I  think  we  would  all  agree,  also,  that  in  all 
probability,  that  is  not  what  the  people  meant  in  giving  us  this  ques- 
tion. Without  any  regard  to  the  technicality  of  what  advanced  physics 
should  be,  I  was  to  discuss  it  as  to  what  was  meant  by  it  in  this  con- 
nection. I  did  not  think  of  it  as  elementary  in  the  third  year, — simply 
a  continuation.  It  is  all  elementary  physics.  That  is  what  I  have  ad- 
vocated and  that  is  what  I  have  said,  and  that,  it  seems  to  me,  is  all 
we  could  most  of  us  do,  at  any  rate.  Possibly  Mr.  Sage  can  do  more, 
and  if  he  can,  and  the  Board  has  supplied  him  with  means,  that  is 
their  business,  and  I  have  no  word  to  say  about  it  one  way  or  the 
other.  Simply  first  do  the  other  thing,  and  then  if  there  is  time  I 
should  like  to  have  the  advanced  work  done. 


VARIOUS  KINDS   OF  WORK  IN  SCIENCE. 


471 


THE    RELATION    OF    LABORATORY,    CLASSROOM     AND    TEXT- 
BOOK WORK  IN  SCIENCE. 

ELLWOOD  C.  PERISHO,  Platteville. 

Outline. 

I.  The  interpretation  of  the  topic  and  general  method  of  treatment 
of  the  subject  of  science  teaching. 

II.  The  aim  of  a  course  in  science. 

III.  The  things  a  student  should  acquire  in  a  course  of  science. 

IV.  What  of  III.  will  be  gained  in  the  laboratory. 

V.  What  of  III.  will  be  gained  outside  of  the  laboratory  work. 

VI.  Both  laboratory  and  classroom  work  being  necessary. 
Then — A.  How  should  the  time  be  divided  between  them? 

B.  Kind  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  laboratory. 

C.  Kind  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  classroom. 

D.  Relationship  between  the  laboratory  and  classroom  work. 

VII.  The  text-book — Its  use  and  abuse  in  a  course  of  science. 
This  paper  will  discuss  the  above  topic  under  the  designation  of 

laboratory,  recitation,  and  text-book  work,  with  a  very  close  relation- 
ship between  class  and  text-book  as  compared  with  the  laboratory  ex- 
ercises. 

I.  The  general  method. 

The  proper  teaching  of  science  must,  without  exception,  involve  a 
training  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil  that  is  scientific.  To  secure  this  we 
must  not  ignore  the  conditions  most  conducive  to  the  natural  growth  of 
the  student's  mind.  We  must  strive  to  make  the  environment  such 
that  his  mind  will  receive  the  maximum  development  at  the  cost  of  a 
minimum  expenditure  of  time  and  energy. 

This  I  believe  to  be  one  great  problem  now  before  the  teacher  of 
science  in  our  schools.  We  must  learn  to  plan  our  courses  and  ar- 
range our  methods  of  presentation,  whether  by  text-book  or  laboratory 
experiments,  so  that  the  learner  will  have  the  most  vigorous  and  nat- 
ural intellectual  growth.  Self-activity  is  fundamental  to  organic  de- 
velopment. This  is  as  true  in  mind  as  in  body-growth. 

Knowledge  is  not  a  possession  gained  from  the  application  of  an  out- 
side treatment.  Knowledge  comes  from  the  mental  activity  of  the  stu- 
dent himself  occasioned,  as  it  may  be,  by  some  external  stimulus.  The 
teacher's  business  is  to  furnish  the  stimulus.  This  will  in  large  meas- 
ure constitute  the  pupil's  environment.  The  laboratory  furnishes  an 
excellent  environment  for  self-activity  upon  the  part  of  the  student. 
The  mental  training  which  a  course  in  any  one  of  our  sciences  gives, 
depends  more  upon  the  method  of  instruction  than  upon  the  nature  of 
the  subject. 

Ther  is  a  vast  difference  between  simply  performing  an  experiment 
as  per  laboratory  problem,  or  manual,  and  deducing  from  the  experi- 
ment the  proper  conclusions.  The  mere  mechanical  performance  will 
be  easy  enough,  but  the  realization  of  the  proper  result  and  the  de- 
duction of  the  correct  conclusions  are  difficult  enough. 

In  a  proper  science  course,  the  pupil  becomes  the  worker,  the  teacher 
is  the  provider  of  the  material;  the  pupil  becomes  the  investigator,  the 
teacher  holds  the  place  of  director;  the  pupil  becomes  the  researcher, 
the  teacher  acts  as  a  verifier  of  results. 


472  INSTITUTE  OP  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

In  science  the  method  is  not  different  from  other  branches,  the  same 
psychological  and  pe'dagogical  laws  are  applicable.  In  the  main  what 
is  true  of  one  science  is  true  of  all.  However,  there  is  difference  in  the 
character  and  perhaps  scope  of  the  laboratory  work  in  the  various  sub- 
jects. If  the  science  is  geology  or  physiography,  then  by  far  the  best 
laboratory  is  the  field,  out  in  nature's  great  laboratory  where  the 
agents  of  disintegration,  transportation,  and  deposition  are  doing  their 
work.  These  forces  of  nature  are  performing  the  experiments  and 
the  student  has*  but  to  go  out  and  observe,  reason,  and  deduce  a  con- 
clusion; yet,  that  the  observation  may  be  the  most  intelligent  and  at 
the  same  time  bring  to  the  student  the  maximum  good  with  the  min- 
imum of  time  used — for  no  teacher  can  spend  a  large  amount  of  time 
in  the  field  with  his  class — the  pupil  must  have  been  prepared  for  his 
trip  before  going  into  the  field.  This  must  have  come  from  the  class- 
room or  text-book.  Permit  me  here  to  state  that  too  much  importance 
can  not  be  placed  upon  field  work,  correctly  done,  in  geology  and 
physiography. 

Such  sciences  as  chemistry  and  elementary  botany  or  biology  may, 
I  judge,  be  successfully  studied  in  the  laboratory  with  a  manual  or  by 
teacher's  notes  with  but  little  reference  to  a  so-called  text-book. 

The  conditions  are  still  different  when  we  take  up  the  subject  of 
physics.  This  science  is  rather  too  complicated  to  be  left  to  the  in- 
experienced pupil  with  no  aid  from  a  text  containing  the  theory  of  the 
subject  which  will  supplement  the  practical  laboratory  experiments. 

II.  The  aim  of  a  course  in  science. 

The  purpose  of  any  course  in  science  taught  in  our  Normal  schools, 
is  three-fold : 

A.  To  give  to  the  student  by  experiment,  by  observation,  and  by  in- 
ference, a  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  subject; 

B.  To  give  the  student  the  power  to  make  a  practical  application  of 
these  truths; 

C.  To  give  A  and  B  according  to  established  pedagogical  principles, 
thus  preparing  the  student  to  teach. 

III.  What  a  course  in  science  should  give  a  student. 

Among  the  important  acquisitions  to  be  gained  by  a  student  in  taking 
a  course  in  science  may  be  named: 
(a)  Power  to  observe  correctly; 
(bj  Power  to  describe  the  thing  seen; 
(c)  Ability  to  be  accurate  and  skillful; 
"(d)   Scientific  method  of  thinking  and  working; 

(e)  Instruction  in  science  psychologically  given; 

(f)  Information  about  science  historically  true; 

(g)  Mental  discipline  and  self-confidence  which  come  from  the  ac- 
quired habit  of  thinking  cleary  and  independently,  producing  intel- 
lectual power; 

(h)  Power  to  reason  analytically  and  synthetically; 

(i)  Ability  to  express  clearly; 

(j)  Acquisition  of  fundamental  principles  and  useful  knowledge; 

"00  A  closer  acquaintance  with  and  a  greater  love  for  nature. 

IV.  What  the  student  gains  from  the  laboratory — 

The  purpose  and  the  realization  of  the  laboratory  course  should  be: 
A.  To  teach  the  student  to  have  practical  and  usable  knowledge  of 
apparatus  including  many  delicate  instruments  which  can  only  be  use- 
ful under  careful  and  accurate  manipulation,  in  other  words,  to  make 


VARIOUS  KINDS   OF  WORK  IN   SCIENCE.  473 

his  hand  follow  his  will.  This  every  skillful  manipulator  must  do. 
The  mastery  in  the  handling  and  using  of  one  difficult  piece  of  mechan- 
ism is  a  better  training  than  the  careless  handling  of  any  quantity  of 
apparatus.  Hence,  too  much  importance  can  not  be  placed  upon  learn- 
ing to  do  well  what  you  attempt  to  do  at  all. 

B.  To  give  him  training  in  seeing  things  as  they  are.     To  give  him 
the  method  by  which  one  can  gain  scientific  facts.     To  make  him  ac- 
curate in  "his  observation.     This  accuracy  in  seeing  and  afterwards  re- 
cording the  observed  facts  as  they  are  concerning  the  phenomena,  has 
within  itself  an  incalculabe  value  separate  and  independent  of  the 
subject-matter  under  discussion.     The  proof  of  this  we  can  see  about 
us  every  day  in  the  erroneous  conclusions  men  draw  concerning  the 
phenomena  before  them. 

The  laboratory  gives  instruction  in  science  not  about  science. 

C.  To  train  the  student  to  record  correctly  what  he  has  seen  irre- 
spective of  any  preconceived  ideas,  and  from  this  to  deduce  a  correct 
conclusion. 

D.  To  verify  certain  principles  taught  in  the  classroom. 

V.  What  the  text-book  and  recitation  give. 
The  purpose  here  is  to  give  to  the  student: 

A.  Training  in  habit  of  correct  thinking.     Here  he  should  be  trained 
to  reason  logically  and  think  scientifically.    All  this  can  well  b'e  done 
in  the  solution  of  problems.     The  classroom  should  make  the  student 
strong  in  powers  of  analysis. 

B.  In  the  recitation  he  should  learn  the  great  underlying  principles 
of  the  subject,  the  facts  that  connect  and  bind  together  the  truths 

•>  learned  in  the  laboratory  and  from  the  teacher's  illustrations  and  ex- 
periments. Here  the  object  is  to  increase  the  pupil's  understanding  of 
the  subject  and  to  classify  and  put  in  working  order  the  knowledge 
gained  in  the  laboratory. 

C.  The  greatest  use  of  the  recitation,  aside  from  the  supplementary 
work  of  the  laboratory  is,  perhaps,  to  give  the  pupil  the  practice  of 
coining  into  well-worded  phrases  his  conclusions  from  text-book  study 
and  laboratory  experiments.     The  fact  is  not  his  own  for  certain  until 
he  can  puf  it  into  the  form  of  the  expressed  idea.    His  thought  must 
become  symbolized.     The  symbol  is  the  written  or  oral  recitation. 

To  show  the  relation  between  IV.  and  V.  let  me  quote  from  Prof. 
Birge,  dean  of  the  university  of  Wisconsin.  In  a  recent  letter  he  said: 
"No  real  work  in  science  can  be  done  except  through  the  laboratory, 
and  no  laboratory  work  is  of  scientific  value  unless  guided  and  In- 
spired by  the  ideas  of  the  teacher." 

VI.  Both  methods  of  presentation  necessary. 

If  we  have  correctly  discussed  IV.  and  V.,  it  is  evident  that  both 
1  methods  must  be  employed  in  the  best  course  of  science. 

This  being  true  our  problem  now  becomes: 

A.  How  shall  the  time  be  divided  between  the  laboratory  and  the 
class-work? 

No  comparison  will  be  just  unless  we  understand  that  the  time  spent 
outside  of  the  laboratory  will  result  in  as  high  a  grade  of  work  as  that 
developed  in  the  laboratory. 

I  judge  that  we  shall  all  agree  that  no  laboratory  course  of  study  is 
now  more  noted  in  the  United  States  than  the  one  known  as  the  Har- 
vard Preparatory  course.  Nor  is  there  any  man  better  know  than 


474:  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

Prof.  Edwin  H.  Hall, — who  is  largely  responsible  for  the  Harvard 
course. 

Knowing  that  Prof.  Hall  some  years  ago  made  the  statement  that 
he  then  believed  that  the  laboratory  work,  including  the  calculation 
based  upon  it,  should  not  occupy  more  than  one  half  the  student's  time, 
I  was  anxious  to  know  what  he  thought  after  all  these  years  of  ex- 
perience. In  response  to  a  recent  letter,  Prof.  Hall  wrote, — "What  I 
then  (1887)  suggested  I  would  now  (1900)  lay  down  as  an  emphatic 
rule  and  I  should  be  inclined  to  make  the  laboratory  work  occupy  less 
than  one  half  of  the  time." 

Prof.  Henry  Crew  of  the  department  of  physics,  Northwestern 
university,  who  has  just  published  an  excellent  text  in  physics,  says  in 
answer  to  the  question  of  the  relative  amount  of  time  that  should  be 
given, — "I  am  inclined,  at  present,  to  the  following  view,  viz.:  that 
with  younger  students  the  number  of  periods  spent  in  class  should  con- 
siderably exceed  those  spent  in  the  laboratory.  With  college  fresh- 
men and  high  school  students,  this  ratio  might  range  from  3:2  to  3:1; 
with  college  juniors  and  seniors  2:2." 

In  my  own  work  I  have  the  time  evenly  divided,  one  period  of  45 
minutes  per  day  given  to  laboratory  work  and  the  same  length  of  time 
given  to  recitation. 

B.  The  kind  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  laboratory. 

In  all  courses  of  science  many  useful  and  necessary  illustrations  and 
experiments  should  be  performed  by  the  teacher  or  by  members  of  the 
class  from  the  teacher's  desk.  These  will  supplement  both  the  work 
of  the  recitation  and  that  of  the  laboratory. 

In  geology  and  physiography  many  qualitative  experiments  may  be 
performed  with  great  profit;  but  in  physics  I  much  prefer  quanti- 
tative work.  The  student  gets  a  better  conception  of  the  observed 
phenomena  when  he  can  measure  it  by  means  of  numerical  relation- 
ship. 

I  am  certain  the  student's  time  in  the  physical  laboratory  should  not 
be  sacrificed  in  the  performance  of  problems  of  illustration  or  even  ex- 
periment of  demonstration,  nor  very  largely  used  in  doing  qualitative 
work.  Never  allow  the  laboratory  to  be  divorced  from  the  idea  that 
here  the  student  should  learn  skillful  manipulation,  accurate  observa- 
tion, and  scientific  deduction:  here  the  student  should  learn  to  teach 
himself,  to  become  his  own  instructor,  by  virtue  of  the  new  power 
gained  in  his  well-directed  laboratory  course. 

C.  The  kind  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  classroom. 

The  character  of  exercises  the  classroom  should  strive  to  secure: 

1.  The  preparation   of  the  student  for  his   labortory  experiments, 
when  this  preparatory  work  can  not  be  given  in  the  laboratory; 

2.  The  discussion  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  laboratory,  and  their 
application; 

3.  To  give  to  the  pupil  the  habit  of  correct  thinking  and  clear  reason- 
ing by  the   solution   of  practical  problems   involving  the   principles 
worked  out  in  the  laboratory; 

4.  To  give  to  the  pupil  many  fundamental  principles  and  much  in- 
formation not  acquired  in  the  laboratory  work.     But.  as  Prof.  Corhart 
says:     "Never  let  the  classroom  work  be  of  the  didactic  or  literary 
type."    I  much  prefer  to  make  the  class  exercise  supplementary  to  the 
laboratory  work.     If  experiments  are  given  in  class  let  them  be  of 
illustrative  character. 


VARIOUS   KINDS   OF  WORK   IN   SCIENCE.  475 

Then,  in  a  word,  the  class  is  the  place  where  all  the  work  done, 
whether  in  the  laboratory  or  from  text-book  stndy,  should  be  unified. 
It  is  the  place  where  by  explanation,  application,  and  repetition,  the 
few  fundamental  principles  underlying  and  connecting  the  subject 
into  a  unity,  are  to  be  clearly  seen  and  established. 

D.  The  relationship  which  should  exist  between  laboratory  and 
classroom  work. 

This  will  again  vary,  depending  as  it  does  upon  the  science  taught 
and  the  environments.  But,  in  the  main,  I  think  I  am  correct  when 
I  say  the  classroom  work  should  neither  entirely  precede  nor  alto- 
gether follow  the  work  given  in  the  laboratory. 

I  am  certain  no  inexperienced  student  will  be  successful  in  his  ex- 
periments without  first  having  been  instructed  so  that  he  may  begin 
intelligently  upon  his  problem;  always  being  careful,  however,  not 
to  give  him  enough  knowledge  to  prejudice  him  concerning  the  re- 
sults. 

If  the  teacher  can  be  with  the  student  as  he  does  his  work  in  the 
laboratory,  it  is  much  the  better  plan.  So  much  better  is  it,  that  it 
is  the  plan,  when  at  all  possible.  But  when  this  is  not  possible,  the 
•next  best  thing,  as  I  have  found  it,  is  to  devote  a  part  of  the  following 
recitation  to  the  discussion  of  the  experiment  performed  the  preceding 
day.  This  method  takes  it  for  granted: 

1.  That  there  is  apparatus  enough  so  that  during  the  day  each  mem- 
ber of  the   class   has   had   the   same   experiment  for   his   laboratory 
^vork; 

2.  That  the  division  of  time  between  laboratory  and  class  work  is 
equally  divided.     Yet  whatever  the  division  of  time  between  the  two 

^;he  general  method  will  be  the  same.  Some  very  excellent  teachers 
have  but  little  relationship  between  laboratory  and  class  work.  How- 
ever, in  this '  case  they  give  many  illustrative  experiments  from  the 
lecture  table. 

VII.  The  text-book,  its  use  and  abuse. 

The  indispensable  good  which  comes  to  the  student  from  the  cult- 
ure, discipline  and  scientific  training  of  the  laboratory,  is  not  within 
itself  all  that  he  should  receive  in  the  course  of  study.  These  funda- 
mental truths  and  correlated  principles  and  historical  facts,  which  he 
should  know,  may  well  come  from  a  text-book.  Students  in  science 
"have  a  right  to  expect  that  they  will  receive  the  best  possible  train- 
ing in  their  course.  The  real  students, — and  from  such  our  best  teach- 
ers will  come, — will  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than  the  best.  The 
laboratory  problem,  the  class  exercise  and  text-book  must  all  coop- 
erate in  a  rich  productiveness  that  will  make  the  student  rich  in  ac- 
quired power. 

Let  it  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  text-book  referred  to  in 
this  paper  does  not  in  any  sense  mean  the  so-called  "text-book"  which 
"is  both  a  text  and  a  laboratory  guide  all  in  one. 

The  text-book,  in  no  case,  should  be  a  key  to  the  laboratory  exer- 
cises. No  text  at  all  is  to  be  preferred  to  one  that  asks  and  answers 
all  the  questions  involved  in  the  laboratory  work.  Too  much  stress 
<?annot  be  put  upon  the  condemnation  of  a  text  which  is  fragmentary, 
disjointed,  encyclopedic  in  its  character.  Nor  can  we  emphasize  too 
strongly  our  disapproval  of  a  text-book  which  has  been  written  to 
T)rop  up  the  weak  teacher,  or  to  make  the  subject  easy  for  the  busy 
one.  The  text-book  should  give  a  logical,  consecutive  presentation 


476  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 

of  the  subject  taught,  but  always  careful  not  to  become  a  laboratory 
manual.  It  should  present  a  few  fundamental  principles  in  such  a 
continuity  of  form  that  the  subject  becomes  a  unit. 


Remark. 

Mr.  Sage — I  want  to  say  that  this  paper  seems  to  me  to  be  very 
excellent  in  every  particular.  It  meets  my  views  in  every  item  almost 
without  exception. 


REPORT  OF  LEADER. 
PHYSICS. 

It  was  agreed  that  the  purpose  of  physics  in  the  Normal  school  was 
preparation  for  teaching,  and  discipline,  and  that  the  best  discipline- 
results  from  the  best  teaching.  The  best  teaching  is  thorough  work, 
and  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  going  over  the  whole  subject  in  twenty 
weeks,  it  being  considered  better  to  leave  some  subjects  like  elec- 
tricity and  light  till  the  advanced  course. 

All  work  should  be  accompanied  by  laboratory  work,  two  consecutive 
periods  being  secured  if  possible;  laboratory  work  always  being  under 
supervision  and  running  closely  parallel  with  text. 

The  section  was  about  equally  divided  on  the  question  of  the  desira- 
bility of  securing  full  sets  of  duplicate  apparatus. 

CHEMISTRY. 

The  section  was  in  agreement  with  the  paper  of  Prof.  Culver  that 
-the  purpose  of  chemistry  is: 

1.  To  teach  the  nature  of  chemical  work. 

2.  To  give  acquaintance  with  chemical  work  and  principles  of  chem- 
istry. 

3.  To  give  facility  in  manipulating  apparatus. 

4.  To  give  practical  knowledge  of  the  principal  chemical  elements, 
and  their  more  important  compounds. 

5.  A  realizing  sense  of  many  and  vital  points  at  which  chemistry- 
touches  life  and  should  furnish — 

6.  An  adequate  basis  for  important  phases  of  instruction  in  those 
other  branches  to  which  chemistry  is  fundamental. 

To  these  the  section  added  the  great  disciplinary  value  and  train- 
ing of  clear  and  accurate  observation  and  logical  reasoning. 

There  was  perfect  agreement  that  the  plan  should  consist  of  double 
periods,  with  laboratory  work  occupying  at  least  half  of.  the  time, 
supplemented  by  reference  and  text-books. 

BIOLOGY. 

The  purpose  of  general  biology  was  stated  to  be: 

1.  To  give  power  to  see,  to  compare,  to  infer,  and  to  apply. 

2.  To  form  a  rational  basis  for  the  detailed  study  of  botany  and  zo- 


REPORT  OF  LEADER. 

ology,   and  introductory  course  to  advanced  work,  to  give  teaching 
power  and  teaching  material. 

3.  To  give  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  most  fundamental  laws  and 
principles  underling  the  life  activities  of  all  living  beings,  a  knowl- 
edge of  which  should  be  at  the  foundation  of  nature  study,  or  natural 
history  of  whatever  name,  of  human  physiology,  and  should  enter  into 
the  general  culture  of  every  teacher. 

4.  With  1  and  3  accomplished,  to  enable  teachers  to  carry  on  In- 
struction   in    the    limitless    realm    of    nature-study    haying    sufficient 
grounding  in  the  fundamentals  to  take  illustrations  from  the  great 
world  of  life  about  them,  even  though  many  of  them  have  not  studied 
some  of  these  forms,  and  to  use  them  in  a  purposeful  way,  i.  e.,  to 
aid  teachers  to  rescue  nature-study  from  the  practice  of  making  it 
a  mere  cataloging  of  things  and  a  recitation  of  unrelated  facts,  and 
raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  the  study  of  life  relations,  life  activities,  and 
life  sympathies. 

Some  of  the  members  objected  to  introducing  work  with  the  com- 
pound microscope  in  the  elementary  course,  preferring  to  confine  the 
work  to  so-called  natural  history  lines. 

GEOLOGY. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  most  of  the  section  that  the  purpose  of  geol- 
ogy is  to  fit  the  student  to  teach  geography,  and  therefore  special  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  matter  that  will  be  of  direct  aid,  viz., 
physical  characters  of  common  minerals,  rocks  and  soils,  dynamic 
action  of  ice  and  water,  wind,  etc.,  in  shaping  the  present  earth's  sur- 
face. The  plan  should  include  laboratory  and  field  work,  readings, 
text-book  and  lectures.  Less  attention  should  be  given  to  theories 
of  the  earth's  origin,  internal  structure,  thermal  activities,  and  his- 
torical geology,  and  the  student  be  guided  to  sources  of  information 
rather  than  held  for  accurate  study. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The  scope  of  work  in  geography  should  include  a  knowledge  of  the 
earth's  sphere,  arrangement  of  mountains,  with  effects  of  moving 
water  and  effect  of  plant  life,  the  atmosphere,  the  hydrosphere,  the 
biosphere,  tne  six  continents,  and  everything  that  has  vital  connection 
with  the  life  of  the  people. 

AGRICULTURE. 

No  very  definite  conclusions  were  reached  on  agriculture,  only  four 
of  the  section  having  seen  the  paper.  A  resolution  of  approval  of  the 
Whitewater  course  was  passed.  r 

FIELD  WORK  IN  GEOLOGY,  BIOLOGY,  AND  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  possibility  and  desirability  of  field  work  in  biology,  geology  and 
geography  was  advocated  by  J.  A.  Merrill,  and  warmly  endorsed  by 
the  section. 


478  INSTITUTE  OF  NORMAL  FACULTIES. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  purpose  of  physiology  was  declared  to  be  to  teach  hygiene,  and 
in  the  ten  weeks'  course  the  scope  should  be  about  what  is  covered 
in  Martin's  "Human  Body,"  briefer  course. 

"(a)  Value  of  oral  exposition  in  developing  teaching  power  in  the 
etudent,  such  exposition  to  be  without  apparatus  and  of  experiments 
previously  performed. 

"(b)  To  what  extent  may  oral  exposition  take  the  place  of  experi- 
mental work  with  apparatus  in  the  science  teaching,  keeping  in  mind 
the  purpose  of  developing  general  teaching  power." 

On  these  questions  the  section  was  in  agreement  with  Superin- 
tendent Harvey's  paper  that  oral  exposition  was  extremely  valuable 
in  developing  teaching  power  and  that  it  might  to  a  great  extent  take 
the  place  of  the  experiment,  in  fact,  the  experiment  should  be  sup- 
plemented" as  soon  as  possible  by  oral  exposition. 

"(a)  Possibility  of  and  mode  of  correlating  related  scientific  knowl- 
edge in  the  teaching  of  any  science. 

"(b)  Value  of  the  lesson  plan  in  the  work  of  correlation  in  science 
teaching  in  view  of  the  fact  that  propositions  1,  2,  and  3,  applied,  de- 
termine what  is  necessary  and  what  must  be  mastered  by  the  pupil 
in  the  light  of  his  present  knowledge  of  that  which  is  essential." 

The  section  believed  with  Prof.  Mitchell  that  correlation  was  self- 
evident  with  related  subjects,  and  that  it  might  be  done  by  illustra- 
tions, references,  lectures,  field  work,  library  readings,  museums,  ap- 
peal to  authorities,  and  by  pondering  and  reasoning.  The  value  of 
the  lesson  plan  was  agreed  upon,  especially  in  respect  to  the  fourth 
proposition,  by  the  application  of  which  the  teacher  will  know  just 
what  he  has  to  teach. 

DANGER  IN  ATTEMPTING  ADVANCED  WORK  IN  SCIENCE  NOT 
WITHIN  THE  SCOPE  AND  PURPOSE  OF  A  NOHMAL  SCHOOL. 

It  was  agreed  that  the  chief  purpose  of  science  in  a  Normal  school 
is  to  teach  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science,  but  that  there 
might  at  all  times  be  a  smaller  number  of  students  who  are  going 
to  serve  the  state  in  a  higher  field,  and  who  require  more  advanced 
work,  which  should  be  supplied  to  them  if  possible. 

RELATION  OF  LABORATORY  AND  CLASSROOM  WORK  AND 
TEXT-BOOKS  IN  SCIENCE. 

The  section  was  heartily  in  accord  with  Prof.  Perisho  that  labora- 
tory and  classroom  work  should  run  side  by  side  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions. That  the  laboratory  work  should  be  chiefly  quantitative  and1 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  teacher,  and  that  the  text-book  is 
another  aid  to  the  culture,  discipline,  and  scientific  training  the  sub- 
ject affords. 

A.   A.   Upham,   Leader. 


C  57079 

^J*^V^» 


